2 Introduction to Forensic Sciences
The term forensic, in a general sense, can refer to the application of scientic knowledge to legal issues. Forensic science then covers the group of scientic disciplines that are concerned with the application of their particular area of expertise to law-enforcement, criminal, civil, legal, and judicial matters. Four important areas underpin every aspect of forensic science. 1. Evidence All forms of evidence must be carefully and properly collected, documented, and evaluated. Part of the reason for these requirements is that not all evidence can be preserved indenitely. A good example of this is a human body that is examined at autopsy. Because the autopsy dissection disrupts the normal anatomy of the body and human tissues break down, proper documentation utilizing photographs, diagrams, and written descriptions are essential to ensure that the evidence (i.e. the ndings from the body) can be reevaluated at a later date if required. While there are many other types of evidence that must be properly preserved (e.g. trace evidence such as hairs or bers discovered at a crime scene), certain types of materials that may be relied upon to provide important medicolegal information are actually consumed or destroyed during forensic processing (e.g. blood samples being tested for drugs). 2. Chain of Custody This refers to maintaining and producing written documentation which accompanies evidence at all stages of its transfer from the scene through the laboratory to court. It provides an uninterrupted timeline that shows the secure location of the evidence from when it was discovered until the present time. 3. Admissibility of Tests, Evidence, and Testimony A variety of legal standards exist for the admissibility of forensic tests and expert testimony. In the United States, one legal standard for the admissibility of a forensic test derives from Frye v United States, in which it is stated that the forensic technique in question must have general acceptance by the scientic community. Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence regulates the admissibility of expert testimony in regard to a test or discipline. Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc states that the decision about the admissibility of scientic evidence resides with the judge hearing the case. 4. Expert Witness In contrast to a standard fact witness, who is usually only able to state the facts of the issue that he/she observed, an expert witness, because of his/her specic expertise within a particular area, is also able to offer opinions regarding issues that relate to the specic discipline. To be recognized as an expert, the witness must be ofcially qualied, or recognized as such, by the court. Typically, this usually occurs through a legal process referred to as voir dire, where the credentials, training, and experience of the witness are presented to the court through a series of question and answers between an attorney and the witness.
Forensic Science Disciplines
Forensic Anthropology A subspecialty within the scientic eld of physical anthropology (the study of humans in relation to their physical characteristics), where skeletal remains (bones) are examined to answer questions regarding the species of origin (human versus nonhuman), gender, age, race, stature, and the presence and nature of skeletal trauma. Forensic Artistry A discipline that utilizes an artist to draw or sculpt an image of how a suspect or victim might appear. Forensic Engineering A discipline that can encompass virtually any type of engineering that can be used to ascertain the underlying scientic/engineering explanation for a specic event. Forensic Entomology A subspecialty within the biological science discipline of entomology (the study of insects) that primarily deals with the examination of insects taken from decomposing bodies. Identication of insect species and the evaluation of insect succession patterns may provide important evidence on the origin of a body and on the possible time since death. Forensic Odontology A subspecialty within dentistry in which dental examination is used to assist in the identication of human remains. Another area of investigation that is covered is the evaluation of bite marks. Forensic Pathology A subspecialty within the medical specialty of pathology that specically deals with the investigation of sudden, unexpected, and/or violent deaths. The autopsy is the major investigative tool used by forensic pathologists (see > Introduction to Forensic Pathology). Forensic Psychiatry A discipline dealing with the evaluation of the mental state of criminals. Practitioners are also involved in the psychiatric proling of suspects and in participating in psychological autopsies of suicide victims. Forensic Toxicology A discipline concerned with the identication and quantication of drugs and other poisons or toxins in body tissues and uids, including blood, urine, and vitreous humor. Blood Spatter Analysis The evaluation of the pattern of blood drops that may be found at a crime scene, or on a body, clothing, footwear or other objects, to assist in evaluating the relative position and movements of a victim and assailant(s). Computer Forensics A rapidly evolving discipline that is concerned with the evaluation of computer and electronic equipment use in criminal activity. Document Examination The evaluation of handwriting or machine-produced printing, including typewriters, computer printers and copiers, and other types of documents. Explosives Investigation A forensic science that encompasses the evaluation of explosions, to determine the cause of an explosion and the possible source of explosive substances. Fingerprint Examination The examination and documentation of ngerprints, the unique patterns of skin ridges that are present on nger tip pads. Finger print examination may be
J.A. Prahlow, R.W. Byard, Atlas of Forensic Pathology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-61779-058-4_2, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
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useful in linking a suspect to a crime, and in the identication of individuals (either before or after death). Fire/Arson Investigation A discipline that deals with the evaluation of re scenes in order to determine the underlying cause of a re. Firearm and Tool Mark Examination The evaluation of rearms and ammunition, as well as the characteristic marks produced when an object (tool) comes into contact with another object.
Serology/DNA Evaluation The identication and evaluation of blood and other bodily uids or tissues, which may be useful in the identication of individuals, as well as matching biological material to a specic source. Trace Evidence Examination A general term used to describe the scientic examination and testing of various relatively small pieces of evidence that includes hairs, bers, paint, soil, glass fragments, and gunshot residues.
