Abnormality

Defining abnormality:
Deviation from social norms
Societies have their standards of behaviour and attitudes, deviating from these can be seen as abnormal Eg singing out loud on the train

Strengths

Weaknesses
The context - E.g. if you saw someone walking down the street dressed as a banana you may think this behaviour was abnormal, however if you knew they were going to a fancy dress party then you would consider this normal Just because someone does not conform to societies rules this does not necessarily make them mad, they may just be rebellious

Failure to function adequately

Cant cope with day-to-day life, is maladaptive Observer discomfort: the behaviour causes other individuals to feel uncomfortable Eg not being able to get out of bed and look after your children

Strengths

Weaknesses
Very judgemental. E.g. - you may not have a job because you are lazy, this does not mean you are abnormal. At some times in our lives (after the death of a loved one) it would be abnormal to function adequately.

Jahoda theory
Your behaviour is normal if you have o Positive self-attitude o Self-actualisation o Resistance to stress o Personal autonomy (controlling your own decisions) o Accurate perception of reality o Adaptation to the environment

Strengths
It does provide areas to target when treating depression, and it focuses on a positive approach to the problems

Weaknesses
Hard to meet all the standards in this list. Eg a violent offender could have a good self-attitude and resistance to stress but society would still call

their behaviour abnormal Its subjective so difficult to measure

Why is it difficult to define abnormality?

Gender Biological or hormonal differences and the difference in which men or women are brought up could lead to gender differences in the frequency of disorders. The gender stereotypes also tend for clinicians to diagnose mood disorders in women and antisocial disorders in men because they expect to find them Race In some cultures, its normal for people to talk to themselves- its seen as holy. However, in Britain if someone were to do that wed think they were mentally ill: cultural relativism

Biological approach
Assumes all psychological disorders are physical illnesses with physical causes.

Genetics Faulty genes can causes diseases that have psychological effects. Eg Huntingtons disease is genetic and leads to a detoriation of mental abilities. Twin concordance rates show that identical twins both having schizophrenia is a 48% chance, non-identical is only 4%.

Neurotransmitters Too much or too little of a particular neurotransmitter can produce psychological disorders. Eg increased dopamine is linked to schizophrenia. And an increase of serotonin is an effective treatment.

Infection May cause disorders. General paresis involves delusions and mood swings, caused by syphilis, an STD.

Neuroanatomy When the structure of the brain is different, it causes mental disorders. Eg, schizophrenics have enlarged ventricles.

Strengths Doesnt blame mentally ill people so individuals feel supported Has evidence to support it

Weaknesses Evidence doesnt show 100% concordance rates between twins Not supported by individual differences, eg some schizophrenics have high levels of dopamine but

some dont

Treatment Electroconvulsive therapy

ECT can be either unilateral (electrode on one temple) or bilateral (electrodes on both temples). Patient is given a short acting anaesthetic and muscle relaxant before the shock is administered. Oxygen is also administered. Small amount of current (about 0.6 amps) passed through the brain lasting for about half a second. The resulting seizure lasts for about a minute. ECT is usually given three times a week for up to 5 weeks. Is effective for depression: useful because it saves lives. Comer (2002) states that 60-70% of patients improve BUT, 84% relapse within 6 months. And within 2 years, 30% had permanent fear and anxiety

Drug therapy
Anti-depressants (SSRIs) prolong activity of serotonin of synapse by blocking reabsorption of serotonin in presynaptic nerve cell after it had triggered a nerve impulse Anti-psychotic (chlorpromazine) block transmission of dopamine Anti-anxiety (benzodiazepines) slow down nervous system Drug treatment combined with therapy only had 2-23% relapse rate, whereas 55% relapsed with a placebo. Its easy to use and therefore people will carry on treatment But the placebo effect proved that its not totally helpful. The side effects were worse and it doesnt treat the cause so symptoms can emerge again.

