BASICS OF GROUP THEORY

Definition 0.1. A binary operation ‘∗’ on a set S is a function from S × S into S. For each

(a, b) ∈ S × S, the element ∗(a, b) is denoted by a ∗ b, i.e.,

∗ : S × S −→ S def ined by

∗(a, b) = a ∗ b.

In other words, we may regard a binary operation ‘∗’ on S as assigning, to each ordered pair

(a, b) of elements of S, an element a ∗ b of S.

Examples:

(1) Usual addition ‘+’ and multiplication ‘·’ are binary operations on R, C and Z.

(2) The operation ‘∗’ on Z defined by a ∗ b = min{a, b} is a binary operation.

(3) The operation ‘∗’ on Z defined by a ∗ b = a is a binary operation.

a·b
(4) The operation ‘∗’ on Q defined by a ∗ b = 2 is a binary operation.

Definition 0.2. A group (G, ∗) is a non-empty set G, together with a binary operation ∗, if it

satisfies the following axioms:

(1) Associativity: a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c, for all a, b, c ∈ G.

(2) Existence of identity: ∃ an element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a , for all a ∈ G (e is

then called the identity).

(3) Existence of inverse: For every a ∈ G, ∃ a0 ∈ G such that a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e (a0 is then

called inverse of a).

(G, ∗) is called abelian group or commutative group if a ∗ b = b ∗ a, for all a, b ∈ G.

Examples:

(1) The set of Mm×n (R) of all m × n matrices over R under matrix addition is an abelian

group.

(2) The set G of all invertible n × n matrices over R, where n ≥ 2, is a non-abelian group

under matrix multiplication.

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 (3) The set G of all nth roots of unity, where n is fixed integer forms an abelian group under
2πki
usual multiplication of complex numbers. That is, G = {e n : k = 0, 1 . . . , n − 1}.

Theorem 0.3. Let G be a group with binary operation ∗ then

(1) Identity element of G is unique.

(2) Inverse of each a ∈ G is unique.

The inverse of an element a ∈ G is denoted by a−1 .

Theorem 0.4. Let G be a group with binary operation ∗ then

(1) (a−1 )−1 = a, for all a ∈ G.

(2) (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 , for all a, b ∈ G.

Theorem 0.5. Let G be a group with binary operation ∗, for all a, b, c ∈ G

(1) a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c. (left cancellation law)

(2) b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c. (right cancellation law)

Theorem 0.6. For elements a, b ∈ G, the equations a ∗ x = b and y ∗ a = b have unique solutions

for x and y in G.

Generally, the binary operation for a group is denoted by ‘·’ this binary operation ‘·’ is called

product or multiplication (although it may have nothing to do with the usual multiplication). We

even drop ‘·’ and simply write ab in place of a · b.

Definition 0.7. If G is a group, then the number of elements in G is called the order of G denoted

by |G| or o(G).

Definition 0.8. If G is a group and a ∈ G, the order of a is the least positive integer m such that

am = e.(If binary operation of G is addition, this would read as na = 0, where 0 is the identity of

G).

The group of Quaternions

Q8 = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k}, where i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, ij = −ji = k, jk = −kj = i,

ki = −ik = j.

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The Klein four-group

The Klein four-group is the smallest non-cyclic group and is denoted by V4 and is given by

V4 = {e, a, b, ab}, a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = e.

V4 is an abelian group and all non identity elements of V4 have order 2.

Definition 0.9. A group G is called a cyclic group if ∃ an element a ∈ G such that every element

of G can be expressed as a power of a, i.e., for any x ∈ G there exists an integer m such that

x = am . The element a is called the generator of G and we write G =< a >.

If G is infinite cyclic group generated by a the elements of G are of the form

G =< a >= {am : m ∈ Z} = {. . . , a−2 , a−1 , a0 , a, a2 , . . . }

If G is a cyclic group of order n generated by a then G is of the form

G = {e, a, a2 , . . . , an−1 }, where an = e.

We will denote the cyclic group of order n by Cn .

Examples:

(1) Z is an infinite cyclic group generated by 1 and −1, i.e., Z =< 1 >= {n · 1 : n ∈ Z} =<

−1 >= {n · (−1) : n ∈ Z}. Where n · a is defined as





 a + a · · · + a (n-times), if n is positive;

n·a= 0, n = 0;



 −a − a − · · · − a (−n-times), if n is negative.


