Te c h top GPU s �

works
nside today’s
I p e n !
w i d e o
� PS3: Blown

o r r e n t w o r ks �
H o w B i t T
A T M w o rk s
� How an
n i n g s y s t e m s �
l p o s i t i o
Globa r n e t
o v e r th e I n t e
� Mak e c a l l s

Anniversary Special e-book

HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

Foreword
Dear Reader,

Contents
Inside Today’s Top GPUs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I’m betting that the first book you set your eyes on (as a toddler) had a lot of
pictures (and then some alphabets). As you gradually learned to read, the books on
your bookshelf were strong on visuals. Remember those “fairy tale” and “nursery
rhymes” books?
DisplayPort is superior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
GPS gets a Boost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 For us humans, it’s easier to remember something or learn something through a
Blowing Hot and Cold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 picture. Pictures are firmly entrenched in human memory. It takes a bit of effort to
remember words.
PS3: Blown Wide Open!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Breath-alcohol analyzer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 So when we have to explain the underpinnings of, say the Playstation3 or the
The Airbus A380 flight deck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 iPhone, a visual representation is much more acceptable than a thick technical
Raid ’em!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 manual or blueprints.

How BitTorrent works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Visuals that disseminate knowledge and information are called Infographics. But
How an ATM works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Infographics are not used only to explain technical concepts; we see infographics
How GSM networks work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 in newspapers (to explain a sequence of events) and in business reports (to
How Podcasting Works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 communicate statistics).

How does GPS work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The Infographics section in CHIP has been received well by its readers. We went
Make Calls Over the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 through the archives and pulled out some fine examples of illustration.
Four scenarios for Wireless Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Where Does Spyware Come From?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 This e-book is a collection of the best Infographics used in CHIP. Since most of these
are two-page spreads, we advise you to set up your PDF reader software to show
How Radio Frequency Identification Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
two facing pages (two-up) at a time.

– Team CHIP

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

Inside Today’s Top GPUs

Nvidia and ATI’s new GPU generations pack a lot Glossary
of power, setting new standards for 3D Anisotropic Filtering: Textures on
surfaces at a distance or not head-on in
acceleration. CHIP dives into both architectures.
the frame are rendered at different quality
BY JAMSHED AVARI AND THOMAS LITTSCHWAGER
levels to improve overall performance.

N
vidia’s new flagship architecture
16x AF 1x AF
is the GT200. The company Nvidia GT200 ATI RV770
calls its unified shader units
Stream Processors (SPs). The chip
has 240 SPs divided into blocks called
Thread Processing Cluster (TPC) 5D Vector Unit
Thread Processing Clusters. This kind
Each TPC has 3 x 8 stream processors Two integrated vector units are
of architecture makes it well suited not Antialiasing: Jagged stair-steps on
with separate memory areas. shown here. Stream processor
only for graphics calculations but also for slanting edges are smoothened out by
parallel computing tasks such as physics Control unit sampling nearby pixels and approximating
Register
simulations or scientific calculations, which Texture units smoother blends between shapes.
are enabled using Nvidia’s CUDA software, Local memory Framebuffer: The framebuffer saves the
which is a part of its latest drivers. The Stream processor for output picture during the composition. In
special calculations Control unit
overall architecture isn’t significantly L1 cache order that you don’t see the composition,
different from previous generations; it is Stream processors there are mostly two or more frame
more of an evolution and refinement. Control Unit Graphics processor buffers (double / triple buffering).
On the other hand, ATI’s latest Local memory 800 stream processors Raster Operation Processor (ROP): Filters
offering, the RV770 GPU is designed Graphics processor Stream processors have been bundled in ten such as antialiasing and anisotropic filter
as a mid-range unit, and scales well 240 stream processors form Texture units Shader export packages of 80 cores each are performed by the ROPs.
L1-Cache
so that multiple GPUs can be used for ten Thread Processing Clusters Pixel shader: The color of each individual
Raster operation
high-end performance and better cost for every 24 cores pixel in a frame is determined and applied
Processors (ROPs)
effectiveness. After a number of years by a pixel shader.
without a serious competitor in terms Vertex or Geometry Shader: The skeleton
L2 cache
of sheer GPU power, the company is grid of a 3D scene is created by the vertex
TV
now attracting many buyers with its shaders; geometry shaders add new
surprisingly potent products. ATI is also objects to a frame.
working towards using graphics cards for
Vertex Pixel
parallel computing. For that purpose, they
have packed their GPU with 800 stream Thread distributor

processors, although since their definition Thread distributor

of an SP is a bit different, it isn’t that much Texture units
more impressive than the competition. Thread Processing Cluster
Render Back-End Local memory
So while the two architectures differ Z-Buffer: The depth of an object,
in the number of SPs available and how measured in pixels, is stored so that
Raster Operation Processor Crossbar L1 cache
much work each one should perform, elements which are hidden behind others
the basic path that data passes through don’t have to be rendered.
remains somewhat the same. The DirectX
10 specification requires both GPUs to use then assigns suitable tasks to the stream The Graphics Pipeline
unified shaders, i.e. the same processing processors.
units can be devoted to pixel or vertex
shading depending upon the demands The future of GPUs
of the scene being rendered. Previous The 3D graphics market is not the only
architectures had dedicated hardware for thing that the two manufacturers have in
each, which could lead to sub-optimal mind with their current products. GPUs
resource usage in many situations. In can compute parallel tasks up to 150
order to ensure that the raw data is times faster than CPUs, for instance the
optimally distributed to the processing simulation of financial data. The shader
units, a “thread scheduler” analyzes and units are flexible enough to handle
parallelizes the data streams processed general-purpose computing on the GPU.  Vertex shaders create a 3D scene from Elements that are invisible are removed from The scene is illuminated with one or more Pixel shader and texture units color the
in a preliminary rendering stage, and – [email protected] mathematical coordinates. the scene light sources surfaces of the objects

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

DisplayPort is superior
A new video interface
DisplayPort-Monitor

yet again! What for?

CHIP reveals the
DisplayPort
technological advances Direct Drive-Monitor

and other benefits of the

DisplayPort standard.
BY DANIEL WOLFF Direct Drive DisplayPort connector: It’s smaller than DVI (left)
and similar in size to the HDMI connector (right).
But DP (center) has a practical snap-lock system.