. Fig. 2.1 An unidentified skull at autopsy. Consultation with a forensic anthropologist can aid in determination of gender, race, and approximate age and stature
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. Fig. 2.2 A partially skeletonized corpse at autopsy (seen from the back). Careful evaluation of the soft tissues and consultation with a forensic anthropologist in such a case can provide valuable information
. Fig. 2.3 A bite mark on the skin surface at autopsy consisting of two mirror image crescentic bruises matching the size of the dental arcade of the perpetrator
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. Fig. 2.4 A dental cast of a suspects teeth used by a forensic odontologist to compare with a bite mark on a victim
. Fig. 2.5 Postmortem examination of the teeth of a badly burned body, in order to assist in the positive identification of the decedent. The soft tissues of the face (lips and cheeks) have been cut away in order to maximize the visibility of the teeth
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. Fig. 2.6 Fly maggots on a decomposing body
. Fig. 2.7 A hair present between the fingers of a homicide victim may provide crucial evidence of contact
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. Fig. 2.8 Microscopic examination of wounds and body surfaces may also reveal foreign material such as animal hairs that can provide significant information about the death scene. The figure shows a rabbit hair that was found within a wound
. Fig. 2.9 Microscopic comparison of a strand of evidence hair (left) with a hair obtained from a suspect (right)
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. Fig. 2.10 A deformed bullet collected at autopsy. Note the land and groove impression marks on the sides of the bullet
. Fig. 2.11 A firearms examiner firing a bullet into a water tank at the Southwestern Institute of Forensic Sciences in Dallas, TX. The bullet will be collected from the tank and compared to a bullet submitted as evidence
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. Fig. 2.12 A firearms examiner at the Southwestern Institute of Forensic Sciences in Dallas, TX, using a comparison microscope to compare an evidence bullet to a bullet fired from a suspect weapon
. Fig. 2.13 Examination of an evidence bullet comparing it to a standard bullet fired from a suspect weapon. By aligning the striations, an evidence bullet can be matched to a specific weapon
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. Fig. 2.14 A note collected at the scene of an alleged suicide. A documents examiner can compare the handwriting in the note to known handwriting from the victim to determine if the person actually wrote the note
. Fig. 2.15 A fingerprint card collected from a body in the morgue
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. Fig. 2.16 A blood spot card from an autopsy used to preserve a blood sample for potential DNA testing
. Fig. 2.17 Blood spatter on a shoe giving an indication of the direction of the blood droplets on impact
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. Fig. 2.18 Blood spatter on the foot indicting that the decedent had been upright for at least some time following injury
. Fig. 2.19 In another case blood spatter analysis confirmed that the decedent had been standing at the time that the droplets had fallen vertically
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. Fig. 2.20 Bloody footprints at a scene indicate that the decedent had been walking after being injured
. Fig. 2.21 Droplets of blood on a ceiling following a shotgun wound to the head
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. Fig. 2.22 Droplets of blood from a severed carotid artery. The victim had applied pressure with a towel to the side of his neck, reducing typical arterial spray
. Fig. 2.23 A footprint found at the scene of a crime
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. Fig. 2.24 A tire track mark on the clothing of a pedestrian that may be able to be matched to a specific tire/vehicle
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References
American Academy of Forensic Sciences. http://www.aafs.org. American Board of Criminalistics. http://www.criminalistics.com. American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. www.csuchico.edu/anth/ABFA/. American Board of Forensic Entomology. www.research.missouri.edu/entomology/. American Board of Forensic Odontology. www.abfo.org. American Board of Forensic Toxicology. www.abft.org. American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, Inc. www.abpn.com. American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors. www.ascld.org. Bernitz H, Owen JH, van Heerden WFP, Solheim T. An integrated technique for the analysis of skin bite marks. J Forensic Sci. 2008;53:1948. Bevel T, Gardner RM. Bloodstain pattern analysis with an introduction to crime scene reconstruction. 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2008. Byard RW, Veldhoen D, Manock C, Gilbert JD. Blood stain pattern interpretation in cases of fatal hemorrhage from ruptured varicose veins. J Forensic Leg Med. 2007;14:1558. Byrd JH, Castner JL, editors. Forensic entomology the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2001. Cattaneo C. Forensic anthropology: developments of a classical discipline in the new millennium. Forensic Sci Int. 2007;165:18593. Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board. http://www.thefsab.org. Hawthorne MR. Fingerprints analysis and understanding. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009. International Association for Identication. http://www.theiai.org/certications/ index.php. International Institute of Forensic Engineering Sciences, Inc. http://www.iifes.org.
Krogman WM, Iscan MY. The human skeleton in forensic medicine. 2nd ed. Springeld: Charles C. Thomas; 1986. Krous HF, Byard RW. Expert witness medical. In: Payne-James J, Byard RW, Corey T, Henderson C, editors. Encyclopedia of forensic and legal medicine, vol. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic; 2005. p. 2903. Neale BS, editor. Forensic engineering diagnosing failures and solving problems. London: Taylor & Francis; 2005. Newman R. Computer forensics evidence collection and management. Boca Raton: Auerbach; 2007. Ogle RR, Fox MJ. Atlas of human hair microscopic characteristics. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1999. Payne-James J, Byard RW, Corey TS, Henderson C. Encyclopedia of forensic and legal medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic; 2005. Pinckard JK. Memorial Eckert paper for 2007. Forensic DNA analysis for the medical examiner. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2008;29:37581. Pinckard JK. Overview of other (Non-pathology) forensic sciences (Chapter 19). In: Basic competencies in forensic pathology a forensic pathology primer. Northeld: College of American Pathologists; 2006. Rudin N, Inman K. An introduction to forensic DNA analysis. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2002. Sapir GL. Qualifying the expert witness: a practical voir dire. Forensic Mag. Feb/Mar, 2007. http://www.forensicmag.com/aricles.asp?pid=132. Stimson PG, Mertz CA, editors. Forensic dentistry. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1997. Stone JH, Roberts M, OGrady J, Taylor AV, OShea K. Faulks basic forensic psychiatry. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell; 2000. Warlow TA. Firearms, the law and forensic ballistics. Bristol: Taylor & Francis; 1996.
