CHAPTER 9
Heredity and Evolution
Genetics : Branch of science that deals with Heredity and variation.
Heredity : It means the transmission of features/ characters/ traits from one
generation to the next generation.
Variation : The differences among the individuals of a species/ population are
called variations.
MENDEL AND HIS WORK ON INHERITANCE
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822&1884) : Started his experiments on plant
breeding and hybridisation
Mendel fi
was known as Father of Genetics
Plant selected by Mendel : Pisum sativum (garden pea). Mendel used a number
of contrasting characters for garden pea.
TABLE OF CONTRASTING CHARACTERS. (SEVEN PARTS)
CHARACTER
DOMINANT
RECESSIVE
TRAIT
TRAIT
Flower colour
Purple
White
Flower position
Axial
Terminal
Yellow
Green
Seed colour
Round
Wrinkled
Seed shape
Inflated
Constricted
Pod shape
Green
Yellow
Pod colour
Tall
Dwarf
Height of plant
Seven pairs of contrasting characters in Garden
Pea
Mendels Experiments : Mendel conducted a series of experiments in which he
crossed the pollinated plants to study one character (at a time)
Monohybrid Cross :
Cross between two pea plants with one pair (monohybrid cross) contrasting
characters
Example : Tall / Short Plants.
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PARENT
GENERATION
Dwarf plant
Tall plant
tt
T
TT
T
GAMETES
Tt
F1 GENERATION
(first filal generation)
SELF POLLINATION
Tt
(F1) Tt
All tall plants
Tt
(F1)
GAMETES
T
TT
F2 GENERATION
(Second Final
TALL
Gneration
Phenotypic ratio
Phenotypic ratio
Tt
Tt
tt
TALL
TALL
SHORT
3:1
1:2:1
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TT
tt
Both dominant gene
Both recessive gene
Tt
Pure or
conditon
One dominant, one
recessive gene
homozygous
Hetrozygous
condition.
[Hybrid]
Phenotypic ratio : 3:1
Genotypic ratio : 1:2:1
Phenotype fi
Physical appearance [Tall or Short]
Genotype fi
Genetic make up [TT, Tt or tt]
Observations :
1. All F1 progeny were tall
(no medium height plant (half way characteristic)
2. F2 progeny were short
3. Phenotypic ratio F2 3:1
Genotypic ratio F2 1:2:1
Conclusions :
1. TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.
2. A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while
both copies have to be 't' for the plant to be short.
3. Characters/Traits like 'T' are called dominant trait (because
it express itself) 't' are recessive trait (because it remains
supressed)
Dihybrid Cross : A cross macle between two plants having two pairs of
contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.
PARENT
GENERATION
GAMETES
ROUND
GREEN SEEDS
WRINKLED
YELLOW SEEDS
RRYY
fl
RY
rryy
fl
ry
F1
RrYy
[round, yellow]
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F1
RY
Ry
rY
ry
fl
Selfing F1fi
Rr Yy
F1
Rr Yy
RY
Ry
rY
ry
G
A
H
E
T
E
S
RY
RY
RRYY
Ry
RRYy
rY
RrYy
ry
RrYy
flRy
RRYy
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rY
RrYY
RrYy
rrYY
rrYy
ry
RrYy
Rryy
rrYy
rryy
F2
PHENOTYPIC RATIO :
Round, yellow
Round, green
Wrinkled, yellow
Wrinkled, green
GENOTYPIC RATIO :
RRYY
RRYy
RrYY
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rrYY
rrYy
rryy
;
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:9
:3
:3
:1
1
2
2
1
4
2
1
2
1
RATIO : 1 : 2 : 2 : 1 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
Observations :
1. When RRYY was crossed with rryy in F1 generation all
were Rr Yy round and yellow seeds.
2. Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype + two
mixtures (recombinants) Round wrinkled, green yellow :
seeds plants appeared in the ratio of 9:3:3:1
Conclussions :
1. Round and yellow seeds are DOMINANT characters
2. Occurence of new phenotypic combinations show that
genes for round and yellow seeds are inherited
independently of each other.
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Sex Determination
Phenomenon of decision or determination of sex of an offspring
FACTORS
Responsible for Sex Determination
Environmental
In some animals the temperature
at which the fertilised eggs are
kept decides the gender.