T
he IT industry loves to introduce Adapter DP/HDMI HDMI-TV
PIN configuration
new standards, even though A DP connector has 20 contacts. Out of
some are yet to be fully these, four circuit pairs are reserved for the
established. It’s the same with video channels. They are located in an inverted
Adapter DP/DVI
interfaces. Just when the analog VGA order in output and input connectors. There
standard is bowing out to standards are two additional connectors; one for the
DVI-Monitor
such as DVI and HDMI, along comes a DisplayPort: Connects to almost everything service channel (1 Mbit/s), which can be
It seems DisplayPort can connect to almost
new standard called DisplayPort. Adapter DP/VGA used for audio transmission, and the other
every video interface and control most types of
Devices with the DisplayPort terminals. It works best with pure DP monitors; HDMI, for transmission of monitor data (Display
interface are already available in the DVI and VGA devices can be connected via an adapter. Data Channel). Moreover, there’s a separate
However, the price of these adapters is yet to be determined.
market. VESA (the Video Electronics connection for detecting if the connector is
Standards Association) claims DVI-Monitor hot plugged during operation.
DisplayPort (DP) has the backing of
leading IT groups like Intel, AMD, Dell
LVDS DP connector PIN Signal (Output) Signal (Input)
and Samsung, and that it is poised Interface DisplayPort HDMI DVI VGA
(Notebook-TFTs)
to replace “outdated” standards like 3 (Single-Link), 1 Power Out Power Out
Signal pairs 1, 2 or 4 3 8 3 2 Power Out Return Power Out Return
VGA and DVI. VESA says its usage will 6 (Dual-Link)
1 3 Hot Plug Detect Hot Plug Detect
eventually be as popular as HDMI. (depending 2 4 Aux Ch (n) Aux Ch (n)
Maximum data rate 10.8 Gbit/s 9.9 Gbit/s 9.9 Gbit/s 7.56 Gbit/s 3
Unlike HDMI, DisplayPort can be on DAC) 5 GND GND
4 6 Aux Ch (p) Aux Ch (p)
produced license-free extensively. So Up to 2 meters: 2,560 x 1,600 (4 channels), 1,920 x 1,200 5 7 GND GND
1,920 x 1,200 6
1,920 x 1,200 (2 channels), 1,280 x 1,024 (1 channel) 2,560 x 1,600 (single link) 7 8 GND GND
the new video connector could increase Maximum resolutions (depending on 2,048 x 1,536 8 9 ML-Lane 3 (n) ML-Lane 0 (p)
Up to 15 meters: 1,920 x 1,200 (4 channels), (single link) 2,560 x 1,600
profit margins for manufacturers, the display size 9 10 GND GND
1,280 x 1,024 (2 channels), 1,024 x 768 (1 channel) (dual link) 10 11 ML-Lane 3 (p) ML-Lane 0 (n)
thereby reducing device prices for Service channel 1 Mbit/s (also for DDC) DDC DDC DDC
11 12
6 12 ML-Lane 2 (n) ML-Lane 1 (p)
consumers, considerably. The other 13 13 GND GND
Channel coding 8B/10B-Coding TMDS TMDS 6 6 14 14 ML-Lane 2 (p) ML-Lane 1 (n)
advantage is that this standard has
Copy protection HDCP optional, DPCP optional HDCP HDCP optional 6 6 15 15 ML-Lane 1 (n) ML-Lane 2 (p)
16 16 GND GND
already evolved, technically. These new 17
4 18 17 ML-Lane 1 (p) ML-Lane 2 (n)
developments have been established Device internal input 4 6 6
(exclusively)
6 19 18 ML-Lane 0 (n) ML-Lane 3 (p)
in the standard revision 1.1a released in
20 19 GND GND
20 ML-Lane 0 (p) ML-Lane 3 (n)
January 2008.
Audio transmission 4 6 6 6 6

DisplayPort vs HDMI, DVI and VGA DisplayPort is technically superior Verdict

Physically, DisplayPort is smaller than have annoying screws to hold the plugs in The micro packets are transmitted in up to DisplayPort is also a winner for cable length. The bandwidth on the service channel will DisplayPort is smaller than DVI and slightly
a DVI port. In fact, four DP ports can be place). While pulling out the DisplayPort plug, four channels, according to the required A cable can be up to 15 meters long. HDMI be increased to 480 Mbps in future which bigger than HDMI. The real great benefit of
accommodated in the space of one PC release the interlock by pressing down the resolution (see table). If DP detects an cables have a length limit of up to five would make it as fast as USB 2.0. Apart from the new video standard is the reduced cost
Card slot. There’s another advantage: a DP switch on the upper side of the connector. optimal connection (in the case of short meters. In addition to the four data channels, that, DisplayPort supports hot plugging. DP of manufacture, which will lead to rapid
connector has interlocking switches that DisplayPort is a more advanced even on cables) the data rate is set to 2.7 Gbps per DisplayPort offers a service channel devices should be able to play even copy adoption of the standard. The switch to DP
click into place during insertion. That’s not the technical front. The data transmission channel. Otherwise it switches back to 1.62 (auxiliary) with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps. This protected HDMI contents. So DP supports will be gradual: first DPs will co-exist with
the case with HDMI plugs (that tend to slip process is based on micro packets, so it is Gbps, which is adequate for a resolution of is sufficient for audio transmission as well HDCP and additional copy protection with conventional interfaces on graphic cards
out of their sockets) and VGA or DVI (which protected from interference radiation. 1920 x 1200 pixels (or 1080p). as for transfer of monitoring data (DDC). DPCP (DisplayPort Content Protection).  and monitors.

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

GPS gets a Boost

Motorists in European nations rely heavily on 2 Assistance server
GPS navigation systems. But these systems The location of the nearest cell is
relayed to the service provider’s
occasionally fail in underground car parks Assistance Server. Cells are also
or inside tunnels. Here’s how Assisted GPS in contact with overhead satellites
comes to the rescue. BY BRIAN PEREIRA and send satellite orbital data to the
assistance server, which in turn relays

T
raditional GPS relies on line-of-sight with it to the cell phone. Thus the server
orbiting satellites. But in a city this may assists the cell phone in locking on to
the satellite.
not always be possible. So when you try
to wedge between two skyscrapers, or drive
inside tunnels on the expressway, you’ll notice
that the satellite signal weakens, and your GPS 4 GPS navigation
unit is unresponsive or can’t render your exact The GPS receiver in the
position accurately. phone communicates with
at least three overhead
New GPS devices and cell phones support
satellites. Using data from
a feature called Assisted GPS (A-GPS) to
minimize disruption in navigation services. A-GPS
IN
INTERNET the three satellites and a
mathematical algorithm
complements traditional GPS and relies heavily on called Trilateration, the
system can determine your
the grid of cell communication towers to compute
exact location on earth.
your exact location. So when the satellite is
momentarily out of reach, A-GPS takes over.
In this article we’ll explain how a cell phone
uses the A-GPS feature. Some phones use three
different systems to determine its location: GPS,
A-GPS, and Wi-Fi hotspots. Theoretically, a
device could use any of these navigation systems
independently, without relying on the other two.
Of course, you get accurate and faster results
when using complementing navigation systems
such as GPS with A-GPS.
The Assistance Server is the key component
in an A-GPS system. The server (which is set up
by the carrier) communicates with the cellular
network. It receives your location from the
cellular network and relays it to your phone. The 1 Cellular network
cellular towers and base stations also have GPS This comprises of a network of TM

receivers and communicate with the satellites. So cellular towers (cells) and base
the assistance server also relays this information stations. A cell phone is constantly
communicating with these cells. As
to the GPS receiver in your phone. Your phone you move about, the signal is passed
communicates with the Assistance server via its from one cell to another. The network
GPRS connection. can determine your phone’s proximity
One who uses A-GPS enjoys the following to the nearest cell. This calculation
is based on parameters like signal
benefits. When he switches on the phone, it takes
strength, angle of approach and how
a shorter time to first fix (TIFF) with the satellite. long it takes a signal from your phone
That means it gets the orbit and clock data from to reach a tower. 5 Wi-Fi hotspots
the satellites quicker. Secondly, less processing Wi-Fi enabled phones can also determine your
is required from the GPS receiver, thus saving 3 Phone with A-GPS, GPS proximity to the nearest Wi-Fi hot spot. If the
iPhone can’t detect a GPS signal, it searches
battery life. Of course, the biggest advantage is While GPS receivers are being improved on the latest mobile handsets,
for a Wi-Fi hotspot. And if one isn’t available, it
some phones (such as Apple iPhone and Nokia N95) also support A-GPS.
location information indoors.  switches to A-GPS mode and seeks the location
Of course you’ll need GPRS connectivity to use the A-GPS feature. The
– [email protected] from the cellular towers (as explained earlier).
phone gets its location data from the A-GPS server via the Internet.

