Evolution and the Fossil Record

The Study of Evolution

Two domains: the present and the past The present: Biology Genetics Comparative Anatomy The past: Paleontology or Paleobiology Comparative Anatomy of Fossilized organisms

Natural Selection
Natural selection, a creative force, is one of the prime mechanisms of evolutionary change. (The other mechanism, a destructive force, is mass extinction.) Charles Darwin, 1859: The Origin of Species by Natural Selection.

Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection: Dog breeds produced by artificial selection

Natural Selection: Key Points

3 facts lead to a conclusion: Fact 1. Overproduction of offspring Fact 2. Variation within populations Fact 3. Competition for resources Conclusion: Survival of the fittest

Overproduction of offspring exponential population growth

Charles Darwin in 1837, age 28, after voyage of the Beagle

Age 40

Age 45

Darwin in 1879, age 70.

One of the most famous books of science.

Darwins home, Down House, in England

Darwins study at his home Down House

Darwins grave in Westminster Abbey

Near the Natural History Museum, London

Voyage of HMS Beagle, 1831-1836

Darwins finches: 13 different species evolved from a single ancestor from South America.

The beaks of Darwins finches are adapted to the variety of food types available on the different islands in the Galapagos Islands.

Type specimens of finches collected by Darwin in the Galapagos Islands

The Galapagos Islands. Darwin visited in October 1835

Yours truly in the Galapagos Islands, 1996, Fernandina Volcano

Darwin Bay on Tower Island

Masked booby nesting grounds on Tower Island

Sitting with a masked booby

Fratricide among masked boobies. Every living adult killed its sibling. What is the evolutionary advantage?

Masked booby and blue-foot booby rookeries

A blue-footed booby

Lets do the booby dance!

Lets do the booby dance!

Red-footed boobies roost in trees

Frigate Bird: why does the male have this red balloon?

Equatorial penguins in the Galapagos

This flightless cormorant shows adaptations similar to penguins. It is a new species.

The Origin of New Species: Speciation

Natural selection by itself will not increase the number of species on the planet. Speciation requires splitting of species populations. Species definition: Interbreeding populations reproductively isolated first geographically, later biologically. New species must be reproductively isolated from their ancestral species.

Lions and tigers share a common ancestor, but the hybrids are usually sterile, thus lions and tigers are separate species.

Liger

Equus asinus

Equus caballus

64 chromosomes

62 chromosomes

31 + 32 = 63

Embryo Horses and donkeys

63 chromosomes

share a common ancestor. Their hybrid, the mule, is sterile. So horses and donkeys are separate species.

Speciation, contd
Allopatric speciation: produced by geographic isolation of populations. Natural selection causes an isolated population to adapt to its local environment. Given enough time, and no outside interbreeding, a new species will evolve.

Sources of Variation
Random mutations of DNA >>99.9% are harmful or neutral adaptive mutations are rare Sexual recombination new variants created by mixing of genes you have 4096 direct ancestors going back 12 generations (212)

The Anatomy of a Gene. Helical strands of DNA contain the blueprints for all forms of life.

The DNA molecule contains nitrogenous bases (A,T,C,G) that code for different amino acids, which form proteins.

Evidence of Evolution
Homology Analogous organs or Convergent Evolution (Homoplasy) Vestigial organs Adaptive radiations

Homology
The recognition of common ancestry of features. e.g. all primates have 5 fingers; apes and humans lack a tail; all tetrapods have similar limb bones. Studied by comparative anatomy of living and fossil organisms.

Homologous features are used to recognize common evolutionary ancestry.

Examples of homologous features in the forelimbs of tetrapods.

Homology within Hominoids

Hominoids

Chimp

Human

Chimp

Gorilla

An Evolutionary Tree, or Cladogram, Based on Homologies

Universal Tree of Life: homology mapping

Evolution is about Trees, not Ladders

Primate

Prothero, 2007

Analogous Organs or Convergent Evolution

Produced by evolutionary convergence. Independent origin of similar features is called convergent evolution or homoplasy Shows natural selection in operation. e.g., insects, birds, bats, and pterosaurs all evolved wings independently

Analogous features indicate convergent evolution and not common ancestry. A good example are wings.

Vestigial Organs
Organs no longer used show clear evidence of evolutionary change. e.g., pelvic bones of whales, vestiges of former legs e.g., human body hair, a vestige of former fur

vestigial whale hips

Vestigial organs in humans

Adaptive Radiation
Natural selection can fill a variety of niches starting with a single species. e.g., Darwins finches in the Galapagos Islands, 13 species evolved from one ancestral species e.g., all birds essentially evolved from Archaeopteryx

A page from Darwins notebook with a phylogenetic tree showing adaptive radiation.

Rates of Evolution
Phyletic gradualism - continuous and gradual change over time Punctuated Equilibrium - long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid change, probably associated with a bottleneck in population size.

Geographic Separation and Isolation Stasis

Stasis

Punctuated Change

Gradualism

Graphic Representation in Evolutionary Trees

Punctuated Equilibrium

Rates of Evolution
Large populations evolve very slowly or almost not at all. Advantageous mutations pass very slowly through a population. Small populations can evolve very rapidly. Advantageous mutations can be passed very quickly through the population.

Evolution in Action
Passing through a bottleneck: Pesticide resistant insects Antibiotic resistant bacteria New Drug-Resistant Superbacteria Found in 3 States (2010)

Bottleneck Effect

An extreme selection event severely reduces population size and changes the composition of the gene pool of the species.

Rates of Evolution
Biologists cannot measure evolutionary rates. They have only the present. Darwin assumed gradual rates. Paleontologists can measure evolutionary rates. They have found punctuated equilibria to be the major pattern in fossil species rather than gradual change.

Microevolution vs Macroevolution
Small changes, such as seen in modern bacteria or beaks in finches, are examples of microevolution. Microevolution leads to new species over time. Large changes, such as the evolution of major features, like wings in birds, or legs in fish, are examples of macroevolution. Macroevolution leads to significant evolutionary change.

Role of the Fossil Record

Provides the only actual record of evolutionary change over geologic time. Provides data on the timing of evolutionary origins. Shows mass extinctions to be a major cause of evolutionary change. Provides information on rates of evolution.

Evolutionary Origins- Examples

Oldest life: 3.5 BY Oldest nucleated cells: 2.1 BY First animals: 600 MY First tetrapods: 375 MY First dinosaurs: 220 MY First mammals: 220 MY First hominids: 4 MY

Evolution of Tetrapods. Example of the fossil record documenting evolutionary change.

Evolution of Whales. Example of the fossil record documenting evolutionary change.

Mass Extinctions
Survival of the luckiest? Over geologic time, mass extinctions may subvert the notion of survival of the fittest. Is evolutionary history predictable?

The teaching of evolution in public schools is controversial. Why? Should the teaching of evolution be controversial in colleges and universities?

0%

100%

Should U.S. science teachers spend more time explaining evolution?