Genetic
In some animals like humans gender or
individual is determined by a pair of
chromosome called sex chromosome
eg. in Turtle
XX Female
XY Male
Sex Chromosomes : In human beings there are 23 pairs of chromosome. Out of
these 22 chromosomes pairs are called autosomes and the last pair of
chromosomes that help in deciding gender of that individual are called sex
chromosome.
XX female
XY male
Sex determination in Human beings
PARENTS :
FATHER
XY
GAMETES
(Reproductive cells)
Zygote
formed
after fusion
of gametes
MOTHER
XX
XX
FEMALE
XX
FEMALE
50% probability
of a female child
XY
MALE
XY
MALE
50% probability
of a male child
This shows that half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children
will in herit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys
or girls. Thus sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their
father, and not from their mother.
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Evolution
SITUATION-I
Group of red beetles
Colour variation arises during reproduction
All beetles red except
one that is green
One beetle Green
Reproduction
Crows feed on red beetle
Progeny beetles green
No. of beetles reduces
Crow could not feed on
green beetles as they
got camouflaged
in green bushes
Number of green
beetles increases
Situation 1 : Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were naturally
selected as they were not visible in green bushes. This natural selection is exerted
by crows resulting in adaptations in the beetles to fit better in their environment
SITUATION-II
Group of red beetles
Reproduction
All beetles are red except one
that is blue
Reproduces
One blue beetle
Reproduces
Number of red beetle
increases
No. of blue
beetle increases
Crows can see both blue and red beetles and can eat them
Number reduces but still red beetles are more and blue ones are few
Suddenly elephant comes and stamps on the bushes
But now beetles left are mostly blue.
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Situation 2 : Blue beetles did not get survivals advantage. Elephant suddenly
caused major havoc in beetle population otherwise there number would have been
considerably large.
From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes
even if they do not get survival advantage: This is called genetic drift and it leads to
variation.
Mechanism of Heredity
Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genes
A Section of DNA (cellular)
Gene
Provides information
For synthesis of Proteins
Proteins controls a character
Example :
Gene T
Gene t
responsible for
synthesis of efficient
enzyme (Protein)
responsible for
synthesis of less
efficient enzyme
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More
production
of growth
hormone
Less
production
of growth
hormone
Results
in
Tall
Plants
Results
in
short
Plants
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Genetic drift. It leads to diversity without any adaptation
SITUATION-III
Group of red beetles
Habitat of beetles (bushes)
Suffer from plant disease
Average weight of beetles
decreases due to poor nourishment
No of beetles kept on reducing
Later plant disease gets eliminated
Number and average weight of the beetles
increases again
Situation 3 : No genetic change has occured in the population of beetle. The
population gets affected for a short duration only due to environmental changes
Acquired and Inherited Traits
Acquired Traits
Inherited Traits
1. These are the traits which are
developed in an individual due
to special conditions
1. These are the traits which are
passed from one generation to
the next.
2. They cannot be transferred to
the progeny
2. They get transferred to the
progeny.
3. They cannot direct evolution
3. They are helpful in evolution.
eg. Low weight of starving
beetles.
eg. Colour of eyes and hair
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Speciation
Micro evolution : It is the evolution which is on a small scale. eg. change in body
colour of beetles.
Speciation : it is the process of formation of new species.
Species : A group of similar individuals that along to a population that can
interbreed and produce ferrite off spring.
Geneflow : It is exchange of genetic material by interbreeding between
populations of same species or individuals
WAYS BY WHICH SPECIATION TAKES PLACE
Speciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.
Gene flow : occurs between population that are partly but not completely
seperated
Sub Population
X1 (local)
Interbreeding
[Reproduction]
Gene
flow
Sub Population
X1 (migrant)
Variation
in
Local
population
Genetic Drift
It is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair) in a population over
successive generations.
*Natural Selection : The process by which nature selects and consolidate those
organisms which are more suitably adapted and posesses favorable variations
POPULATION Z
Sub Population
Z1
GEOGRAPHICAL
BARRIER
ISOLATION
(River, Mountain)
Sub Population
Z2
Over many-many generations
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Results in Accumulation of different variations in
Sub population Z1 and Z2
Genetic drift
Natural selection
Sub population Z1 and Z2 incapable
of interbreeding
Reproductive
Barrier
Formation of
Formation of
new Species 1
new Species 2
Genetic drift takes place due to
a) Severe changes in the DNA
b) Change in number of chromosomes
Evolution and classification
Both evolution and classification
are interlinked.
1. Classification of species is
reflection of their
evolutionary relationship.
2. The more characteristic two
species have in common the
more closely they are
related.
