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Useful Theorems

Josh Baiad

Number Theory

Theorem 1.1 (Bezouts Lemma).

Let a, b Z such that a and b are both not zero. Let gcd{a, b} be the greatest common divisor
of a and b. Then,
x, y Z : ax + by = gcd{a, b}.
That is, gcd{a, b} is an integer combination (or linear combination) of a and b. Furthermore,
gcd{a, b} is the smallest positive integer combination of a and b.
Proof 1. Work the Euclidean Division Algorithm backwards.
Proof 2. Let a, b Z such that a and b are not both zero. Let S be the set of all positive
integer combinations of a and b:
S = {x Z, x > 0 : x = ma + nb : m, n Z}
. First, we establish that S 6= . We have:
a>0

|a| = 1 a + 0 b

a<0

|a| = (1) a + 0 b

b>0

|b| = 0 a + 1 b

b<0

|b| = 0 a + (1) b

As it is not the case that both a = 0 and b = 0, it must be that at least one of |a| S or
|b| S. Therefore, S 6= . As S contains only positive integers, S is bounded below by 0 and
therefore has a smallest element. Call this smallest element d: we have d = ua + vb for some
u, v Z. Let x S. Then, by the Division Theorem: x = qd + r, where 0 r < d.
Suppose d . x. Then, x 6= qd and so 0 < r. But:
m, n Z : x = ma + nb

Since x S

= r = x qd
= (ma + nb) q(ua + vb)
= (m qu)a + (n qv)b
=(r S) (r < d)
which contradicts the choice of d as the smallest element of S.
Therefore, x S : d | x. In particular,
d | |a| = 1 a + 0 b
d | |b| = 0 a + 1 b

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Thus, d | a d | b = 1 d gcd{a, b}. However, note that gcd{a, b} also divides a and b (by
defintion), so we have:
gcd{a, b} | (ua + vb)

Common Divisor Divides Integer Combination

= gcd{a, b} | d

Since d = (ua + vb)

= gcd{a, b} d
So, gcd{a, b} = d = ua + vb.
Theorem 1.2 (Integer Combination of Coprime Integers).
Two integers are coprime iff there exists an integer combination of them equal to 1:
a, b Z : a b m, n Z : ma + nb = 1
Proof.
a b gcd a, b = 1

Definition of coprime

m, n Z : ma + nb = 1

Bezouts Lemma

Theorem 1.3 (Integer Coprime to Modulus iff Linear Congurence to 1 exists).

Let a, m Z. Then the linear congruence:
ax 1

mod m

has a solution x iff a and m are coprime.

Proof. By the defintion of congruence, we know that ax 1 mod m y Z : ax + my =
1. Additionally, we know that a m x, y Z : ax + my = 1 from Integer Combination
of Coprime Integers. Thus, such an x iff a and m are coprime.

Group Theory

Definition 2.1 (Binary Operation/Law of Composition). A binary operation or law of

composition on a set G is a function G G G that assigns to each pair (a, b) G G a
unique element a b, or ab in G, called the composition of a and b.
Definition 2.2 (Group). A group (G, ) is a set G together with a law of composition
(a, b) 7 a b that satisfies the following axioms:
The law of composition is associative. That is,
(a b) c = a (b c)
for a, b, c G.

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There exists an element e G, called the identity element, such that for any element
aG
ea=ae=a
.
For each element a G, there exists an inverse element in G, denoted by a1 such
that
a a1 = a1 a = e.
Definition 2.3 (Abelian Group). A group G with the property that a b = b a for all
a, b G is called abelian or commutative. Groups not satisfying this property are said to
be nonabelian or noncommutative.