Psychoanalysis

The model is based on how personality is divided into id, superego and ego and also looks at stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital Conflict and anxiety occur in childhood because of conflicts between the psyches. Psychological disorders can also come from anxiety which happens during a certain stage, eg conflict during potty training Anxiety from these conflicts are repressed into the unconscious mind. The unconscious cannot contain these bad feelings are therefore present them in a psychological disorder when triggered in adult life.

ID

immediate satisfaction, pleasure principle. When in complete control, the person is psychotic and has impulsive control disorders like paedophilia

SUPEREGO

embodies confidence and sense of right and wrong. When in complete control, causes anxiety disorders like OCD and anorexia

EGO

perceives reality. When in complete control, the person is healthy.

DISPLACEMENT: redirect emotions to a safer target

REPRESSION: keep unpleasant memory in unconscious EGO DEFENCES: protect the ego and reduce anxiety DENIAL: cant accept they have a problem

REACTION FORMATION: like/hate someone too much so they do the opposite

REGRESSION: return to an earlier stage of development for comfort

Strengths Focuses on causes, unlike behaviourism The treatment uncover unconscious conflicts: the client can then understand their problems and resolve them

Weaknesses Limited as it ignores biological factors Treatment takes a long time and is expensive. The conflicts uncovered may be emotionally distressing and inaccurate depending on patients memory.

Treatments
Projective tests
Patients are given an ambiguous stimulus, eg ink blots and what they see is interpreted by a therapist to find a hidden meaning

Dream analysis
Manifest content (scenes and storyline) are turned into latent content (underlying wishes) through dreamwork, as objects in the dream have a hidden meaning.

Free association
Patient speaks freely and says everything that comes to mind where unconscious thoughts are revealed Bergin bar-graph of Meta shows that it has a 73% success rate and beats placebos and no treatment. Its useful as it recognises importance of causes and prevents mental illness and Luborksy and Spence found that its useful in treating depression, anxiety and sexual disorders. BUT, doesnt help schizophrenics as they need to be in touch with reality in order to answer questions. Moreover, its up to therapists interpretation so can lead to different views, leading the patient to be confused.

Behavioural approach
All behaviour is learnt Classical conditioning explains development of phobias Watson (1920) Little Albert experiment: learnt to associate a white rat with a loud, scary noise. Wasnt afraid of it first but after hearing the noise and seeing the rat, he became afraid

Operant conditioning is learning from the consequence of actions Behaviour which causes positive reinforcement (reward) and negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be repeated Actions which cause punishment wont be repeated Examples: o Maintaining phobias: becoming anxious around phobic stimuli means you avoid them and prevent anxiety negative reinforcement o Bulimics: feel disgusted so make themselves sick. They therefore remove these feelings negative reinforcement o Doing well in class so youre praised positive reinforcement

Strengths Evidence to support both classical and operant conditioning

Uses scientific methods of research, the experiments are objective, measurable and observable.

Weaknesses It focuses too much on the 'nurture' side of the nature/nurture debate. It suggests that all behaviour is learned but cognitive and biological elements have been proved to affect behaviour. Ethical issues do to the experiments

Treatment
Aversion therapy
Removes an undesirable behaviour by associating it with unpleasant consequences. Alcoholics are given a drug that produces nausea when they take alcohol. Nausea becomes a conditioned response to alcohol, so they associate drinking with being sick

Systematic Desensitisation treats phobias

Patient makes a fear hierarchy. They then use a relaxation technique and by reciprocal inhibition, they learn to feel relaxed around the thing that they fear- as feeling calm and afraid cannot occur at the same time They work through the hierarchy and take it step by step Its ethical as the patient has a lot of control, they only progress when they want to and is effective as Paul (1960) compared SD, insight therapy and attention placebo. SD group had greatest improvement and this was still evident after 2 years. BUT, is time consuming and expensive. Would also be stressful for the patient wont want to continue. Doesnt remove the cause, could be an underlying issue and symptoms could re-emerge

Cognitive approach
All behaviour is controlled by thoughts and beliefs Abnormal thinking leads to abnormal behaviour, both are maladaptive and dysfunctional The schema is a package of information that you have on a topic that affects behaviour. If its negative on a certain topic then it leads to negative automatic thoughts

MAXIMISATION: over emphasising importance of small failures

MINIMISATION: minimising success in life

SELECTIVE ABSTRACTION: ignoring positives and focusing on negatives

Elliss ABC model Rational beliefs produce adaptive consequences but irrational beliefs produce maladaptive consequences.

