Data Communications
Introduction
Topics:
Data Communications History Data Communication System Data Communication Codes Networks The Internet Protocols and Standards Standard Organizations
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1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data It refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. It can be any alphabetical, numeric, or symbolic information. Data communications the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable the process of transferring digital information (usually in binary form) between two or more points
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Four Fundamental Characteristics
l Delivery l Accuracy l Timeliness l Jitter
1-2 HISTORY
Figure Telegraph and Morse code
Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Cooke
Samuel F. B. Morse
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1844 The first telegraph line was established between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. 1849 The first slow-speed telegraph printer was invented 1860 The high speed (15 bps) telegraph printers were available 1850 The Western Union Telegraph Company was formed in Rochester, New York, for the purpose of carrying coded messages from one person to another.
Figure Telegraph multiplexer (1874)
Emile Baudot
Figure Telephone (1876)
Alexander Graham Bell
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1899 Marconi succeeded in sending radio telegraph messages 1920 The first commercial radio stations were installed The high speed (15 bps) telegraph printers were available 1940 Bell Laboratories developed the first special-purpose computer using electromechanical relays
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Figure UNIVAC computer (1951)
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1968 The AT&T operation tariff allowed only equipment furnished by AT&T to be connected to AT&T lines. A landmark Supreme Court decision, the Carterfone decision, allowed non-Bell companies to interconnect to the vast AT&T communications netowrk.
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Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication
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Five Components
l Message
The information to be communicated.
l Sender
The device that sends the data message.
l Receiver
The device that receives the message.
l Medium
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
l Protocol
A set of rules governs the data communication
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Simplified Communications Model
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Simplified Data Communications Model
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Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) It is a general term that describes the interface equipment used at the stations to adapt the digital signals from the computers and terminals to a form more suitable for transmission. Data Communications Equipment (DCE) It is a general term that describes the equipment that converts digital signals to analog signals and interfaces the data terminal equipment to the analog transmission medium.
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Serial and Parallel Data Transmission
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Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
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Transmission Modes
l Simplex
Communication is unidirectional Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive
l Half Duplex
Each station can transmit and receive but not at the same time
l Full Duplex
Both station can transmit and receive simultaneously
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Two-Wire versus Four-wire
l Two-wire
It involves a transmission medium that either uses two wires (a signal and a reference model) or a configuration that is equivalent to having only two wires.
l Four-wire
It involves a transmission medium that uses four wires (two are used for signals that are propagating in opposite directions and two are used for reference leads) or a configuration that is equivalent to having four wires.
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1-3 DATA COMMUNICATIONS CODES
A prescribed bit sequences used for encoding characters and symbols. Three types of characters used: Data link control characters Graphic control characters Alpha/numeric characters
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Morse Code
It is the first data communications code used. It used three unequal-length symbols (dot, dash, and space) to encode characters. It is inadequate for use in modern digital computer equipment because all characters do not have the same number of symbols or take the same length of time to send, and each Morse code operator transmits code at a different rate.
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Baudot Code
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BCD Code
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EBCDIC Code
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ASCII Code
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Extended ASCII Code
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Data Representations
l Numbers
Converted to binary number
l Images
Pixels (picture elements) is represented by bit pattern.
l Audio
Continuous, not discrete.
l Video
Either a continuous entity (e.g. by a TV camera) or a combination of images (each a discrete entity)
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1-4 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. Topics discussed in this section:
Distributed Processing Network Criteria Physical Structures Network Models Categories of Networks Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
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Processing & Criteria
l Distributed Processing
Tasks are divided among multiple computers
l Network Criteria
Performance
l Depend on a number of factors including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware and the efficiency of the software. l Ex. Measurement of transmit time and response time
Reliability
l Accuracy of delivery l Frequency of failure
Security
l Data protection
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Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
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Physical Structures
l Network
Two or more devices connected together through links. Link is a communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another
l Types of Connection
Point to Point
l Provides a dedicated link between two devices. The capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint
l More than two devices share a single link l Capacity of channel is shared
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Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Topology It identifies how the various locations within the network are interconnected.
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Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
l Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other devices l A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices
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Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
l Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller usually call a hub
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Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
l A multi-point connection l Nodes are connected to the cable by drop lines and taps
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Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
l Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches its destination
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Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
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Networking Devices ROUTER
A device that forwards packets along networks. Works at Network Layer of the OSI Layer in an intelligent manner. Connects two or more networks (e.g. LANs, MANs, WANs, ISPs). Located at gateway or could be the gateway itself. Serves as NAT/Firewall for the network. Uses headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets. Uses protocols to communicate with other.
Advantages: Limits collision domain. Can function in LAN or WAN. Connects differing media and architectures. Can determine the best path for packets. Can filter broadcast. Disadvantages: Expensive Must use routable protocols. Can be difficult to configure its routing. Slower than a Bridge.
Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram.