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

Blowing Hot and Cold The insides of your computer cabinet can get pretty hot. Here's what you need
to know about keeping things cool under the lid. BY JAMSHED AVARI

SMPS
The computer's power supply also gets pretty hot, but it
has its own fan to ensure that hot air is pushed outside the 4 Graphics Card
cabinet. The SMPS cables should also be tied neatly. Even mid-range graphics cards today
can run at 70–80 degrees Celsius under
load. Dual-slot coolers help push hot
air out through the back of the cabinet,
5 Power Circuitry but single-slot coolers push hot air into
the empty space around them. You can
The motherboard's power regulation circuitry sometimes consider an extra fan on the cabinet's
requires its own heatsink, or a tiny fan blowing out the side panel, to suck out this hot air.
motherboard's back panel.

6 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU generates a tremendous amount of heat. It is 3 Motherboard chipset
important to brush the fins of the CPU cooler every few The motherboard usually has heatsinks
months to dislodge accumulated grime. If the CPU fan or even a fan on the chipset ICs, which
fails, your computer should automatically shut down to can get quite hot. Cool air needs to blow
prevent it from overheating. across the fins of a heatsink for best
results.

7 Exhaust fan
Hot air ejected by the graphics card, CPU, motherboard
and RAM need to be pushed out the rear of the cabinet.
The main exhaust fan should be at least 80mm in 2 Cables
diameter; the larger the fins, the more air it can displace Make sure the path of the cool air isn't
without making too much noise. Make sure your blocked by dangling cables. Thick IDE
cabinet's fan grille is unclogged regularly. ribbon cables are the worst offenders, but
anything in the way is best avoided. You

H
can route the cables around the edges or
eat is your computer's number fans might be used on bottom of the cabinet and keep them tied
one enemy. It reduces the the side panels or top neatly.
lifespan of your computer's of the cabinet to help
components, and increases chances cool specific areas
of crashing or instability. Heat builds such as the graphics
up when the components aren't card or CPU. High-end
adequately cooled. A PC cabinet cabinets have as many
1 Intake fan
might not have adequate provisions as seven or eight fans for
Usually positioned at the front of the
for ventilation, or there might be superior ventilation. cabinet, an intake fan ensures that cool
something blocking the path of air Another often-overlooked aspect Finally, dust needs air will blow over the components inside.
inside. Regular maintenance is a must of PC cooling is the fact that thick to be cleaned out regularly to A dust filter here will prevent dirt and
for keeping your PC happy and healthy. cables or bunches of them hang prevent heatsinks and fans from getting airborne particles from building up inside
the cabinet. Some cabinets position the
The first thing to do is ensure there loose, interfering with the flow of clogged. A simple brush or low-power hard drives directly in front of the intake
are enough fans. One intake in the cool air. These need to be tied neatly vacuum cleaner should do the trick fan for better cooling.
front and one exhaust at the rear are and routed around the edges of the nicely. 
the minimum standard. Additional cabinet. —[email protected]

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

PS3: Blown Wide Open!

Gaming consoles are taking over the entertainment world. These technological
marvels are the last word in digital entertainment. We take a look at the heart of
the most famous console—the PS3. By VIJAY GEORGE

T
Cell Processor
he third version of the PlayStation is among the most advanced game consoles in the world today. To give you an idea
of how advanced it is, consider the fact that quad-core processors are coming to desktop computers now, while the PS3
4 The most famous component
Multicore processors are the next big
thing in processor technology today
which can be used to help study the
process of folding of proteins. The
(as it’s popularly known) was released a year ago with a nine-core processor! Called the Cell processor, the graphics of the PS3, the Cell processor was because of their capability to perform data processed could then be sent
pumped out by it are phenomenal. There aren’t many gaming consoles which can touch the PS3 where raw processing power developed by IBM and is capable several threads of data processing back to the University and used to
is concerned. But the processor is not the only super component within that sleek black casing. What we see here is the of running at speeds of over 4.5 together. Single core processors can study diseases such as Alzheimer’s
motherboard which houses the Cell processor, graphics, memory, and audio chipsets. GHz—the Cell has nine cores! This is do the same thing, but they have to and Parkinson’s disease. Of course, a
astonishing since even today, quad- run faster and faster. This implies processor as powerful as this requires
EE+GS : The Emotion Engine RSX: The graphics chipset
1 chip was made famous by Sony
3 of the PS3 is called the
which runs at 500 MHz. Built using the
vaunted G70 architecture, the RSX is
core processors are something which
most people have only heard of. Most
that the core speed of the single core
processor has to be increased to
proper cooling. The PS3 has a massive
heat sink and fan assembly, mounted
when they launched it in the PlayStation “Reality Synthesizer”. The RSX chip manufactured using the 90-nanometer of the processors which are available such an extent that without plenty over the entire mainboard. The heat
2. It was the main processor of the PS2 is the graphics core of the PS3. It’s process. This graphics processor for home use run around five times of cooling, it runs the risk of melting! sink has a series of interconnected heat
and was powerful enough to be used in responsible for pumping out all those can crunch pixels in a wide range of slower. Out of the nine cores, one In fact, so powerful is the processing pipes which help direct heat away from
missile launching control systems (or so mouthwatering graphics that have resolutions: from 480i/576i core is a 64-bit PowerPC core and the power of the PS3, Stanford University the chips.
Sony said). The name Emotion Engine become the hallmark of the PlayStation SD up to 1080p HD. rest are separate processing cores. released a downloadable application
was a misnomer though; the name series. Manufactured by Nvidia, it runs
RAM Blu-ray drive
evoked the idea that it was powerful
enough to generate facial meshes that
at a speed of 550 MHz and is part of
Nvidia’s 7800 GPU family,
5 The PlayStation 3 has 256 MB of XDR (eXtreme
6 The PS3 uses a Blu-ray drive
could display human-like emotions. It Data Rate) main memory and 256 MB of GDDR3 to run game CDs/DVDs and movies.
did nothing of the sort. In the PS3, the video memory for the RSX. XDR RAM runs amazingly The PS3’s read-only Blu-ray drive is a
EE is relegated to a secondary role; it fast—at a frequency of 3.2 GHz. This is one of the slot loading drive. With data transfer
enables backwards compatibility
for PS2 games on the PS3,
2 advantages of the PS3 over the Xbox 360. While the
Xbox has 512 MB of RAM, it runs far slower than the
speeds of around 30MBits/sec it needs
to be spun at speeds equivalent to a 3x
which means that PS2 PS3’s RAM. Also, the Xbox 360’s RAM is shared— DVD ROM drive. 
games on the PS3 won’t have which places additional load on its processor. - [email protected]
better graphics as some might
expect. The Emotion Engine
(this chip is also used in the
slim PS2) was however removed
from all units manufactured 6
after September last year. These 5
were the 80 GB versions of the
PS3 and the removal of the EE was
done (ostensibly) for cost reasons. 4
However, backwards compatibility
has improved with software updates
from Sony.
3

IO Bridge: The IO Bridge is a

2 chip, which is not found on the
PS3’s closest competitor—the Xbox 360.
It controls the Input/Output functions 1
within the console. This includes
controlling the USB 2.0 interface in the
PS3 and reading or writing data using
the multi card reader which can read SD/
MMC, CompactFlash, Microdrives, and
Memory Stick/PRO/Duo.