Eg, you fail an exam (A), leads to an irrational belief such as feeling too stupid to pass exams (B) and the irrational consequence would be that you get depression (C) IRRATIONAL Instead of: failing an exam (A), leading to a rational belief such as feeling like you didnt prepare enough (B) and therefore revising more (C) RATIONAL Becks cognitive triad

Treatment
1. 2. 3. 4. Identify faulty cognitions Therapist shows they arent true, eg the client doesnt always fail Set goals to think in a more positive and adaptive way, eg focusing on successes Focus on present situation Useful for depression and anorexia as it considers the role of thoughts and beliefs and also, the client can take control and make their own change to their behaviour BUT, faulty cognition may actually be a consequence. Eg depression, caused by chemical imbalance in the brain, may cause negative thoughts- instead of faulty thinking causing depression. Its also expensive and takes a long time.

Social Psychology
Conformity
COMPLIANCE o o o Going along with others even if you disagree This is done to appear normal Going against majority might lead to exclusion or rejection from the group: normative social influence

INTERNALISATION o o o Following along the majority and believing in their views: they have been accepted and internalised Such as when youre in an unfamiliar situation, where you dont know what the correct way to behave You therefore look to others to know how to behave: informational social influence

Asch (1951) looked at normative social influence: to see whether

people would conform to a majoritys incorrect answers in an unambiguous task Asch carried out a laboratory experiment with an independent groups design. In groups of 8, participants judged different line lengths by saying out loud which comparison line matched the standard line. There was one real participant, who always went last or second last so that they heard the others answers before giving theirs and each did 18 trials. On 12 of these (critical trials), the confederates gave the same wrong answer. There was a control group where the participants judged the line lengths in isolation. Results: In the control trials, with no pressure to conform, participants gave the wrong answer 0.7% of the time. In the critical trials, participants conformed to the majority 37% of the time . 75% conformed at least once. Conclusion: the control condition showed us that the task was easy to get right. However, 37% were wrong on the critical trials as they conformed to the majority Strengths Weaknesses Reliable research method - a lab experiment Has also been called a child of its time (as conformity means the study can be replicated (repeated) was the social norm in 1950s America). The era of and same results found. This gives confidence in individualism, doing your own thing, did not take results. hold until the 1960s. Control over variables variables like age/setting/seating position all controlled, so variables which could affect results are controlled or eliminated again allowing us to be more confident in results. Was unethical as the participants were deceived

Sherif (1935) looked at informational influence: researched whether people are

influenced by others when theyre doing an ambiguous task. This was a laboratory experiment with a repeated measures design. Sherif used a visual illusion (autokinetic effect), where a stationary spot of light, viewed in a dark room, appears to move and participants were informed that it did but it didnt. They had to estimate how far it had moved. Individual participants made estimates and were then put in groups of 3, where they each made their estimate with the others present. Then they were retested individually. Results: when alone, participants own estimates which varied widely. But in a group, the estimates become more alike. In the retest, their estimates were more like the group estimates. Conclusion: participants were influenced by the estimates of other people and a group norm developed. Estimates converged because people used information from others to help them - they were affected by informational social influence. Strengths Laboratory experiment meant strict control of variables, so no extraneous variables and could have easily been repeated Weaknesses Lacks ecological validity, wasnt a real-life situation

Zimbardo et al studied conformity to assigned roles: Stanford Prison Experiment

Male students were randomly given the roles of prisoner or guard in a mock prison and their behaviour was observed. The prisoners were arrested at home, taken to prison and given uniforms and numbers. The guards also wore uniforms and mirrored sunglasses.