(2) Let G = {2r : r ∈ Z} then G is an infinite cyclic group generated by 2.

2πki
(3) The group {e n : k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} of nth roots of unity is a cyclic group of order n
2πi
generated by e n .

Theorem 0.10. Every cyclic group is abelian.

Theorem 0.11. An infinite cyclic group has precisely two generators.

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Theorem 0.12. Let G =< a > be a finite cyclic group of order n. Then an element ak is a

generator of G iff (k, n) = 1.

Definition 0.13. A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G, if H forms

a group under the binary operation of G.

(1) If H is a subgroup of G, we write H ≤ G.

(2) A subgroup H is called a proper subgroup of G if H 6= G. We call a subgroup H of G

nontrivial if H 6= {e}.

Theorem 0.14. A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G iff

(1) a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H.

(2) a ∈ H ⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Theorem 0.15. A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G iff a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab−1 ∈ H

T
Theorem 0.16. Let {Hi : i ∈ I} be any set of subgroups of a group G, then Hi is a subgroup
i∈I
of G.

Theorem 0.17. Union of two subgroup ia s subgroup iff one of them is contained in the other.

Example. 2Z and 3Z are subgroups of Z. But 2Z ∪ 3Z is not a subgroup because 2, 3 ∈ 2Z ∪ 3Z

and 5 = 2 + 3 ∈
/ 2Z ∪ 3Z

Theorem 0.18. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Example. Let n be an integer then very subgroup of Z is of the form nZ = {n · z : z ∈ Z} and

nZ = hni.

Proposition 0.19. Let G be a group and a ∈ G be any element, the hai = {ak : k ∈ Z} is a cyclic

subgroup of G.

Definition 0.20. Let H be a subgroup of a group and a ∈ G. Then the subset aH = {ah : h ∈ H}

of G is called the left coset of H in G, while the subset Ha = {ha : h ∈ H} of G is called the right

coset of H in G.

Theorem 0.21. Let H be a subgroup of group G, then for any a ∈ G.

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 (1) aH = H iff a ∈ H.

(2) Ha = H iff a ∈ H.

Theorem 0.22. There is always a bijective mapping between any two left (respectively, right)

cosets of H in G.

All left (respectively, right) cosets have the same number of elements. In particular, |aH| =

|Ha| = o(H).

Definition 0.23. The number of distinct left (respectively, right) cosets of H in G is called the

index of H in G and is denoted by [G:H].

Proposition 0.24. If H = hxi, then o(H) = o(x)(where if one side of this equality is infinite, so

is the other). More specifically

(1) if o(H) = n < ∞, then xn = 1 and 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 are all distinct elements of H, and

(2) if o(H) = ∞ then xn 6= 1 for all n 6= 0 and xa 6= xb for all a 6= b in Z.

Proof. Let o(x) = n and first consider the case when n < ∞. The elements 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 are

distinct because if xa = xb , with 0 ≤ a < b < n, then xb−a = x0 = 1, contrary to n being the

smallest positive power of x giving the identity. Thus H has at least n elements and it remains to

show that these are all of them. Let xt be any power of x, by division algorithm we have t = nq +k,

where 0 ≤ k < n, so

xt = xnq+k = (xn )q xk = 1q xk = xk ∈ {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 }

This completes the proof of (1).

Next suppose that o(x) = ∞, so no positive power of x is the identity. If xa = xb , for some a and

b with a < b, then xb−a = x0 = 1, a contradiction. Thus the distinct powers of x are the distinct

elements of H so o(H) = ∞. This completes the proof of (2). 

Proposition 0.25. Let G be an arbitrary group, x ∈ G and let m, n ∈ Z. If xn = 1 and xm = 1,

then xd = 1, where d = (m, n), where d is the greatest common divisor of m and n. In particular,

if xm = 1 for some m ∈ Z, then o(x) divides m.

Proof. By Euclidean Algorithm there exist integers r and s such that d = mr + ns, where d is the

g.c.d of m and n. Thus

xd = xmr+ns = (xm )r (xn )s = 1r · 1s = 1.