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intelligent computing CHip
MAY 2008 Intelligent | 13
HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

Breath-alcohol analyzer Drunken driving is constantly on the rise and the cops are in a fix to eliminate
this traffic menace. The portable breath-alcohol analyzer comes to their rescue.
But how does the breath-alcohol analyzer work?FBy Francis D’sa

Y Electro Chemical Analysis-Fuel cell

ou may have seen many incidences passes immediately into the blood stream, The Working: The fuel cell contains
on news channels or in newspapers reaches the lungs and finally evaporates a porous layer, soaked with an acidic The suspect has to blow air
about people being arrested for while breathing. This is because alcohol electrolyte solution, sandwiched between into the tube with a particular
Suspect possibly amount of force in order to get External plastic enclosure to
drunken driving. Have you ever wondered is a volatile liquid and as it passes through two platinum electrodes called platinum
under the influence the required amount of sample house the internal fuel cell,
how cops gauge whether a driver is the lungs, it also passes over the alveoli black. As air is passed through the cell,
of alcohol air into the analyzer. circuits and the battery.
above the legal alcohol limit? One’s fate (air sacs located in the lungs), allowing from the suspect’s lungs, the alcohol in
Replaceable plastic
is destined by a portable breath alcohol it to be released through the persons the air is oxidized to produce acetic acid,
tube for hygiene.
analyzing machine. The basic way to use breath. Thus, the BAC is measured using protons and electrons. Digital LCD display
this device is simply to have the (drunken) this evaporated alcohol in the breath. So These electrons then flow through the for final readings.
driver blow into the mouth-piece and the amount of alcohol present in 2,100 wires attached to the platinum electrodes
the device determines the Blood Alcohol ml of air exhaled is equivalent to the through an electronic circuit and then to
Concentration (BAC) in his blood. If a driver alcohol contained in 1 ml of blood. But the platinum electrode on the other side.
is tested with a BAC level of 0.20, he or the question again is how does the device The protons move across the other end Processor chips to
she has 0.20 grams of alcohol per 100 ml measure it? Various technologies such as of the fuel cell, combine with the oxygen detect and evaluate
of blood. This is beyond the tolerant limit; Wet Chemistry, Photo Spectroscopy, Gas from the air on the other side, to form the changes in the
and the driver can be punished for drunken Chromatography, Infra Red Spectroscopy, water. Therefore, the more amount of fuel cell’s voltages
driving. But how does a breath-alcohol Semi-Conductor Sensors (Tin Oxide alcohol present in the breath, the more High quality and convert the
analyzer determine the BAC of a person? Sensors) and Electro Chemical Analysis acetic acid is generated, thus causing conducting wires reading into BAC
Here’s how a portable handheld breath- (Fuel Cell) are used to determine the BAC greater electrical current to flow through to relay the electric (Breath Alcohol
alcohol analyzer works. levels. Fuel cell technology is accepted the circuit. A microprocessor in the voltages, generated Content) values.
Unlike juices or milk, the human body by manufacturers because they are light, circuitry then translates the amount of the by the fuel cell, to the
does not digest alcohol, but absorbs it portable, cheap, use less power, and do current generated into the units or levels processing circuit.
through the membranes in the intestines, not require frequent maintenance. Here’s of the BAC on a digital screen. 
stomach, throat and mouth. It then how a fuel cell based analyzer works. – [email protected]
Porous layer,
Intoxilyzer Air output
soaked with an
after
This technology uses infrared (IR) Detector acidic electrolyte
Filter wheel sampling.
spectroscopy to detect alcohol content solution.
in the breath to analyze the amount of
alcohol present in the blood. It identifies
Fuel cell: Made
the molecules in the air, containing alcohol, Infrared Lamp
using a porous layer,
based on the way it absorbs IR light.
soaked with an acidic
Molecules are constantly vibrating and The alcohol vapor present
electrolyte solution,
these vibrations change when IR light is Sample chamber in the in the air is oxidized
sandwiched between
absorbed by them. The changes in this to produce acetic acid,
two platinum
vibration includes bending and stretching Working: In the protons and electrons. These
electrodes called
of its various bonds. Each type of this bond Intoxilyzer, a broadband electrons then flow through
platinum black.
inside a molecule absorbs infrared light at of infrared beams are the wires attached to the
Processor platinum electrodes through
different wavelengths. These wavelengths generated by an IR
are recorded to get the necessary output and lamp. These beams pass an electronic circuit and then
calculate the volume of alcohol content in the through the air sample in to the platinum electrode Platinum black: A
air. Therefore, to identify ethanol, one would the sampling chamber and on the other side causing a fine black powder of
have to analyze wavelengths of the bonds are focused on to a spinning filter wheel using detected by the photocell, which is converted minute amount of voltage. metallic platinum,
in it and measure the absorption of IR light. a lens. This filter wheel contains narrow into an electrical pulse. This pulse is relayed The protons move across used as a catalyst
The wavelength helps identify the air sample band filters specific for wavelengths on the to the microprocessor which interprets the the other end of the fuel cell, and as a gas
as ethanol and the amount of IR absorption bonds in an ethanol molecule. The infrared changes and calculates the BAC based on the combine with the oxygen from absorbent. It is
evaluates how much ethanol is present. light passing through each of the filter is then absorption of infrared light by the molecules. the air on the other side, to coated on the inside
form water. Air travelling from the suspects lungs is of the fuel cell.
guided through the tube to the fuel cell
14 | intelligent computing CHip where it will be finally analyzed. Intelligent computing CHip | 15
HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

The world’s largest civil aircraft may also be the easiest to fly, thanks to
innovative technology and design. Considerable ergonomic research was
undertaken; top priority was given to easy access to information and controls.
The cockpit was designed to ensure that there is a direct dialogue between the
pilot and the system. This is ensured by an interface comprising multifunction

The Airbus A380 flight deck LCD screens, joysticks, keyboards, and track pads. BY BRIAN PERIERA

1Primary flight display

The PFD replaces a number
of individual indicators: the
4Engine warning system
Alerts pilots about engine and
fuel system problems.
airspeed indicator, altimeter, Auxiliary power unit control Hydraulic system control
vertical speed indicator, and
turn and bank indicator. It shows
multiple streams of information,
Magnetic compass Fuel systems control 5Head-up display
Also known as HUD, this
technology is common in modern
including digital instrumentation. Autopilot controls Electrical systems control fighter aircrafts. It comprises a
The information displayed is retractable screen that overlays
of priority and importance to Instrument backups Cabin pressure / the main windshield. When
pilots. They can make important
Climate control activated, critical data about
decisions and course changes the status of flight systems is
based on this information. projected on the windshield.
The pilot can then see both,
4 5 the view ahead and also critical

2Navigation display
data, without the need to look
down and check the screens and
It registers course changes
instruments. The HUD also has
graphically when the pilot
an optional infrared viewer that
programs new waypoints. A Vertical Situation Display enables the pilots to see through
vertical situation display shows
a side profile of the flight path 1 2 2 1 darkness and fog, during take-off

relative to the terrain, providing 7 and landing.