Results: at first, the guards tried to assert authority over the prisoners but they resisted by sticking together.
The prisoners then became more passive and obedient, while the guards invested nastier punishments. The experiment was abandoned because some prisoners became extremely distressed. Conclusion: guards and prisoners adopted their social roles quickly. Zimbardo claims this shows that our social role can influence our behaviour - seemingly well-balanced men became unpleasant and aggressive in the role of guard. Strengths Controlled observation, so good control of the variables. Stimulated lots of research and was extremely popular Weaknesses Was an artificial environment, the results cant be generalised to real-life situations. Extremely unethical Doesnt take individual differences into account: not all participants behaved according to their new roles.

What affects conformity?

Group size: very small majorities are easier to resist but influence doesnt keep increasing with size of majority. Aschs experiment: with 2 confederates, majority conformed to only 14%. With 3, conformity rose to 32%. There was little change to conformity rates after that, so 3 or 11 people didnt make a diffe rence. Social support: Aschs experiment had a version where the participant had a supporter in the group. The rate of conformity fell to 5.5%. The participant felt less pressure to conform. Confidence: Asch found that people more confident were less likely to conform. Perrin and Spencer redid the test with engineers and conformity dropped because engineers have confidence in their skills of accurate observation. Gender: Eagly and Carli argue that women conform more than men in a public setting, but not wh en theyre alone.

Independent behaviour

Personality affects behaviour Rotter (1966) developed a questionnaire to measure a personality characteristic called locus of control- indicates how much personal control a people believe they have over events in their lives

Internal locus of control: belief that what happens in your life results from your own behaviour or actions, eg good results in test is because you worked hard External locus of control: belief that events are caused by luck, eg good result in test is because of easy questions

Moscovici et al looked at minority influence

It was a laboratory experiment using 192 women. All groups had 6 people and all 36 slides shown were blue but varied in shades. Consistent condition: 2 confederates, who called all 36 slides green. Participants called the slides green 8.4% of the time; adopting the minority position.

Inconsistent condition: 2 confederates, who called 24 slides green and the rest blue. Participants called the slides green only 1.25% Control group: no confederates. Participants called the slides green 0.25% of the time. Conclusion: confederates were in the minority but their views did influence the real participants. The minority had more influence when they consistently called the slides green. Strengths The use of the control groups shows the participants were actually influence by the minority Lab experiment means variables were well controlled and this test can be repeated for further research Weaknesses Lacked ecological validity because the task was artificial Lacked population validity and doesnt consider gender differences due to all female participants

Minorities can cause social change

The suffragettes: began as a small minority of women who wanted the vote. The majority was eventually influenced and women then got what they wanted Martin Luther King: wanted black people to have the same rights. His ideas were unpopular at first but in the end, civil right activists influenced the majority Gay rights movements: being gay used to be illegal but various movements have changed attitudes to homosexuals and an Equality Act was brought in in 2007

Obedience to authority Milgram (1963) did a study of obedience

He conducted laboratory experiments to test factors that affected obedience- testing whether people would obey orders to shock someone in a separate room 40 men took part and believed it was a test on learning and memory. Their payment didnt affect whether they did the whole experiment or not. Each participant was introduced to a confederate, and the participant was always the teacher and confederate was the learner. The participant saw the confederate be strapped to a chair and connected to a shock generator, which wasnt real. The switches ranged from 15 (slight shock) to 450 volts (XXX). The participant taught the learner word-pairs over an intercom. When the learner was incorrect, he was given an electric shock which increased each time. The learner asked to be let out and screamed until 330, when he made on further noise. The experimenter said things like the experiment requires you to continue and you must continue. Results: 56% of participants went up to the full voltage and all went to 300V Conclusion: ordinary people will obey orders to hurt someone else Milgram did variation experiments and found that: Male and female participants acted the same: 65% went to 450V Learner in the same room: 48% Experimenter on the phone: 23% Other participant (confederate) gives shock: 92.5% Others refused: 10% Weaknesses Demand characteristics- people may not have really believed that someone would die

