17 COMPUTER MODELS AND SOFTWARE

17.1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 17-1

17.2

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER MODELLING.................................................................... 17-1

17.3.

17.4

17.5

17.6

17.2.1

Advantages and Disadvantages ......................................................................... 17-1

17.2.2

Basic Principles ................................................................................................. 17-1

17.2.3

Training Needs ................................................................................................. 17-2

17.2.4

Problem Identification ....................................................................................... 17-2

17.2.5

Modelling Objectives ......................................................................................... 17-2

17.2.6

Modelling Procedures ........................................................................................ 17-2

OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE SOFTWARE............................................................................ 17-6

17.3.1

Classification Schemes ...................................................................................... 17-6

17.3.2

Software Selection ............................................................................................ 17-7

17.3.3

Public-Domain or Commercial Software ............................................................. 17-7

17.3.4

Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD)..................................................... 17-8

17.3.5

Geographic Information Systems (GIS).............................................................. 17-8

HYDROLOGIC MODELS ................................................................................................... 17-8

17.4.1

Description ....................................................................................................... 17-8

17.4.2

Rational Method Models .................................................................................... 17-8

17.4.3

Hydrograph Method Models............................................................................... 17-8

17.4.4

Rainfall-Runoff Routing Models.......................................................................... 17-9

17.4.5

Hydrologic Models for Other Purposes................................................................ 17-10

HYDRAULIC MODELS...................................................................................................... 17-10

17.5.1

Description ....................................................................................................... 17-10

17.5.2

Free Surface Hydraulics..................................................................................... 17-10

17.5.3

Pipe Hydraulics ................................................................................................. 17-11

17.5.4

Hydraulics of Drainage Networks ....................................................................... 17-12

WATER QUALITY MODELS .............................................................................................. 17-12

17.6.1

Description ....................................................................................................... 17-12

17.6.2

Water Quality Load Models................................................................................ 17-12

17.6.3

Water Quality Process Models............................................................................ 17-12

17.7

RECEIVING WATER MODELS .......................................................................................... 17-12

17.8

CURRENT STATE-OF-THE-ART ........................................................................................ 17-13

17.9

REVISIONS..................................................................................................................... 17-13

APPENDIX 17.A

LIST OF COMPUTER MODELLING SOFTWARE ................................................... 17-15

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

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Computer Models and Software

17.1

INTRODUCTION

Many new computational software have been developed

world-wide based on the intensive research effort in urban
hydrology, hydraulics and stormwater quality. An engineer
with access to computer facilities should normally choose
one of these tools, according to his design objectives and
the available resources. However, it should be borne in
mind that proper use of such a new method or tool
requires a good knowledge of the detailed operations that
the method or tool can perform. In other words, the
engineer should have knowledge of the hydrological,
hydraulic and water quality processes simulated by the tool
he is planning to use.
This Chapter discusses modelling, the process of setting up
and running a computer model, and provides an overview
of some of the modelling software currently available.

17.2

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
MODELLING

In the broadest context, a model can be defined as any

organised procedure for the analysis of a problem. With
such a definition, almost any traditional technique could be
included for discussion, from the Rational Method to unit
hydrographs. However, this Chapter treats a model in the
popular sense of a computer program (software) designed
to analyse one or many problems encountered in storm
drainage systems.
The US EPA defines models as processes which are " used
to increase the level of understanding of (natural or manmade) systems and the way in which they react to varying
conditions". By varying the input conditions, the user can
examine the effects of, for example, increased urban
development on a drainage system.
Computer models use the computational power of
computers to automate the tedious and time-consuming
manual calculations. Most models also include extensive
routines for data management, including input and output
procedures, and possibly including graphics and statistical
capabilities.
Computer modelling became an integral part of storm
drainage planning and design in the mid-1970s. Several
agencies overseas undertook major software developments
and these were soon supplemented by a plethora of
proprietary models, many of which were simply variants on
the originals. The proliferation of personal computers in
the 1990s has made it possible for virtually every engineer
to use state-of-the-art analytical technology for purposes
ranging from analysis of individual pipes to comprehensive
stormwater management plans for entire cities.
In addition to the simulation of hydrologic and hydraulic
processes, computer models can have other uses. They