6Side-stick
a more intuitive reading of the Landing gear
ground.
hand
controllers
6
3 These controllers have replaced
the traditional U-shaped control

3Multifunction display
MFDs have just been
introduced with the A380. They
Engine control column/stick, which was used
since the era of the early civil
aircraft. Since they are on the
Navigation and flight data
provide an interface to the flight input side panel, the pilot now has
management system. The newly direct view of the instrumentation
introduced MFD is an interactive Radio controls in front of him. This design
Nose wheel steering
system that allows pilots to also allows for the placement
enter navigation data and radio Collision avoidance system of a keyboard. The side-stick
Rudder pedals and brakes
frequencies and communicate controllers are also seen in
with flight controllers. They previous Airbus planes like A320,
include QWERTY keyboards and
Flaps control
A330, and A340.
Speed brake
trackballs, interfacing with a

7Onboard
graphical ‘point-and-click’ display Cockpit door lock controls information
Parking brake
navigation system. On previous system
aircraft the multifunction display It displays maps and flight
comprised of three multifunction manuals. While taxing, it shows
Trim settings
control and display units. runway diagrams.

16 | intelligent computing CHip Intelligent computing CHip | 17

HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

Raid ’em!
Nested RAID 0+1
Hard drives required: Minimum 4.
(Required in even numbers)
This type of array uses a minimum of four drives as striped
You must have come across the term RAID a few times, but have you ever subsets in a mirrored set. It provides good fault tolerance as well
wondered what it is all about? Mostly used in servers and high-end performance as performance, but increases the complexity of the data written.
machines, RAID improves your hard drive’s reliability and speed. BY Francis D’Sa It differs from a RAID 1+0 only because it creates a striped set
mirrored with another striped set. This type of array will continue

R
AID stands for Redundant Array of then access it as if they were a single, use one or more of these techniques. to function if a drive within a mirrored set fails, but will crash if
Independent Disks. It’s a way to high-performance unit. Your hard drives can be configured in two or more drives fail. This type of array also costs more, as
use a combination of hard drives There are three major concepts as far independent arrays of RAID 0 to 5 or all the data is duplicated and so twice the space is required.
organized as one large, high performance as RAID is concerned: mirroring (copying multiple nested arrays using combinations Performance is high, with good data protection.
logical disk. RAID arrays are controlled data to more than one drive), striping of the standard RAID types. Some of
using either software or hardware (splitting data across more than one these options are used only in specialized
RAID controllers via a chip built into the drive) and error correction, also known as applications, while some are quite Nested RAID 1+0
motherboard or a dedicated expansion fault tolerance (storing redundant data so common today. Here are a few examples Hard drives required: Minimum 4.
card. The basic concept of RAID is to problems can be detected and possibly of the functioning of drives in some of the (Required in even numbers)
arrange your data across multiple drives, fixed). Different types of RAID arrays more common types of RAID arrays. This type of array also uses a minimum of four drives.
Unlike RAID 0+1, it stripes data from a set of mirrored
Standard RAID 0 by the RAID controller, depending upon drives. When a disk fails, this type of array performs
Hard drives required: Minimum 2. the number of hard drives in the RAID better and is more tolerant than a RAID 0+1 array as
This type of array is a striped set with array) and then written onto the same it can sustain multiple drive failures as long as the
a minimum of two disks. It offers sector on each drive. This makes reading drives lost are not mirrored ones. It delivers excellent
performance gains and massive storage, the data from the array faster as the data performance with increased reliability, but has a
but does not have any fault tolerance (no is accessed from each drive in parallel. relatively high cost due to the number of hard drives
type of data protection). This means that It offers maximum throughput for some required to arrange it.
the failure of any one drive can destroy the data-intensive applications such as digital
whole RAID array and your data could be video production or database applications.
lost permanently. Nested RAID 5+0 two RAID 5 sets. The capacity is huge, expensive to implement. RAID 5+0 can
Here data to be stored is broken down Hard drives required: Minimum 6. reliability is higher, and performance is withstand the loss of one hard drive in
into smaller fragments (this is decided (Required in even numbers) excellent due to its ability to read from each RAID 5 array but not the loss of
This type of array uses a minimum of six and write to multiple disks at once. It is multiple hard drives in either of them. 
Standard RAID 1 as the data is actually a mirror copy of the hard drives. It is a single striped set of a very complex combination and is very – [email protected]
Hard drives required: Minimum 2. other. This array delivers increased read
Here the data is completely mirrored using performance when using multi-threaded
a minimum of two disks, but again with operating systems that support split
no parity. Both the data and the array are seeks and higher data protection. The only
comparatively safer than with RAID 0, weakness here is higher cost, as all data
because if one hard drive fails, the array is duplicated and so you require twice the
will continue working with the other drive storage capacity.

Standard RAID 5
Hard drives required:
Minimum 3.
This array type requires a minimum user. The array will be subject to
of three disks, and has data striped data loss if a second drive fails,
with the parity information distributed and will continue to be vulnerable
across all hard drives in the array. until the data that was on the failed
This type of array can operate drives is rebuilt onto fresh new ones.
even when one drive fails. When This type of array delivers very high RAID arrays are highly vulnerable due to accessing the redundant data on one disk in drives), and the new drive is automatically
a drive fails, the data on it can be performance with a high degree of the possibility of a drive failure. An array an array when a drive fails or crashes. The filled/replaced with the data that was on
reconstructed from the distributed data protection. Write performance with 10 drives is 10 times more likely to failed drive can be removed and replaced the failed one, by reconstructing it from the
parity information, so that drive comparatively is slower in RAID 5 fail. Depending on the type of RAID, the while the other drives are still running (only parity data written on the remaining drives
failure is totally masked from the than in RAID 0 or 1. system can keep running by automatically if the system supports hot plugging of hard in the RAID array.

18 | intelligent computing CHip Pramod Jadhav Intelligent computing CHip | 19

HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

How BitTorrent works 3 The Swarm: Once the user enters Why BitTorrent? tocol written by Bram Cohen (founder of
BitTorrent) and also because of the strong
the swarm, he too becomes a leech. Give and Take: Because in BitTorrent, you
BitTorrent community.
BitTorrent works by breaking up the file have to give parts of the file in order to
Legal aspect: Although a few sites that
into small fragments, of say 256 KB each. receive other parts, it seldom happens that
host .torrent files have been forced to shut
What is BitTorrent? How does it work? Here you'll learn all about it in a few simple steps. When the user finishes downloading his your download does not finish. There is
down, it is difficult to completely stop
first fragment, he will immediately start always someone who wants the same file.
BitTorrent downloads. This is because the
uploading that part to other leeches. At the Speed: By downloading the file from multi-
files are not hosted on any server. Instead,
same time, the user will begin download- ple leeches and seeds, the download
they are shared between users making it
What is BitTorrent? ing other parts of the file from leeches and speeds are high, allowing users to down-
difficult for the law to pinpoint the wrong-
BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer download seeds in the swarm. The seeds only upload load large files from the Internet.
doers. This has resulted in large-scale,
technology which allows you to download the file, while the leeches are downloading Legitimacy: A file downloaded by
illegal sharing of copyrighted files amongst
huge files from the Internet. It does not and uploading simultaneously. BitTorrent technology is rarely corrupt.