Strengths Participants showed signs of stress: was real to them so had internal validity

Laboratory experiment means it had good control of variables and is valid Were extensively debriefed and 84% said they were glad they took part

Lacks ecological validity as wouldnt have happened in real life Participants were very stressed and therefore werent protected

Factors that affect obedience

Presence of allies: can make it easier to resist orders if you have support Proximity of the victim: 40% gave the full shock when the learner was in the room and 30% when they had to put his hand onto the shock plate. Suffering became harder to ignore Proximity of authority: obedience dropped when authority was in another room.

Agency theory When people believe on behalf of external authority- theyre in an agentic state and dont take responsibility for their actions. Factors that kept participants in the agentic state
Reluctance to disrupt experiment: were already paid to felt obliged to continue Pressure of surroundings: was in a prestigious university. Experimenter seemed like a legitimate authority Insistence of the authority figure: participants were told they had to continue the experiment Weaknesses Sometimes people do resist. It doesnt explain why some people are more likely to exhibit independent more than others

Strengths Experimental evidence. Participants said they were just following orders, similar to the Nazis

Why do people obey?

1. AGENTIC STATE Effect is seen in Milgrams studies: participants would ask who would take responsibility if someone was harmed. The experimenter would say himself and then the participants would continue The participants entered a social contract (obligation) with the experimenter to take part and follow the procedure: agentic state was part of the set-up Agentic shift: when participants begin as autonomous but then become obedient. GRADUAL COMMITMENT To agree to something gradually and in small steps makes it harder to refuse the next step. In Milgrams experiment, they began with 15V and worked their way up. They obeyed at lower levels, so it was harder for them to justify disobeying later requests JUSTIFIED AUTHORITIES People recognise authority as people such as doctors, teachers and police officers etc. these are justified authorities theyre given the right to tell us what to do, so were more likely t o obey them

2.

3.

 When Milgram ran his experiment in a run-down area, obedience levels went down as the status of the university proclaimed a justified authority

Bickman conducted a field experiment where researchers, dressed as a guard, milkman or in smart clothes, asked a passer-by to pick up a bit of litter. People were more likely to obey the guard instead of the milkman or man dressed in smart clothes, as the guard seemed to be the most legitimate authority figure.

4.

BUFFERS They protect us from the consequences of our actions. Milgrams participants were more obedient in conditions where they couldnt see or hear the victim. But losing the buffer and seeing the participants made it harder for the participants to go along with the orders

How do people resist the pressure to obey?

Situational factors More of Milgrams participants resisted if there were others who resisted: other people find it easier to disobey authority if they have support as they dont need to take all the responsibility. Also shown by Asch, participants were more likely to resist conforming if someone else agreed with them. Individual differences If an individual has high level of moral reasoning they may be more able to resist. One of Milgrams participants was a priest and therefore refused to inflict any pain on someone.

How is social change brought about?

Minorities bring about social change by being consistent, flexible and non-dogmatic. they can challenge the beliefs held by the majority Through social crypto-amnesia and the snowball effect, gradually the minority turns into the majority. And their beliefs become widely held. Dictators can bring about social change through power and through the process of obedience.

Biological Psychology
Stress
The evaluation of whether something is a stressor or not occurs in the cerebral cortex, which sends a signal to the hypothalamus.

SYMPATHOMEDULLARY PATHWAY: ACUTE STRESS Hypothalamus triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system This stimulates the adrenal medulla in the adrenal glands to release adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream

PITUARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM: CHRONIC STRESS Hypothalamus activates HPA system Stimulates pituitary gland in the brain, which releases hormones, incl. Adrenocorticotrophic ACTH Which then stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol

Effects on the body: Increasing blood pressure and heart rate Digestion decreases so blood can be directed to brain and muscles Muscles become more tense so body is psychically responsive Perspiration increases so body can cool down and burn more energy Breathing rate increases so oxygen can be sent to the muscles

