ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G.

Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic Mechanics and Stability Concepts
for Vehicle Systems Modeling
Prof. R.G. Longoria
Spring 2005
v. 3
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Lecture Goals
Review coordinate systems used for analyzing ground vehicle
systems
Review basic concepts of rigid body mechanics to understand:
how to conduct basic back of the envelope calculations for vehicle
dynamics problems, and
what it will take to build basic vehicle models
Rolling and sliding friction review
Example on vehicle rollover
Build a basis for formulating the basic vehicle models to be
studied in this course, and show type of models we seek to
formulate.
Review basic stability concepts related to system component
behavior as well as linear system stability assessment
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Expected background knowledge
Basic coordinate systems
How to express position vectors in defined
coordinate systems, and how to differentiate
them to get velocity and acceleration if needed.
Mass properties (e.g., moments of inertia,
inertia matrix, etc.)
Particle and rigid body kinematics
Newtons laws, Eulers equations
Basic coordinate transformations are essential
for some problems (e.g., turning)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Vehicle-Fixed Coordinate System
SAE vehicle axis system
x = forward, on the longitudinal
plane of symmetry
y = lateral out the right side of the
vehicle
z = downward with respect to the
vehicle
p = roll velocity about the x axis
q = pitch velocity about the y axis
r = yaw velocity about the z axis
Consider the standard SAE
coordinate system and
terminology.
Ground vehicle coordinate systems commonly employ a
coordinate system standardized by SAE.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Earth fixed coordinate system
X = forward travel
Y = travel to the right
Z = vertical travel (+down)
= heading angle (between x
and X in ground plane)
= course angle (between
vehicle velocity vector and X
axis)
= sideslip angle (between x
and vehicle velocity vector)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic dynamics analysis
It is common in conducting some
basic rigid body analysis, to
employ kinetic diagrams to
visualize the effect of
translational and rotational
forces.

m
d
dt
=
=

F a 0
p
p

The analysis breaks down, effectively, to a DAlembert

formulation, where an inertial force becomes part of a
dynamic equilibrium analysis.
Rate of change of
momentum
inertial force
1
I:m
p

V
1
F
Or, if you like
2
F
n
F
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
A common type of textbook problem in
dynamics
A bicyclist applies the brakes as he descends a
10 incline.
What deceleration a would cause the dangerous
condition of tipping about the front wheel A?
The combined center of mass of the rider and
bicycle is at G. Ans. a = 0.510g
Meriam & Kraige (6/3)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic planar dynamics of a vehicle
A 1650-kg car has its mass
center at G. Calculate the normal
forces N
A
and N
B
between the
road and the front and rear pairs
of wheels under conditions of
maximum acceleration.
The mass of the wheels is small
compared with the total mass of
the car. The coefficient of static
friction between the road and the
rear driving wheels is 0.8.
Meriam & Kraige (6/5)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Another Example
A loaded pickup truck which weighs 3600 lb with mass center at G
1
, is hauling an 1800-lb
trailer with mass center at G
2
. While going down a 10-percent grade, the driver applies his
brakes and slows down from 60 mi/hr to 30 mi/hr in a distance of 360 ft. For this interval,
compute the x- and y-components of the force exerted on the trailer hitch at D by the
truck. Also find the corresponding normal force under each pair of wheels at B and C.
Neglect the rotational effect of the wheels.
Meriam & Kraige (6/26)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Example 3 (cont)
Meriam & Kraige (6/26)
Compare to
Gillespie
example.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic Model 2 axle vehicle
From Wong, Chapter 3, Fig. 3.1
Contrast with approach as well as
symbols/parameters used in
Gillespie (1992).
x
x x x
dv
p m m a F
dt
= = =

Along the longitudinal (x) axis:

x
z
Tractive force Road Loads
x
F =

,
,
tractive effort on front and rear
aerodynamic resistance force
rolling resistance on front and rear
drawbar load
grade resistance sin
x f r a rf rr d g
f r
a
rf rr
d
g s
F F F R R R R R
F
R
R
R
R W
= +
=
=
=
=
= =

ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria

Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic Model 2 axle vehicle
From Wong, Chapter 3, Fig. 3.1
x
z
0
0
z
z z
y
y y y
dv
p m F
dt
d
h I T
dt