2
BitTorrent users.
take up the entire bandwidth, is much Tracker: The tracker knows all the A new user will always first request This is because of the near fool-proof pro-
faster, safer and perhaps, less illegal seeds and leeches related to a partic- those fragments of the file which are the
than other peer-to-peer technologies. ular file. In short, the tracker keeps track rarest in the swarm. By having the rarest

The Internet of who has the file and who wants it.
Whenever a new user wants the file, the
fragment, other leeches will request for
that fragment from the user and they will
tracker guides the user to the swarm of have to in turn share their fragments with
seeds and leeches who are sharing the the user. In this way, everybody is sharing
file. the parts of the file they have, enabling
faster download of the file for everyone.

1The .torrent file: The BitTorrent process begins with the

user downloading the .torrent file from a Web site on the
Internet. The BitTorrent client software is required to open the
Tracker
file. Many BitTorrent software (like BitComet) are freely available Seed
on the Internet. The .torrent file contains information about the
size of the file, its composition—whether it is a zip file, an MP3 or
an executable—and important tracker information.
Leech
.torrent
SWARM
User
User

Seed
BitTorrent terminology es the BitTorrent process for a file. The
tracker does not host the file.
Here are some must-know terms which are
Seeds: Seeds are people with a copy of the
associated frequently with BitTorrent tech-
entire file.
nology.
Leeches: Leeches are people with parts of
Torrent file: A torrent file is not the entire
file itself. It's a small file, maybe about
the file, who require remaining parts of the Leech
file.
Leech
5KB, with a .torrent extension which con-
Swarm: A swarm is a group of people,
tains information about the file the user is
composed of seeds and leeches concerned
about to download.
with the same file.
Tracker: A tracker is a server that manag-

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HOW TECH WORKS HOW TECH WORKS

How an ATM works ATM stands for “Automated Teller Machine”. Even though the
3 PIN
Authentication
Once the PIN is authenticated, it asks for
the kind of transaction—balance inquiry
or a transaction statement or cash with-
“M” stands for machine, people still refer to the ATM as an
4
drawal. For example, if you want to with-
Dispensing the cash
ATM machine. ATM is also referred to as “Any Time Money”. draw cash of Rs 5,000, you enter the said
amount. The ATM then communicates
The ATM provides you 24-hour access to money.
with the bank’s server. If the required The lower bottom corner of the machine is the cash dispensing
amount is available in the bank account, it section. It has an electric eye that counts each bill as it exits the

1 Reading information off the

ATM card’s magnetic strip
sends back the authentication to the ATM
and deducts the amount from the account.
dispenser mechanism. All information about transaction is
recorded such as the number of notes. The recorded informa-
The ATM card has a magnetic strip on its back. tion is stored over a period of time so that in case there is any
It is similar to the magnetic tape found on dispute about a transaction, one can refer to the logs.
cassettes. It is made of a combination of plastic Besides the electric eye, the cash dispensing mechanism also
and magnetic powder. Read/write heads similar has a sensor which measures the thickness of each bill. In case
to tape recorders are used to write information there are two bills stuck together, they are diverted to a reject
on the magnetic tape. The recorders have coils bin. The same applies for bills which are torn or folded.
wrapped around special metals to make an
electromagnet. Passing current through these
coils generates a magnetic field which can
magnetize bits of the strip. The strip can have
many north and south poles on it and their
position and number are used to encode
information such as your name and account
number. The card when inserted into the ATM
machine is read with a similar device that wrote
it. The magnetic strip when moved over the read
head induces voltages in the coils and these can
then be amplified and recorded electronically.
This information is then sent to the computer.
5 End of the transaction
If the customer asks, he gets the printed
receipt of the transaction. The ATM
screen reflects the balance after the
transaction and the card is returned to
the user at the end of the process.

2 Entering the PIN and com-

municating with the bank
Once the card is inserted, the machine asks
for the PIN (Personal Identification Number).
The PIN is then sent to the bank’s switch for
verification. The ATM machine connects to
the bank’s computer network through the
Internet, either with the help of a dialup con-
nection or through a dedicated Internet line.

22 | intelligent computing CHip Intelligent computing

Intelligent | 23| 23
CHip CHip
computing
 Hands-ON
HOW TECH WORKS
PROJECTS Hands-ON
HOW TECH
PROJECTS
WORKS

How GSM networks work

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is the most
2 Base station
Every base station consists of a tower
and a small building containing the
radio equipment. The Base station
makes a check on the available resourc-
successful and widely used mobile telecommunication es through the network.
system in the world today. Here we will explain to you the
basics of how GSM networks function.
Hexagonal Cells Base Station
over the city
The complete network over the city is
divided into cells. Each cell is typically
sized at about 10 square miles (26 square
kilometers). Cells are normally thought of
as hexagons on a big hexagonal grid.

Exchange 3 Fixed Network

The base station establishes a connec-
tion between the mobile and the fixed
Dedicated Land Line network only after all the resources
required to have a proper connection
are available. Only after which the data

House exchange takes place.

City

Cell

1 Mobile call Moving into another Cell

If the mobile phone user is about to cross from one cell to another, the base station the cell user is leaving registers a diminishing strength
The mobile phone user, while present of the signal. Similarly the cell's base station which the user is approaching registers the increasing signal strength. On cross over, the two
User Phone Base station in a particular cell, makes a call to a co-ordinate with each other and finally the hand-over occurs and the user is switched to a new cell. Hence, the communication link does not
landline. The call made is then routed break.
to the subscriber's current cell phone
base station. Cell

What is a simcard?
GSM phones use a Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM) card which is a removable chip inside a phone
with information such as the user's phone number,
phone book and some other information related to the
subscriber. Base Station

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Hands-ON
HOW TECH WORKS
PROJECTS Hands-ON
HOW TECH
PROJECTS
WORKS

How Podcasting Works

Podcasting is all the rage today. We look at what goes into the making of a podcast — and 3 Posting podcasts on a Web site
After all the recording and touch-up work, it’s time
how you can create one yourself. to create a RSS feed and post your podcast on a Web site.
The choice of site is up to you, as there are literally thou-
Making a Podcast sands of Web sites available on the Internet. In fact, you
Making a podcast is perhaps the most difficult part of the exercise. To make one, you need not don't need to add your radio show to a podcast site spe-
only the skills of a radio jockey, but also the technical know-how to edit audio. cifically, you can always post it in your blog or your own
Web site as an MP3 file for listeners to download. But
dedicated podcast sites have the advantage that they often
1 Preparing the basics give you quite a lot of publicity — which private Web sites
You already have a computer; what you need is a good microphone to may not offer. Also pay attention to the genre that you are
complement it. Recording into the microphone is not as easy as it seems, posting your podcast under; any mistakes here, and you
as ambient noises, thuds caused by bumping your hand on the desk, or are likely to lose listeners faster than you acquire them!
breathing into the mic, will all make your podcast sound amateurish. So
practise before you record the show. It’s a good technique to record the
show in several parts because it isn't likely to go live immediately after
all—you can always stitch it together later.