Effects on the body: Constant supply of energy due to cortisol Suppression of immune system

Hans Selye: 3 stage response

He noticed that rats would become ill, eg develop stomach ulcers, even when they were given harmless injections. He concluded that the stress of the daily injections caused the illness and believed that humans and animals react to stressors in a 3 stage physiological response: General Adaptation Syndrome
1. 2. Alarm stage: increased arousal levels so were ready to make any necessary physical response fight/flight Resistance stage: if a stressor remains for a long time, we adapt to the situation and can continue in a normal way. Eg, learn to adapt with a high pressure job after initially being unable to cope

3.

Exhaustion stage: the body will eventually be unable to cope with the situation. Alarm signs may return and changes happen, eg high blood pressure or depression. Weaknesses Describes a single type of response and ignores that the bodys reaction to stress varies, eg amount of adrenaline released depends on how the stressor is perceived by the person.

Strengths Stages are supported by a lot of scientific research

Krantz et al found that long-term stress can affect the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels)
This was a lab experiment, 39 participants did one of three stress-inducing tasks (a maths test, stroop test and public speaking). Their blood pressure and extent to which the vessels around their heart contracted (low, medium or high myocardial ischaemia) was measured. Participants didnt take any prescribed heart medication prior to the study Results: participants with the greater myocardial ischaemia showed the highest increases in blood pressure. A small number of participants who showed mild or no myocardial ischaemia only had a moderate increase in blood pressure Conclusion: stress may have a direct influence on aspects on body functioning, making cardiovascular disorders more likely Strengths Findings of study are supported by Williams (2000): it was seen that people who got angry easily or reacted more angrily to situations had a higher risk of cardiovascular problems Weaknesses Lacks ecological validity as its a lab experiment, so didnt t fully represent real-life stress

Individual differences as not everyone showed the same reaction and would respond differently to the tasks Cant be fully said that the effects caused stress. It didnt show whether the effects also occur at other time, eg when the person feels relaxed.

Brady et al found that stress can affect the immune system (cells and chemicals that destroy bacteria and
viruses) Monkeys were put in pars ad given electric shocks every 20 seconds for 6 hour sessions. One monkey (the executive) could push a lever to postpone each shock Results: the executive monkeys were more likely to develop illness (ulcers) and die Conclusion: the illness and death was due to the stress in trying to avoid the shock. This stress reduced the immune systems ability to fight illness Strengths Weaknesses Unethical Cant generalise results from monkeys to humans, humans are more complex

Kiecolt-Glaser et al found that immune system suppression also happens in humans

In a study with an independent measures design where a punch biopsy was used to create a small wound in the arms of 13 women who cared for relatives with Alzheimers disease. A control group of 13 also took part. Results: would healing took an average of 9 days longer for the carers than those in the care group Conclusion: long-term stress impairs the effectiveness of the immune system to heal wounds

Strengths Sweeney (1995) also found that people caring for relatives with dementia took longer than a control group to heal their wounds

Weaknesses Group may have varied in other ways apart from the stress of being a carer. The effects could be due to poor diet or lack of sleep, not just stress. Small number of participants, less reliable than if it had a higher number

Life changes - eg death of a close relative, getting married, moving house

Holmes and Rahe assumed that positive and negative life events involve change, which leads to stress. They studied 5000 patients hospital records and noted any major life events that occurred before the person became ill. Patients were more likely to have experienced life changes prior to becoming ill and that more serious life changes seemed more linked to stress and illness They made a list of 43 common life events and asked people to give each one a score on how stressful it was. The numbers were Life Change Units (LCU)- the higher the number, the more stressful Ranked the events: social readjustment rating scale (SRRS). Found positive correlation between illness and score. As one increase, so does the other.