= = =
= = =

Use equilibrium conditions in the

vertical direction and about the
y axis.
Need to:
1. Find loads on the axles
2. Use knowledge of road
adhesion and other vehicle
parameters to determine
tractive effort (TE)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Vehicle on an Incline 1
From Wong (2001)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Vehicle on an Incline 2
These equations can be
formulated to solve for the
3 unknowns:
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Summary on basic problems
These problems are typical of what is required for
basic vehicle weight transfer calculations, or simple
force analysis, etc.
These all involve plane motion analysis of rigid
bodies, and this assumption is good for many
applications.
Better estimates might require including suspension, or
better tire friction models.
This type of analysis does not directly lead to models
useful for simulation of braking or traction, or for
control design, although the insight gained is high.
Good for go/no-go type assessment.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Sliding and Rolling Friction
Friction in sliding and/or rolling plays a critical role in ground
vehicle applications.
Ogata handout a good review before we begin looking at the
tire-terrain interface, which can be very complex.
Simple translation: two surfaces sliding, concept of static and sliding
friction
Friction force versus relative velocity
Later: simulation
Rolling friction vs. rolling resistance. Resistance to motion
that takes place when an object is rolled over an abutting
surface (Rabinowicz, 1995)
Slip at contact region?
Hysteresis losses?
This is a good
illustration of the
mechanics that lead
to rolling resistance.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Common approach for rolling friction
For plane motion, we apply two equations for translation and one
for rotation. However, this leads to four unknowns (friction force,
normal force, translational acceleration, rotational acceleration).
If we assume there is pure rolling (no slip), then we can relate the
translation and rotation. However, given this fact you must check
to see if the friction force is in fact less than the static friction
force. If not, then you must assume you are slipping and the
problem needs to be re-solved.
In the case of slip, the friction force can be estimated as N (where
we differentiate between static and kinetic friction coefficients).
Watch this assumption in performance calculations!!!
*For example, text by R.C. Hibbeler, Dynamics 9
th
ed., Prentice-Hall. (p.417)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Wheels/tires undergo complex forcing
A slip angle is induced by motion of a wheel.
The slip angle is that angle between the plane
of the wheel and the actual motion (See Steeds,
Fig. 8.2.1, p. 219; Also Wong, Fig. 1.2)
What is the causal relation between the side
(cornering) force, F
y
, and the slip angle, ?
(i.e., which is specified and which is
consequence)
F
y

There is also a self-aligning torque that arises because of where the cornering
force is applied (in the lateral direction). This will also be introduced later.
This should begin to give you an idea of the factors that can influence the tire-
surface interaction.
Slip angle ()
Direction
of travel
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Rollover Events
Rollover can occur on flat and level surfaces (on-road). On-
road rollovers typically arise from loss of directional control,
which may result from driver steering actions.
Off-road rollover may result from the cross-slope effect adding
to lateral forcing from curb impacts, soft ground/soil, or other
obstructions that trip the vehicle.
Marine, et al (1999)
Off-road path
Steering input to re-
enter roadway
Loss of directional control
due to excessive corrective
steering
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Rollover Classification
Friction rollover - occurs due to high lateral
friction forces in tire-surface interaction without
any tripping
Spin out rollover - rear outside tire saturates
before front leading to yaw instability
Plow out rollover - front outside tire saturates
before rear leading to understeer and possibly
inability to steer out of accident
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Quasi-static Rollover
of a Rigid Vehicle

cos sin cos 0

2
o y zi
t
M ma h mgh mg F t = + =

Rigid vehicle moving in a steady turn,

and assume there is no roll acceleration.
Take moments about outside wheel,
V
x
Assume that is small, then you can solve for the
ratio of lateral to gravitational acceleration,
1
2
y
zi
a
F t t
h
g h mg

(
= +
(

Note, you assure tire contact forces are equal, or,
1
2
zi
F
mg
=
by making,
y
a
g
=
(cross-slope design)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Quasi-static Rollover
of a Rigid Vehicle

The lateral acceleration at which rollover begins is

the rollover threshold.
The point where the inside contact force goes to
zero specifies,
Cross-slope angle can
counter lateral
acceleration
The Static Stability Factor (SSF) is defined for = 0, or
0
2
zi
y
F
a
t
g h

=
= +
0, 0
2
zi
y
F
a
t
SSF
g h
= =
=
This can also be referred to as rollover threshold.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Rollover Threshold
Rollover Threshold (Gillespie, 1992)
Note that these values can exceed the
cornering capabilities that arise from friction
limits (about 0.8).
So vehicle could spin out in such a case,
implying rollover would not occur. We know
this is not true.
y
z
F
F
=
We have examined rigid body rollover.
The effect of roll angle shows that, at least
for a simple steady-state case, there is more
to rollover prediction than this simple
analysis.
1
2
tan
e
h
t

=
Roll Angle,
unstable
Lateral
Accel a
y
Rollover threshold
0, 0
tan
2
zi
y
F
a
t
g h

= =
=
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Translating and Rotating Ref. Frames
It is helpful to have an understanding of the coordinate systems used
for rigid body analysis, and the terminology employed for these
applications. One of the key results is given below.
XYZ xyz
dV dV
V
dt dt
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .


This relationship
between vector
quantities in xyz and
XYZ will prove very
useful.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
3-D Rigid Body Dynamics
By using body fixed coordinates, the
rotational inertial properties remain fixed.
The products of inertia* are all zero, and this
makes it convenient for our purposes.
*See dynamics text to review inertial properties.

x y z
x y z
v v v ( =

( =

v

Newton:
xyz
m
d
dt
| |
= +
|
\ .
p v
p
F p

With v relative to rotating frame.

(trans. momentum)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic Equations for a Rigid Body
x x y z z y
y y z x x z
z z x y y x
F p p p
F p p p
F p p p
= +
= +
= +

x x y z z y
y y z x x z
z z x y y x
T h h h
T h h h
T h h h
= +
= +
= +

xyz
d
dt
= +
p
F p
xyz
d
dt
= +
h
T h
The complete equations for a rigid body are nonlinear,
coupled differential equations.
Later, we will apply these to derive the classical bicycle model (as in Ch. 5 of
Wong). Lets look at a couple of examples based on this formulation.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Examples
Example on solving rolling friction problems
from Hibbelers Engineering Mechanics:
Dynamics.
The Buggy Wheel from Den Hartogs
Mechanics.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Stability of Systems
Review concepts of stability from physical and analytical
perspective (will be needed later for control analysis)
The stability of a system refers to its ability or tendency to
seek a condition of static equilibrium after it has been
disturbed.
If given a small perturbation from the equilibrium, it is stable
if it returns.
Nonlinear systems involve a very detailed and careful
definition of stability: stable in the small, asymptotically stable
in the small, stable in the large.
For linear systems, the character of the natural motions does
not depend on their amplitude, so stability analysis is much
simpler for these cases.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Basic Stability Analysis
For a single degree of freedom, stability issues are
easier to study using a physical interpretation or
analysis.
Second order systems, in particular, are fairly
straightforward.
The characteristic equation is studied to understand
how the roots vary with the system parameters.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Real axis
Imaginary axis
Natural Response
versus
s-plane position
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Example:
2
nd
order Rotational System
2
0
b k
s s
J J
+ + =
Characteristic equation:
2
2 2
b k b
s j
J J J
(
=
(

Roots of characteristic equation:
From Cannon (1967)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Negative Springs
Force-displacement curve
A fuel-injection valve designed to have negative
spring characteristics.
The restoring force on the mass is the sum effect of the
mechanical spring force and a Bernoulli force due to
pressure variation at the valve seat.
*Keys on a keyboard also have a sort of unstable design.
These examples are not really simple springs.
Flow of water
provides the input of
energy that feeds this
effect.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Inverted Pendulum Instability
2
sin
o
h ml M b mgl = = = +

2
"negative"
spring
0
b g
ml l
+ =

2
2 2
2 2
b b g
s j
ml ml l
| |
= +
|
\ .
You get one positive root.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Effect of Damping
This plot of roots shows the
effect of varying the damping.
Cannon (1967)
The cases where the roots are on
the imaginary axis correspond to
pure harmonic oscillation.
We sometimes say this is
marginally or neutrally stable.
When b gives roots at (f), the
system is always unstable.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Negative Damping
Negative damping from
aerodynamic forces namely lifting
Cannon (1967)
Negative damping due to dry
friction on a belt
Note, the effective damping, indicated by the
SLOPE of the curve, is negative in both
cases.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Tires traction forces on different surfaces show
that an unstable situation can exist for certain cases
Which curves indicate
that an unstable
traction condition
might arise?
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Stability Analysis
For more complex systems, it may not be easy to
intuitively assess stability, and a mathematical
approach is necessary.
The stability of a linear closed-loop system can also be
determined from the location of the closed-loop poles
in the s plane
There are two methods useful for this task
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Routh Stability Criterion 1
This criterion allows us to determine the number of poles that lie in
the right-half s-plane without having to factor the polynomial.
This applies to transfer functions with finite polynomials of the
form
1
1 1 0
1
1 1 0
( )
( )
( )
m m
m m
n n
n n
b s b s b s b B s
G s
a s a s a s a A s

+ + + +
= =
+ + + +

This is useful in helping identify the range, for example, that

certain parameters can take without the system becoming
unstable.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Routh Stability Criterion 2
1
1 1 0
0
n n
n n
a s a s a s a

+ + + + =
2 4
1
1 3 5
1 2 3
1 2 3
n
n n n
n
n n n
s a a a
s a a a
b b b
c c c

1 2 3
1
1
1 4 5
2
1
1 3 1 2
1
1
1 5 1 3
2
1
n n n n
n
n n n n
n
n n
n n
a a a a
b
a
a a a a
b
a
b a a b
c
b
b a a b
c
b