Basic Properties of Groups

Proposition 2.1 (Identity Uniqueness). The identity element in a group G is unique: that
is, there exists only one element e G such that eg = ge = g for all g G.
Proof. Suppose that e and e0 are both identities in G. Then eg = ge = g and e0 g = ge0 = g
for all g G. We need to show that e = e0 . If we think of e as the identity, then ee0 = e0 ; but
if e0 is the identity, then ee0 = e. Combining these two equations, we have e = ee0 = e0 .
Proposition 2.2 (Inverse Uniqueness). If g is any element in a group G, then the inverse of
g, g 1 , is unique.
Proof. If g 0 and g 00 are both inverses of an element g in a groupp G, then gg 0 = g 0 g = e and
gg 00 = g 00 g = e. We want to show that g 0 = g 00 . Observe that g 0 = g 0 e = g 0 (gg 00 ) = (g 0 g)g 00 =
eg 00 = g 00 . Thus, g 0 = g 00 .
Proposition 2.3. Let G be a group. If a, b G, then (ab)1 = b1 a1 .
Proof. Let a, b G. Then abb1 a1 = aea1 = aa1 = e. Similarly, b1 a1 ab = e. Thus, we
know that (ab)1 and b1 a1 are inverses of ab, but by Inverse Uniqueness, we can conclude
that (ab)1 = b1 a1 .
Proposition 2.4. Let G be a group. For any a G, (a1 )1 = a.
Proof. Observe that a1 (a1 )1 = e by the definition of inverse. Consequently, multiplying
both sides of this equation a, we have
aa1 (a1 )1 = ae
e(a1 )1 = a
(a1 )1 = a.

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Proposition 2.5. Let G be a group and a and b be any two elements in G. Then the
equations ax = b and xa = b have unique solutions in G.
Proof. Suppose that ax = b. We must show that such an x exists. Multiplying both sides of
ax = b by a1 , we have a1 ax = ex = x = a1 b. Thus, if ax = b, then such an x must exist.
To show that this solution is unique, suppose that x1 and x2 are both solutions of ax = b;
then ax1 = b = ax2 . So, x1 = a1 ax1 = a1 ax2 = x2 . This completes the proof for the claim
that there is a unique solution x G for the equation ax = b where a, b G.
Suppose that xa = b. We must show that such an x exists. Multiplying both sides by a1 ,
we have x = xe = xaa1 = ba1 . Thus, if xa = b, then such an x must exist. To show that
this solution is unique, suppose that x1 and x2 are both solutions xa = b; then x1 a = b = x2 a.
So, x1 = x1 aa1 = x2 aa1 = x2 . This completes the proof for the claim that there is a unique
solution x G for the equation ax = b where a, b G.
Proposition 2.6. If G is a group and a, b, c G, then ba = ca implies b = c and ab = ac
implies b = c. This is equivalent to stating that the right and left cancellation laws are
true in groups.
Proof. Suppose that G is a group, a, b, c G, and ba = ca. Multiplying both sides by a1
gives us the following: b = be = baa1 = caa1 = ce = c. Thus, ba = ca implies that
b = c. Now suppose that ab = ac. Multiplying both sides by a1 gives us the following:
b = eb = a1 ab = a1 ac = ec = c. Thus, ab = ac implies that b = c.
Definition 2.4 (Exponential Notation for Groups). We can use exponential notation for
groups just as we do in ordinary algebra. If G is a group and g G, then we define g 0 = e.
For n N, we define
gn = g g g
| {z }
n times

and
g n = g 1 g 1 g 1 .
|
{z
}
n times

Theorem 2.1. In a group, the usual laws of exponents hold; that is, for all g, h G,
1. g m g n = g m+n for all m, n Z;
2. (g m )n = g mn for all m, n Z;
3. (gh)n = (h1 g 1 )n for all n Z. Furthermore, if G is abelian, then (gh)n = g n hn .
Proof. Assume that G is a group and g, h G. Then,
1. By Exponential Notation for Groups, g m g n = g g g g g g = g g g = g m+n .
| {z } | {z } | {z }
m times