Why RSS is useful

RSS (which is an abbreviation for Really Simple
Syndication) is a format for providing news feeds;
in our case music feeds. You need to upload not
only the actual music file but also the RSS feed
which can be easily made through free software

2 Recording your podcast such as ListGarden. Some podcasting Web sites

What do you do after you have recorded your podcast? Simple; provide the facility to make feeds online.
it’s time to spin it in post-production. There are two stages: the first
one is to clean up audio and remove any inconsistencies that may
have cropped up, plus any mistakes that you may have made; and
the other is to add music, jingles or little audio clips. Naturally, you
will be careful enough not to use copyrighted music without permis- Listening to a Podcast
sion. If your podcasts are merely voice-based, remember to use a Listening to podcasts is easy. It’s like downloading any other file from the Internet. However, depending on the Web site,
lower bitrate setting such as 64 Kbps and mono-recording, as this you will most probably be downloading the file or streaming it directly. Streaming files can’t usually be saved easily, so
will save a lot of storage space and also shorten download time for don’t think of putting them on your MP3 player—it may well be out of the question!
listeners. However, if you've used music, 128 Kbps and stereo are
recommended.

Searching for podcasts Downloading podcasts

Sites to post podcasts
1 Listeners can tune into specific pod-
2 Most users may use RSS feeds to
www.podcasting.com casting Web sites, or go through search receive new updates, which automatically
engines. Those who like to hear category- start to stream/download. Listeners can
www.podcast.net
specific music are likely to search only directly download podcasts to their PCs,
www.podfeeder.com through interest-related categories. or load it on their MP3 players and listen
podcasts.yahoo.com to music on the move.
www.blogger.com

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 Hands-ON
HOW TECH WORKS
PROJECTS Hands-ON
HOW TECH
PROJECTS
WORKS

How does GPS work?

What is GPS?
Global Positioning System or GPS is basi-
cally a constellation of satellites, initially
launched for military purposes by Navstar
in 1978; it was later opened for public use.
Global Positioning System (GPS) helps in There are 24 satellites orbiting the earth at
determining the exact location of the a height of approximately 20,000 km. Each
satellite weighs about 775 Kilograms and
receiver. It is a satellite-based navigation
takes about 12 hours to circle the earth.
system that provides accurate position and
velocity information with precise time, on a
continual basis, to a number of equipped
subscribers. Let us see how GPS helps to
save lives when a car meets with an
accident.

1 GPS in a car
Consider a car that has a GPS receiv-
er and is moving on a highway. GPS
keeps track of the car and knows its
precise location all the time. It updates
the location of the car after a certain
fixed interval of time.

What are Radio Waves?

Radio waves are electromagnetic energy.
They travel at the speed of light, which is
around 300,000 km per second in a vacu-
um. The receiver can actually find out the
distance traveled by the signal by calculat-
ing the time taken for the signal to arrive.

2 Locate through GPS

The GPS receiver in the car locates at
least three satellites above you and
then measures the distance between
you and each satellite. A process called
"3-D trilateration" is used to pin point
the location. Then, the distance
between the satellite and receiver is
measured using radio waves.
3 Car crashes in an accident 4 Service centre
Let us imagine a scenario where the car meets with The service centre knowing about the accident
an accident in the middle of nowhere. The GPS receiv- immediately dispatches emergency services
er in the car has the last known location of the car. like the ambulance, and this helps in saving
The computer in the car employs the car's cell phone lives. The service station now knows about the
and makes an emergency call to the nearest service accident and locates the car using the GPS.
centre, informing them about the car's location.

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Hands-ON
HOW TECH WORKS
PROJECTS Hands-ON
HOW TECH
PROJECTS
WORKS

Make Calls Over the

The Internet offers a medium for cheap and instant communication. The means of communication
Internet
include email, instant messaging, newsgroups, blogs, and podcasts. But you can also make cheap Making the call
telephone calls via the Internet. 4 Human voice is in analog form—sound waves in the air that
we can hear. But the computer and Internet do not
There are three broad options for making calls over the Internet: Both parties can use normal understand analog. So when you make a call over the Internet, your
telephones, both can communicate through their computers, or one can use a computer to call a voice is converted to digital data (a series of zeroes and ones). This
regular phone. Computer-to-computer calls are the easiest way to use this technology. is done by the communications software and the
People use computers to make cheap long-distance calls. This is possible through the use of special modem (the modulator-demodulator; a
software or online services. This form of communication is based on Internet Protocol (IP) and is hence component in your computer). This digital data
known as Voice over IP (VoIP). Here’s how you can make calls from your computer. is sent to the local Internet service provider’s
computer. Here it is compressed and
broken up into small units called
Registering for the service Setting up the software ‘packets’. The individual packets are yo u ?
1 The first step is to register at an
online service provider (say, Skype)
2 After installing the software, the next thing to
do is to set up a list of people to be contacted.
then transmitted over the Internet.
01010100
101110101
re
or your local Internet Service Provider Like instant messaging and email, each user of the Skype Server How a
(ISP). While online services like Skype VoIP service has a unique identity (ask your friends Internet Service
are free, your ISP may charge a monthly for theirs). If you are Provider
000110100
fee. When you sign up for the service, making PC-to-phone calls, 101100101
Hi,
you get special communications software Receiving a call
5
you should naturally add
At the other end, the reverse of the above process occurs. The
that you must download and install on the phone numbers of the 01010100
101110101 recipient’s service provider’s computer receives the packets of
your computer. The person whom you people whom you
you? Inter data, which are uncompressed and assembled into a digital stream.
intend to call must download and install intend to call. n et T
eleph The digital stream is then sent to the recipient’s computer (the
similar software. one D
01010100
irect person you call). The software and modem on his computer converts
101110101 ory
the digital stream into an analog wave, and he is able to hear the
re
How a caller (you). All this happens in a matter of seconds.
Internet
Service
Provider 000110100
101100101
What is VoIP?
Hi, VoIP, an abbreviation for Voice over
INTERNET Internet Protocol, is a technology that
01010100 allows telephone calls to be made over
101110101
the Internet.

Hi, How How is this different from your regular

phone system? VoIP does not use the

are you? Establishing the connection

traditional telephone network for calls.
Instead, calls are routed through the
3 Computer-to-computer calls are like
instant messaging. It’s similar to using
Internet. The service provider maintains a directory of all the people
who are registered and using its software. The names of the people
Internet. Since you are only paying for the
Internet service usage (as with surfing
ICQ, MSN Messenger, or Yahoo Messenger. are matched to their unique IP addresses (the Internet address of Web sites or using email), international
calls tend to be cheap.
Both parties need to be connected to the their computers, which will look something like 202.54.1.37). Making calls via the Internet is done
Internet. Plug in your headset and If both parties are online, the service provider’s computer will using Internet Protocol (IP)—a standard
microphone, turn up the speaker volume and establish a connection between the computers. And the phone for communication. Voice calls in analog
form are first converted to digital data.
click on the name of the person you want to ‘rings’ at the other person’s computer. Actually the other person will IP breaks down the stream of digital
call; click the green "Call" button. see your name flashing in his communications software, and he may data into smaller units called ‘packets’,
The communications software then contacts hear a ringing sound from his headphones. He can click the "Answer which are then sent along different
paths over the Internet.
the service provider’s computer via the Call" button in his software, and hear you speak.