=
Routh Table
Criterion: The roots have negative real parts if
and only if the elements of the first column of
the Routh Table have the same sign.
The number of sign changes is equal to the
number of roots with positive real parts.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Routh Stability Example
3 2
3 3 1 0 s s s K + + + + =
3
2
1
0
1 3 0
3 1 0
8
0
3
1 0
s
s K
K
s
s K
+

+
We require that both of these
conditions hold for stability,
8 0
1 0
K
K
>
+ >
Therefore,
1 8 K < <
K vs. 3 roots
-2: -1.6300 - 1.0911i -1.6300 + 1.0911i 0.2599
-1: 0 -1.5000 - 0.8660i -1.5000 + 0.8660i
0: -1.0000 -1.0000 - 0.0000i -1.0000 + 0.0000i
7: -2.9129 -0.0435 - 1.6566i -0.0435 + 1.6566i
8: -3.0000 -0.0000 - 1.7321i -0.0000 + 1.7321i
9: -3.0801 0.0400 - 1.8014i 0.0400 + 1.8014i
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Wheel shimmy instability
Den Hartog, p. 330-334
Caster type swivel wheel shimmy
Stability analysis for this case
shows you should satisfy
2
G
mal I ma > +
This figure illustrates a wheel shimmy common
in the 1930s. A 3 DOF description is required
to explain. This is a self-excited vibration, but
may also be excited by imbalance of the tires.
Solved by independent front-wheel suspension.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Example:
Routh Stability Analysis for Wheel Shimmy
2
3 2
2 2 2
0
G G G
amV kl Vkl
s s s
I ma I ma I ma
+ + + =
+ + +
( )
2
3
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
0
2
1 0
0
0
0
G
G G
G
G
kl
s
I ma
amV Vkl
s
I ma I ma
kl Vkl
s
amV
I ma
Vkl
s
I ma
+
+ +
(
(
+
(

+
For stability, you can show
that,
2
G
aml I ma > +
and,
0 Vkl >
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Examples of Basic Vehicle Stability
Shopping cart modeling and stability
inertial coordinate system
body-fixed coordinate system
Stability of a basic vehicle (from Rocard)
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Stability of a Rigid Vehicle
One of the earliest analyses on stability was
conducted by Y. Rocard (1954) (Steeds, 1960).
The vehicle is simplified as a rigid rectangular frame
with a wheel at each corner and the plane of each
wheel is vertical and parallel to the frame.
The steering force is assumed to be directly related to
slip angle,
and the contact forces are assumed not to be affected
by vehicle motion.
There is no steering angle.
F K =
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Directional Model of Rocard
Rocard derived two 2nd order ODEs for this
problem, and for linear approximations found
the characteristic equation,
2
2
1 3
1 3
2 ( )
( )
c
K K a b
V
M K a K b
+
=

3 1
K b K a > Stable for all speeds if:
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
1 3
2 2
2
1 3 1 3
2 2
0
2
1 1
4 ( ) 2( )
s Rs S s
a b
R K K
MV k k
K K a b K a K b
S
Mk
MkV
+ + =
(
| | | |
= + + +
( | |
\ . \ .

+
=
A critical speed
is defined by:
choose the position of the mass center of the
vehicle and the steering force characteristics for
the front and rear tires
If the steering force are equal, then stability is
assured if b is greater than a, or putting the CG in
front of the midpoint of the wheelbase.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Summary
We should adopt concepts in vehicle system modeling on an as
needed basis, focusing on answering the questions asked.
We are interested in building models for insight, basic
analysis/simulation, and control design.
We examined how basic vehicle static stability (rollover) can be
evaluated with basic mechanics.
We modeled some basic vehicles as rigid bodies in translation
and rotation, and examined dynamic stability issues.
More complex models of interconnected bodies (multibody
systems) subject to forces and torques form the basis for high
end models, and if we want to look at these problems well
employ software programs such as ADAMS or CarSim.
ME 379M/397 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Handouts VSDC Lecture 2
1. T.D. Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE,
Warrendale, PA, 1992.
Example problems from Ch. 1.
2. K. Ogata, System Dynamics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, (any edition). Section 2-4 (1
st
ed.), pp. 38-47.
This handout has a good discussion on sliding and rolling friction, with
examples of hard rolling cylinders (planar motion) worked out in detail.
3. Practice Problems from Meriam and Kraige, Dynamics.
4. Excerpt from Karnopp, et al, Ch. 9, Rigid Body Mechanics
This handout gives a summary of rigid body equations and shows them in
bond graph form.