SWITCH
A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Works at Data Link Layer and sometimes at the Network Layer of the OSI Layer. Supports any packet protocol. Acts like a Hub, but filters like a Bridge. Keeps track of MAC Addresses of all attached devices.
Advantages: Limits the collision domain. Can provide bridging. Can be configured to limit broadcast domains. Disadvantages: More expensive than a Hub or a Bridge. Configuration of additional functions can be very complex.
Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram.
HUB
A common connection point for devices in a network. Works at Physical Layer of the OSI Layer. Broadcasts a packet once arrived at one port. Broadcast feature causes network congestion. In reality, hub is a repeater with multiple ports.
Advantages: Cheap Can connect different media types. Disadvantages: Extends the collision domain. Cannot filter information. Broadcasts packets to all connected segments.
Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram.
BRIDGE
A device that connects two LANs, or two segments of the same LAN. Works at Data Link Layer of the OSI Layer. Filters packets. Does not forward packets right away by examining the MAC Address. Forwards packets whose destination address is on a different segment from its own. Divides a network into multiple collision, so reducing the number of collisions. Uses a Spanning Tree Protocol to decide whether to pass a packet on to a different network segment.
Advantages: Limits collision domain. Can extend network distances. Can connect to different types of media and architectures. Disadvantages: Broadcast packets cannot be filtered. More expensive than a repeater. Slower than a repeater due to additional processing of packets.
Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram.
REPEATER
A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Works at Physical Layer of the OSI Layer. Allows the connection of network segments. Extends the network beyond the maximum length of a single segment. Connects segments of the same network, even if they use different media. Relays messages to its original quality.
Advantages: Can connect different types of media. Can extend a network in terms of distance. Does not increase network traffic. Disadvantages: Extends the collision domain. Cannot filter data. Cannot connect different network architecture. Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram. Limited number only can be used in network.
SERVER
A computer or device in a network that manages network resources. Often dedicated only performs no other tasks besides their server task. It can also a software a program running on a single computer. Needs a Static IP. Examples are Application, Chat, FTP, Mail, Proxy, Web, DNS, Audio/Video, etc.
Advantages: Centralization Scalability Flexibility Interoperability Accessibility Ease of application development. Lower total costs than mainframe legacy systems. Disadvantages: Dependability Lack of mature tools. Lack of scalability Higher than anticipated cost Can cause network congestion
Usually represented by this icon in a detailed network diagram.
Network Categories
l Local Area Network (LAN)
Usually privately own and links the devices in a single office, building or campus Designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations Data speed up to 100Mbps
l Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Network is extended to city wide area Connection of multiple office LANs
l Wide Area Network (WAN)
Provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.
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Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
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Cable company MAN
PC TV
Coaxial Cable
Cable Drop
Cable company
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WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
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Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
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Wide Area Network (WAN)
A network that uses long-range telecommunication links to connect 2 or more LANs/computers housed in different places far apart. Towns, states, countries Examples: Your home Network of our Campus Internet
WAN
Student Computer Centre
USA
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1-5 THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
Topics discussed in this section:
A Brief History The Internet Today (ISPs)
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l Internetwork or Internet
Connection of multiple networks A communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use. History
l Requirement to connect research entity computers in order to share data and findings l (Mid 1960s) Initiated by Advance Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of USA DOD. l (1967) ARPA presented ARPANET l (1969) ARPANER was realized l (1972) Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn collaborated on Internetting Project l (1973) Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn released Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) l TCP/IP
TCP segmentation, reassembly & error detection IP - routing
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Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet
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1-6 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols and standards. First, we define protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which are agreed-upon rules.
Topics discussed in this section:
Protocols Standards
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l Protocol
A set of rules the governs data communication It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is communicated. Key Elements:
l Syntax
Refers to the structure or format of the data
l Semantics
Refers to the meaning of each section of bits
l Timing
Refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent
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l Standards
Guarantees that equipment manufacturers follows national and international interoperability of data & communication technology and proceses Provide guidelines to manufacturer, vendors, government agencies,
l Categories
De facto
l Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use
De jure
l Legislated by an officially recognized body
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1-7 STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS
To ensure an orderly transfer of information between two or more data communications systems using different equipment with different needs, a consortium of organizations, manufacturers, and users meet on a regular basis to establish guidelines and standards.
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International Standard Organizations (ISO) It creates the sets of rules and standards for graphics, document exchange, and related technologies. It is responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other standards organizations. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) It is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S. voting representative for ISO. Standards Council of Canada (SCC) It is the official standards agency for Canada with similar responsibilities to those of ANSI
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Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) It is now the standards organization for the United Nations and develops the recommended sets of rules and standards for telephone and telegraph communications. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing, the X series for data communications, and the I and Q series for the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) It is a U.S. professional organization of electronics, computer, and communications engineers. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) It is a U.S. organization that establishes and recommends industrial standards. It is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of standards for data and telecommunications.
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