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Hands-ON
HOW TECH WORKS
PROJECTS Hands-ON
HOW TECH
PROJECTS
WORKS

Four scenarios for Wireless Computing

These days it's hard to avoid wireless computing. Look around and you'll see people with
2 At Home Besides wireless Internet access in rooms throughout
your home, there are many other possibilities. For
instance, if all you MP3 songs are on the computer's hard
disk in the living room, it is possible to listen to these in
any room in the home using a digital media adapter. This
notebook computers surfing the Internet wirelessly. But other exciting things are possible with adapter can also be used for connecting your TV and Hi-Fi
system to the PC, minus the cable mess.
wireless technology.

1 Public hot spot Wireless

Base Station Wireless Base
A 'hotspot' is a zone that offers wireless Internet
access. Typically, we see hotspots in coffee Station
shops, airport lounges, and hotels. To surf the
Internet at a public hotspot you'll need a notebook
computer with built-in Intel Centrino technology,
or a wireless PC Card adapter.
Desktop Computer with
Look for a device called an Wireless Base PCI Wireless Adapter
Station on the ceiling or high up on the wall.
It is the base station that communicates with
the wireless adapter in your computer using
radio signals.
Notebook Computer with Cable
Wireless Adapter (PC Card) Modem
Cable Modem
For Internet access, the Wireless
Digital Media Adapter
Base Station is connected to a cable
or DSL modem that's linked to the
Internet Service Provider's INTERNET
computer.
Internet Service
Provider

4 Wireless Connection of Devices

Look behind your computer and you will see a clutter of cables.
There's one for the printer, one for the network, another for the

3 At the Office
mouse, one for the keyboard… Now try shifting your computer to
another location. There are so many plugs and cables to deal with.
Imagine if all the data connections were wireless.
Notebook and desktop computers can be
connected wirelessly to the office computer
network. This makes it possible to relocate PDA
Server (Office Network)
computers without the hassle of cable
connections. Besides, all these computers Wireless Base
can have wireless Internet access. Station

Note Book Computer Wireless Print

with Wireless Adapter Server

Switch

Printer
You can go wireless today with a cordless
Wireless Base keyboard and mouse. Both communicate
Station Router using radio signals with a receiver attached
Desktop Computer with
PCI Wireless Adapter to your computer.
The individual computers need to have wireless A personal digital assistant (PDA) with a
adapter cards and there should be base stations wireless adapter card can exchange address
fixed around the office. The access points are book data with a computer wirelessly.
connected to a central switch that interconnects Computers around the office can send
all the devices on the office network. The switch Computer print jobs to a central printer, wirelessly.
is in turn connected to a central computer called Keyboard For this the printer requires a wireless
Receiver print server.
the server. The office server is linked to the
Internet Service Provider's computer via a router
device.
Wireless
Mouse
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Where Does Spyware

Here's the story of a small program that secretly gets into your computer, steals your personal
Come From?
2. The trouble begins when you click 3. Once the program is installed, it 4. While it goes about doing this,
information, and sends it back to online marketers or hackers—all this without your knowledge! on the Web site link or the "OK" could scan the hard disk and look for spyware utilizes computing resources
button to get the free software (or to personal information. It could also like memory, Internet bandwidth, and
Spyware is a software program that the user unknowingly Since spyware is stealthy in its operation, the user is not
get details about the prize). That's monitor your surfing activity and hard disk space. So it tends to slow
downloads to his computer from the Internet. It is aware that this malicious program is being downloaded
when spyware begins to download to record keystrokes when passwords down or interfere with the regular
bundled with a seemingly innocent program like a free and installed on his computer. Spyware seeks personal
your computer in the background, and ID information are being typed. processing activities in the computer.
game or another program that purports to be useful information—such as email and postal addresses;
and install itself. All this happens without your The result is that your computer and
(usually called "freeware" or "shareware"). Spyware also telephone numbers, passwords, and credit card numbers—
knowledge. Net surfing slows down noticeably,
employs other tricks to get into your computer, which will which is secretly transmitted back to advertisers and
and applications take unusually long
be explained later in this article. marketing executives, via the Internet.
to open. The program or the operating
system (Windows) might even crash
or freeze unexpectedly.
1.When you surf the Internet and visit
Web sites, you'll sometimes
encounter luring messages that invite
you to download a "free game" or
some other free software (called
"freeware" or "shareware"). These
tempting messages lure the user to
just click the "OK" button or a link (on 5. Once your personal details are
a Web page) to claim a (cash) reward. collected in a file, it is transmitted
Typically, such messages appear on a
back to Web sites owned by online
Web site or in separate popup boxes.
marketers, and stored in databases
attached to those Web sites.

7. If a hacker has used spyware to glean

your personal details, he can use your ID
and password to log into your bank account
and transfer funds to his own account. He
may also use your credit card details to
shop online.

How do you find and remove spyware?

There are special programs called anti-spyware software, Microsoft AntiSpyware
which scan your hard disk for spyware and www.microsoft.com/downloads
then removes it on your instruction. Some programs
(like Spybot and Microsoft AntiSpyware) are free, Spybot
so you could consider downloading and installing www.safer-networking.org
6. The marketer/advertiser will later go these immediately.
through his database and use your personal Sunbelt Software Counterspy
details to contact you (usually via email) Here's a select list of anti-spyware programs: www.sunbeltsoftware.com
and tell you about new products or offers.
They can also sell this information to other Lavasoft Ad-Aware Webroot Software Spy Sweeper
marketers and advertisers. www.lavasoftusa.com/software/adaware/ www.webroot.com

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How Radio Frequency

RFID tag reader
5 Store reorders

Identification Works
Once the customer walks away with the
products he/she has bought, a list with
the supermarket is updated. If the stock
goes below a specified limit, the market
Radio Frequency places an order to replenish the stock.
Identification (RFID) is RFID tag
currently used in a range of 4 Customer purchase
applications; from waste Customers visit a supermarket and put
management to product the items they want in a cart, which
tracking to highway toll finally goes to the cashier. The list of
products is displayed on the cashier's
systems. Let's see how this computer as soon as the products carry-
technology helps in the ing RFID tags come near the operating
production, tracking, and range of the tag reader.

maintaining of stock in a
company's inventory. SHOP

FACTORY

What is
RFID?
1 Production of goods Radio Frequency identification is a tech-
nology in which a small tag or component
Consider beer cans made in a fac- is affixed or embedded in the object, each
tory. The cans have a smart RFID tag having its own unique factory-programmed
embedded on them, which stores impor- unalterable code. The tags can be of two
tant information such as price, unique types: active and passive. Active transpon-
batch number etc. ders include a battery, whereas passive
transponders get their energy from a radio

2 Product transportation frequency signal sent from a reader.

The RFID tag can hold a wealth of

information, so shipment details such as
the number of the cans and the destina-
tion address can be stored in the tag
itself. The manufactured products pass A technology with
ls potential
tai
through various checkpoints and are
handled by various people before they
d e RFIDs can work in hostile environments—

ct
are finally unpacked and displayed on even if there's excessive dust, dirt, and
u
rod
store shelves. moisture—because they do not require

t, P line-of-sight communication. This over-

3 Warehouse storage uc
comes the limitation of automatic identifi-

od cation techniques such as bar codes. The

Warehouses maintain a stock of all WAREHOUSE Pr uses of RFID are practically limitless, but
the products received, and keeps track of
ls its potential has not yet been fully realized.
the number of cans present in the store.
etai Implementing the technology improves
If the stock falls lower than the specified
r D quality, saves time, increases efficiency,
e
ord
limit, the warehouse places an order for and eliminates error.

Re
more.

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