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This proves the first assertion.

If xm = 1, let o(x) = n. If m = 0, certainly n|m, so we may assume m 6= 0. Since some nonzero

power of x is the identity so n < ∞. Let d = (m, n), so by preceding result xd = 1. Since 0 < d ≤ n

and n is the smallest positive power of x which gives the identity, we must have d = n, that is n|m.

This completes the proof. 

Proposition 0.26. Let G be an arbitrary group, x ∈ G and let a ∈ Z − {0}.

(1) If o(x) = ∞, then o(xa ) = ∞.

n
(2) If o(x) = n < ∞ then o(xa ) = (n,a) .
n
(3) In particular, if o(x) = n < ∞ and a is a positive integer dividing n, then o(xa ) = a.

Proof. (1) Let us assume that o(x) = ∞, but o(xa ) = m < ∞. By definition of order

xam = (xa )m = 1

Also, x−am = (xam )−1 = 1−1 = 1. Now one of am or −am is positive (since neither a nor m is

0) so some positive power of x is the identity. This contradicts the hypothesis o(x) = ∞, so the

assumption o(xa ) < ∞ must be false. This proves (1).

(2) Let y = xa , and (n, a) = d write n = db, a = dc for suitable b, c ∈ Z with b > 0. Since d is the

greatest common divisor of n and a. The integers b and c are relatively prime that is (b, c) = 1. To

prove (2) we must show that o(y) = b. First note that

y b = xab = xdcb = (xdb )c = (xn )c = 1c = 1.

So by Proposition 0.25, o(y) divides b. Let o(y) = k ⇒ k|b. Then xak = y k = 1. So again by

Proposition 0.25, n|ak i.e db|dck. Thus b|ck. Since b and c have no factor in common, b must

divides k. Since b and k are positive integers which divides each other, so b = k. This proves (2).
n n
(3)If a is a positive integer dividing n then (n, a) = a, by (2), o(xa ) = (n,a) = a. 

Definition 0.27. A permutation of a set A is a function ϕ : A −→ A, that is both one-one and

onto.

Example 0.28. Let A = {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } and ϕ : A −→ A be a function defined by,

ϕ(x1 ) = x2 , ϕ(x2 ) = x4 , ϕ(x3 ) = x3 , ϕ(x4 ) = x1 .

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Then ϕ is a permutation of A.

Lemma 0.29. Let A be a non empty set and SA be the set of all permutations of A. Then the

operation of composition of functions is a binary operation on SA .

Proof. Let ϕ, ψ ∈ SA , that is, ϕ : A −→ A and ψ : A −→ A, are bijective functions from A to A.

The composition function of ϕ and ψ denoted by ϕ ◦ ψ or ϕψ

ϕψ : A −→ A, is defined by

(ϕψ)(a) = ϕ(ψ(a)).

Inorder to show that ϕψ ∈ SA , we need to show that ϕψ is one-one and onto. Let a1 , a2 ∈ A

suppose that

ϕψ(a1 ) = ϕψ(a2 )

⇒ ϕ(ψ(a1 )) = ϕ(ψ(a2 ))

⇒ ψ(a1 ) = ψ(a2 ), since ϕ is one-one

⇒ a1 = a2 , since ψ is one one

⇒ ϕψ is one-one.

Let a ∈ A, since ϕ is onto, there exists a0 ∈ A such that ϕ(a0 ) = a. Also since ψ is onto so there

exists a00 ∈ A, such that ψ(a00 ) = a0 . Thus a = ϕ(a0 ) = ϕ(ψ(a00 )) = ϕψ(a00 ) implies ϕψ is onto. 

* The operation of “ composition of functions ” on SA is called permutation multiplication.

Theorem 0.30. Let A be a non-empty set. Then SA is a group under permutation multiplication.

Proof. By Lemma 0.29 permutation multiplication is a binary operation on SA .