n times

m+n times

2. By Exponential Notation for Groups, (g m )n = g g g g g g g g g = g g g =

| {z } | {z }
| {z } | {z }
m times
m times
m times
nm times
|
{z
}
n times

g nm .
4

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3. By Exponential Notation for Groups, (gh)n = gh gh gh and

|
{z
}
n times

(h1 g 1 )n = (h1 g 1 )1 (h1 g 1 )1 (h1 g 1 )1 . By Proposition 2.3 and Propo|

{z
}
n times

sition 2.4, we know that (h1 g 1 )1 = (g 1 )1 (h1 )1 = gh. Thus, (h1 g 1 )n =

gh gh gh = (gh)n .
{z
}
|
n times

Theorem 2.2. For the groups Z and Zn , we write the group operation additively and the
exponential operation multiplicatively; that is, we write ng instead of g n . The laws of exponents
now become
1. mg + ng = (m + n)g for all m, n Z;
2. m(ng) = (mn)g for all m, n Z;
3. m(g + h) = mg + mh for all n Z.
It is important to realize that this statement can be made only because Z and Zn are commutative groups.
Proof.

2.1

Subgroups

Definition 2.5 (Subgroup). We define a subgroup H of a group G to be a subset H of G

such that when the group operation of G is restricted to H, H is a group in its own right. It
is important to realize that a subset H of a group G can be a group without being a subgroup
of G. For H to be a subgroup of G it must inherit Gs binary operation.
Definition 2.6 (Trivial Subgroup). The subgroup H = {e} of a group G is called the trivial
subgroup.
Definition 2.7 (Proper Subgroup). A subgroup that is a proper subset of G is called a
proper subgroup.
Proposition 2.7. A subset H of G is a subgroup if and only if it satisfies the following
conditions:
1. The identity e of G is in H.
2. If h1 , h2 H, then h1 h2 H
3. If h H, then h1 H.

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Proof. First, suppose that H is a subgroup of G. We must show that the three conditions
hold. Since H is a group, it must have an identity eH . We must show that eH = e, where e is
the identity of G. We know that eH eH = eH and that eeH = eH e = eH ; hence, eeH = eH eH .
By right-hand cancellation, e = eH . The second condition holds since subgroup H is a group.
To prove the third condition, let h H. Since H is a group, there is an element h0 H such
that hh0 = h0 h = e. By the uniqueness of the inverse in G, h0 = h1 .
Conversely, if the three conditions hold, we msut show that H is a group under the same
operation as G; however, these conditions plus the associativity of the binary operation are
exactly the axioms stated in the definition of a group.
Proposition 2.8. Let H be a subset of a group G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only
if H 6= , and whenever g, h H then gh1 is in H.
Proof. Let H be a subset of group G. Assume that H 6= and whenever g, h H then
gh1 H. We seek to show that this implies that H is a subgroup of G. That is, we seek to
show that H meets the conditions outlined in Proposition 1.9.
1. Since H 6= , g H. By our assumption, gg 1 must also exist in H. However,
gg 1 = e, so e H.
2. If g, h H, then g 1 , h1 H (proven below). Since g, h1 H, g(h1 )1 = gh H
by our assumption.
3. If e, g H, then eg 1 = g 1 H.
Thus, H is a subgroup of G.
Now, assume that H is a subgroup of G. We seek to show that this implies that H 6=
and whenever g, h H then gh1 H. Since H is a group, it must contain the identity e
of G, so H 6= . If g, h H, then h1 H. Because of the closure of the group operation,
gh1 H.

2.2
2.2.1

Permutation Groups
Definitions and Notation

Definition 2.8. A permutation of the set S is a one-to-one and onto map : S S.

Definition 2.9. In general, the permutations of a set X form a group SX . If X is a finite
set, we can assume X = {1, 2, . . . , n}. In this case we write Sn instead of SX . Sn is called the
symmetric group on n letters.
Theorem 2.3. The symmetric group on n letters, Sn , is a group with n! elements, where the
binary operation is the composition of maps.