Life event Death of a spouse divorce retirement Change in school Christmas

Rank 1 2 10 17 42

Score (LCU) 100 73 45 37 12

Rahe et al furthered their findings on LCU score and illness

In a correlational study, more than 2500 American Navy seamen were given a form of the SRRS to complete before they set off on military duty. They had to say all the events they experienced over the past 6 months Results: higher LCU scores found to be linked to higher incidence of illness over the next 7 months Conclusion: stress involved in the changes that life events bring is linked to an increased risk of illness Strengths Weaknesses Not representative of the population Dont explain individual differences in response to stress Limitations with correlational research- could be a thrd unknown variable

ISSUES WITH SRRS Doesnt separate positive and negative life events- stress may be more linked to negative changes. Eg a wedding may be stressful but overall positive, whereas death of a spouse is severly negative and possibly more stressful Everyday hassles arent considered Life events may affect each other, eg losing job would affect financial position leading to a change in living conditions. life changes could be the cause and effect of stress

Daily hassles everyday events that are stressful

Kanner et al looked at stress and daily hassles

100 adults completed a questionnaire this month which asked them to rate each hassle to show had severe it had been for them. This was repeated for 9 months Results: those with high scores were more likely to have physical and psychological health problems. Also, scores on an uplifts scale were negatively related to ill health- reduces stress Conclusion: daily hassles are linked to stress and health, with a stronger correlation than SSRS Strengths Weaknesses Weakness of correlational methods- isnt possible to establish cause-effect between the variables Questionnaires dont allow participants to explain due to quantitive data- useful data is missed. It also relies to their recall on honesty- is not reliable

Workplace stress
Relationships at work: bosses, colleagues,
customers. Eg, may feel undervalued and lacking support

Role stress: worries about promotion or

job security. Range of responsibilities may be unclear, may experience conflict eg trying to please boss and other employers

Physical environment:
noisy/overcrowded/too hot. Could involve health risks or unsociable working hours

Work pressures: eg large

workload with strict deadline

Lack of control: over workload, location and times

Marmot et al looked at lack of control and illness in the workplace

Over 7000 civil service employees in London were surveyed. Information was obtained over grade of employment, how much control they had, how supported they felt, etc Results: when medical histories of employees were followed up 5 years later, those on lower employment grades who felt had less control and support were more likely to have cardiovascular disorders. On the lowest grade, participants were four times more likely to die of a heart attack than those on the highest grade Strengths Weaknesses Only office-type jobs, results may not apply to other jobs. Smoking was common in those who developed illness. Smoking led to the heart problems, no the stress

Problems over correltaonal research and questionnaire method

Frankenhaeuser looked at stress levels in sawmill workers

2 groups were studied at a sawmill. One group had the task of feeding logs into a machine all day- jobs was noisy and workers were socially isolated. They were the finishers- everyones salary was dependent on well they did their work. The other group had a different task which gave them more control and social contact. Stress levels were measured by testing urine samples and blood pressure Results: the workers who had minimal control and social contact had higher levels of stress hormones in their urine- more likely to suffer from high blood pressure and stomach ulcers Conclusion: a lack of control and social contact at work can lead to stress. Also, researchers recommended they be moved to a salary structure, and should be allowed to rotate jobs with other workers

Strengths Field experiment high ev Supported by Marmots study

Weaknesses Individual differences Extraneous variables, eg their diet

Different personalities

Type Acompetitive and ambitious

Type B- relaxed and easygoing

Type X- balance of A nad B

Friedmand and Rosenman looked at type A personality and illness

3000 39-59 year old American males were assessed to class their personality type using interviews and observation. At the start, none had coronary heart disease Results: 8 years later, 257 of them developed CHD. 70% were classed Type A, includes being a workaholic, hostile and always in a rush. Type Bs had half the rate of heart disease of Type A- results were consistent even when extraneous variables, like smoking, were taken into account Conclusion: type A personalities as at higher risk of stress-related illnesses, such as CHD

Strengths

Weaknesses Simplistic to only have 3 personality types. Cant establish cause and effect, eg type A may develop as a response to stress Sample is limited, so cannot generalise to the rest of the population

Participants may not have been honest (social desirability bias) in their interviews to appear desirable to the researcher

Kobasa identified Hardiness as an important individual difference

Characteristics of a Hardy personality:
1. 2. 3. Show high level of commitment to what they do- work hard at relationships, jobs and other activities in life View change as positive not negative and see it as an opportunity for challenge as they can develop themselves Have an internal locus of control

Non-hardy personalities view any life experiences as more negative and feel that theyre unable to cope with situation. They give up easily.