3. The more closely they are
related, the more recently
they have a common
ancestor.
4. S i m i l a r i t i e s a m o n g
organisms allow us to group
them together and to study
their characteristic
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Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
(Evidences of Evolution)
I.
Homologous Organs : (Morphological and anatomical evidences. These are
the organs that have same basic structural plan and origin but different
functions.
Example :
Forelimb of Horse
Winds of bat
Paw of a cat
(Running)
(flying)
(walk/scratch/attack)
Same basic
plan,
different
functions
II. Analogous Organs : These are the organs that have different origin and
structural plan but same function example :
Design different
Wings of bat fi
elongated fingers with skin folds
same function
ie. flight
Wings of bird fi
Feathery covering along the arm
III. Fossils : (Palaeontological evidences)
The remains and relics of dead organisms of the past.
Example :
i)
Fossil of wooly mammoth
ii) Archeopteryx (fossil bird)
iii) Dead insect caught in hot mud.
FOSSILS ARE PRESERVED TRACES OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Eg. AMMONITE
Fossil invertebrate
TRILOBITE
Fossil in vertebrate
KNIGHTIA
Fossil fish
RAJASAURUS
Fossil dinosaur skull
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AGE OF THE FOSSILS
i.
Deeper the fossil, older it is.
II. Detecting the ratios of different of
the same element in the fossil
material ie Radio-carbon dating.
[C-(14) dating)
Recent
1. ...........................
2. ...........................
3. ...........................
4. ...........................
5. ..........................
6. ..........................
Older
Evolution by stages
Evolution takes place in stages ie bit by bit over generations.
I.
Fitness advantage
Evolution of Eyes
Evolution of complex organs is not sudden it occurs due to minor changes
in DNA, however takes place bit by bit over generations.
enough to
Flat worm has rudimentary eyes give fitness
advantage
Insects have compound eyes
Humans have binocular eyes
II. Functional Advantage
Evolutions of feathers
Feathers fi
provide insulation in cold weather
but later they might become useful for flight.
Example :
Dinosaurs had feathers, but could not fly using feathers. Birds seem to have
later adapted the feathers to flight.
Artificial Selection :
Humans have been a powerful agent in modifying wild species to suit their own
requirement through out ages by using artificial selection. eg (i) Wild cabbage the
dissimilar looking structures have evolved from a common ancestral design. (ii)
Wheat (many varieties obtained due to artificial selection)
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WILD
CABBAGE
KALE
CABBAGE
with larger
leaves
with short distance
between the leaves
BROCCOLI
KOHL RABI
CAULIFLOWER
Has sterile
flowers
Arrested flower
development
With Swollen
parts
Molecular Phylogeny :
?
It is based on the idea that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic
events in evolution
?
Organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate greater
differences in their DNA
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Human Evolution
Tools to Study Human Evolutionary Relationship
Excavating
Time dating
Fossils
Determining
DNA
Sequences
Although there is great diversity of human forms all over the world get all humans
are a single species
GENETIC FOOTPRINTS OF HUMANS
Hundreds/thousand of years ago
Earliest members arose in Africa
East Asia
South Africa
Africa
Philippines
Island
of
Indonesia
West
Asia
Central
Asia
Australia
Eurasia
?
They did'nt go in a single line
?
They went forward and backward
?
Moved in and out of Africa
?
Sometimes came back to mix with each other.
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Define variation
2.
What is monohybird cross?
3.
What is dominant trait.
4.
What are genes?
5.
Define Homologous organs
6.
If an individual has XX chromosome [22+XX] will that individual be male
or female.
7.
Which plant Mendel had choosen for his experiments.
8.
How do Mendel's experiment show that traits may be dominant or recessive?
9.
Define analogous organs? Give example.
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1.
Differentiate between acquired and Inherited traits? Give example of each.
2.
Explain what are fossils? How the age of fossils be determined
3.
What is speciation? What factors lead to formation of a new species.
4.
Explain the mechanism of sex determination in humans.
5.
Differentiate between homologous and analogous organs. by giving
examples.
6.
Define inheritance. What are the units of inheritance
7.
What is genetic drift? How it contributes to the formation of new species
8.
Explain monohydrid cross by taking tall and dwarf plants. Mention the
phenotypic and genotypic ratio of F1 and F2 off springs.
Long Answer (5 Marks each)
1.
Explain the process of artificial selection by taking the example of wild
cabbage plant.
2.
Explain about the human evolution.
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