(i). Let ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 ∈ SA , then for each a ∈ A we have

(0.1) (ϕ1 (ϕ2 ϕ3 ))(a) = ϕ1 ((ϕ2 ϕ3 )(a)) = ϕ1 (ϕ2 (ϕ3 (a)))

(0.2) ((ϕ1 ϕ2 )(ϕ3 ))(a) = (ϕ1 ϕ2 )(ϕ3 (a)) = ϕ1 (ϕ2 (ϕ3 (a)))

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From 0.1 and 0.2 we have

ϕ1 (ϕ2 ϕ3 ) = (ϕ1 ϕ2 )ϕ3 .

Thus permutation multiplication is associative.

(ii). Let I be the permutation defined by I(a) = a, for all a ∈ A. Let ϕ ∈ SA , then we have

(Iϕ)(a) = I(ϕ(a)) = ϕ(a), for all a ∈ A

and

(ϕI)(a) = ϕ(I(a)) = ϕ(a), for all a ∈ A

Thus

ϕI = Iϕ = ϕ.

That is I is the identity of SA .

(iii). Let ϕ ∈ SA , then the inverse function ϕ−1 is the permutation that reverses the direction of

mapping ϕ, that is ϕ−1 (a) is the element a0 of A such that a = ϕ(a0 ).(Since ϕ is one-one and onto

so there exists exactly one such a0 ).

For each a ∈ A we have

(0.3) I(a) = a = ϕ(a0 ) = ϕ(ϕ−1 (a)) = (ϕϕ−1 )(a),

and also

(0.4) I(a0 ) = a0 = ϕ−1 (a) = ϕ−1 (ϕ(a0 )) = (ϕ−1 ϕ)(a0 ),

from 0.3 and 0.4, we have

ϕϕ−1 = ϕ−1 ϕ = I,

that is ϕ−1 is the inverse of ϕ. Hence SA is a group. 

The Dihedral Group

Let A be the plane that is A = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} and let f, g ∈ SA , defined by f (x, y) = (−x, y)

and g(x, y) = (−y, x); f is the reflection about the y-axis and g is the rotation through 90 degrees

in a counterclockwise direction about the origin. We then define

G = {f i g j : i = 0, 1; j = 0, 1, 2, 3},

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where f i g j = f i ∗ g j , * in G represents the product of elements in SA . We see that

f 2 (x, y) = f (f (x, y)) = f (−x, y) = (x, y),

that is f 2 = I. Also

g 4 (x, y) = g 3 (g(x, y)) = g 3 (−y, x) = g 2 (g(−y, x)) = g 2 (−x, −y) = g(g(−x, −y)) = g(y, −x) = (x, y),

that is, g 4 = I. Multiplication in G is not commutative since f g 6= gf as,

f g(x, y) = f (g(x, y)) = f (−y, x) = (y, x)

and

gf (x, y) = g(f (x, y)) = g(−x, y) = (−y, −x).

In G we have gf = f g −1 . Since g(x, y) = (−y, x), therefore g −1 (x, y) = (y, −x).

Now gf (x, y) = (−y, −x) and f g −1 (x, y) = f (g −1 (x, y)) = f (y, −x) = (−y, −x), that is,

(0.5) gf = f g −1 or gf = f g 3 .

Every element of g j f i can be written in the form f k g l by using the relation in 0.5 and the associa-

tive property in G. It can be easily seen that every element of G is invertible. Clearly all I, g, g 2 , g 3

are all distinct, o(g) = 4 and o(f ) = 2. Also we can see that f 6= g i for any i and f g i 6= f g j , for

all 0 ≤ i, j ≤ 3, with i 6= j, so G = {I, g, g 2 , g 3 , f, f g, f g 2 , f g 3 }, where g 4 = I, f 2 = I, gf = f g 3

is a group, called the dihedral group of order 8.

Now let n > 2 and f be the mapping as above and h be the rotation of the plane about the

origin through an angle of 2π/n in the counterclockwise direction, that is

h(x, y) = (x cos 2π/n) − y sin(2π/n), x sin(2π/n) + y cos(2π/n) .

We then define G = {f k hj : k = 0, 1; j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}, one can verify that f 2 = I,hn = I and

hf = f hn−1 , as above these relations allow us to show that G is non abelian group of order 2n. G

is then called the dihedral group of order 2n and we denote this group by Dn . That is

Dn = {1, g, g 2 , . . . , g n−1 , f, f g, f g 2 , . . . , f g n−1 }, where g n = 1, gf = f g n−1