Stress can be related to gender

Biological explanation- men may have developed a stronger fight or flight response than woman, due to evolution. There may be different physiological responses to stress Taylor et al suggest woman produce a calmer response due to a hormone. Oxytocin is released due to stress, leading to maternal behaviour and social affiliation- tend and befriend.

social explanation- western stereotype: men are less open with their feelings, more likely to use harmful coping methods like smoking Carroll found that omwen do generally make more use of social support to deal with stress. But coronary heart disease has increased in women, as it has become more aceptbale to drink and smoke

Cognitive explanation- Vogele et al claim women are better at controlling anger and therefore respond more calmly. Men feel that anger is an acceptable way to respond and feel stress if they cannot show it- cognitive differnences

Stress management biological approach

Benzodiazepines slow down the activity of the ccentral nervous system. They increase the bodys reaction to its own natural anxietyrelieving chemical GABA, which shlows down the nervous system and makes us feel relaxed.

Beta blockers reduce the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, which increases heart rate, blood pressure and levels of the hormone cortisol- high levels can make our immune system weak and case heart disease.

Exercise is also a biological method of reducing stress: Morris compared bus conductors and bus drivers and found conductors had lower rates of cardiovascular problems, as they have a more active job. Biofeedback gives people information about internal physical processes, eg muscle tension, and give them more control over it so they can alter it.
1. 2. 3. Person is attached to a machine which monitors and gives feedback on internal physical processes, eg heart rate or blood pressure Theyre then taught how to control it, eg muscle relaxation- which teaches people to notice when their body is unrelaxed. Other ways include meditation or breathing control exercises The feeling of relaxation acts like a reward and encourages the person to repeat this and use the techniques in real-life situations

Strengths Biofeedback can give the person a sense of control and have long lasting effects Biofeedback is effective- Attansio et al found it helped teenagers and children with stressrelated disorders to gain control over symptoms of migraine headaches. No biofeedback side effects. Its voluntary and not invasive Drugs are easy to use and prescribe Drugs are quick and effective- kahn et al found that Bzs were superior to a placebo when they tracked 250 patients over an 8 week period

Weaknesses Dont treat underlying causes and only help symptoms. Drugs have side effects eg dizziness and tiredness. There can also be withdrawal symptoms eg increased anxiety and headaches. Bzs can be addictive are limited to maximum 4 weeks use Biofeedback needs specialist equipment and expert supervision

Stress management physiological approach

Meichenbaums Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) You can protect yourself from the harmful effects of stress. Training involves preparation to deal with stress before it becomes a problem 1. Conceptualisation: identify fears and concerns with the help of a therapist 2. Skill acquisition and rehearsal: train to develop skills like positive thinking and relaxation to improve self confidence 3. Application and follow-through: practise the skills in real life with support and back up from the therapist Hardiness training Maddi introduced a training programme to increase hardiness. 1. Focusing: learn to recognise physical symptoms of stress, eg heart rate increase 2. Relieving stressful encounters: learn to analyse stressful situations to understand coping strategies 3. Self-improvement: take on challenges that be coped with and used to build confidence, which leads to a greater sense of control

Strengths Maddi et al got 54 managers who went on the hardiness trainging programme to report back their progress. They recorded an increase in hardiness and job-satisfaction, and a decrease in strain and illness Meichenbaum found that SIT works with shortterm stressors like preparing for public speaking, and long-term stressors like medical illness or divorce

Weaknesses Only suit certain individuals who are determined to stick to the technique- requires commitment and effort

The research tends to be based on white, middle-class business folk and so cant be generalised to others