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

can provide a quantitative means to test alternatives and

controls before implementation of expensive measures in
the field. If a model has been calibrated and verified at a
minimum one site, it may be used to simulate nonmonitored conditions and to extrapolate results to similar
ungauged sites. Models may be used to extend time series
of flows, stages and quality parameters beyond the
duration of measurements, from which statistical
performance measures then may be derived. They may
also be used for design optimisation and real-time control.
17.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
The analytical power of computer methods gives them
major advantages over manual techniques. This is likely to
result in more accurate designs, with cost savings by
avoiding over- or under-sizing. A very important factor is
that almost all computer models can fully account for
storage in all stages of the hydrologic/ hydraulic routing.
Recent work by Goyen & O'Loughlin (1999) has
demonstrated the importance of storage at all stages of
the stormwater process, even for individual houses.
Computer models allow some types of simulations to be
performed that could rarely be performed otherwise, since
periods of runoff or quality measurements in urban areas
are seldom very long. It should always be borne in mind,
however, that use of measured data is usually preferable
to the use of simulated data. Modelling is not a good
substitute for data collection, especially for water quality
parameters. Although modelling is generally cheaper than
data collection, the uncertainties involved, especially in
water quality simulation, mandate the collection of data for
model calibration and verification.
17.2.2 Basic Principles
The following basic principles apply to all forms of
computer modelling:
1.

All computer models require site-specific information

to be supplied by the user. This may range from
relatively simple data such as rainfall or drainage
system data, through to detailed parameters for
physical, chemical and biological water quality
processes.

2.

While modelling generally yields more information,

simpler methods may provide sufficient information for
developing a control strategy.
In general, the
simplest method that provides the desired analysis
should be used. The risk of using a more complex
(and presumably "better") model is that it requires
more expertise, data, support, etc. to use and
understand, with a consequent higher probability of
misapplication.

3.

If water quality problems are being considered, it still

may not be necessary to simulate quality processes
since most control strategies are based on hydrologic
or hydraulic considerations. Quality processes are

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Computer Models and Software

very difficult to simulate accurately and they generally

incorporate many heuristic procedures that require
extensive calibration (Huber, 1985). If abatement
strategies can be developed without the simulation of
water quality parameters, the overall modelling
program will be greatly simplified.
Models sometimes may be used to extrapolate beyond the
measured data record. It is important to recognise,
however, that models do not extend data, but rather
generate simulated numbers that should never be
assumed to be the same as data collected in the field.
Careful consideration should be given when using models
to provide input to receiving water quality analyses. The
quality response of most receiving waters is relatively
insensitive to such short-term variations.
In many
instances, the total storm load will suffice to determine the
receiving water response.
Simulation of short time
increment changes in concentrations and loads is generally
necessary only for analysis of control options, such as
storage or high-rate treatment, whose efficiency may
depend on the transient behaviour of the quality
constituents.
17.2.3 Training Needs
An often-quoted adage with computer applications is
'garbage in, garbage out'. It is essential to understand
that incorrect application of a computer model, can lead to
totally misleading results.
All computer models require some skill and knowledge,
although the depth of training required varies considerably.
Chapter 11 of this Manual noted the large gap between
current drainage design practice in Malaysia, which mostly
relies on a Modified Rational Method, and techniques in
other countries which increasingly use detailed computer
modelling.
Wisner and Conic (1996) made similar
comments, in regard to the situation in both Malaysia and
Indonesia, and suggested that an intermediate step such
as adoption of a unit hydrograph method, would be useful
in raising the understanding of local drainage engineers.
17.2.4 Problem Identification
Studies and projects involving urban stormwater runoff
quality can relate to many problems. In a narrower sense,
a water quality study may address a particular issue, such
as bacterial contamination of a beach, release of oxygen
demanding material into a stream or river, unacceptable
aesthetics of an open channel receiving urban runoff,
eutrophication of a lake, contamination of basements from
surcharged drains due to wet-weather flooding, etc.
Simulation of stormwater impacts on receiving water
quality involves modelling of both quantity and quality.
Superimposed on almost any water quality modelling effort

17-2

is the need to analyse controls and abatement strategies.

The considerable uncertainty inherent in quality modelling
makes the effort especially difficult.
17.2.5 Modelling Objectives
If a problem does require modelling, the corresponding
modelling objectives should be clearly defined. Models
may be used for objectives such as the following:
1.

To characterise the urban runoff for temporal and

spatial flow distributions, pollutant ranges, etc.

2.

To provide input to a receiving water quality analysis,

e.g. to drive a receiving water quality model.

3.

To determine effects, magnitudes,

combinations, etc. of control options.

4.

To perform frequency analysis on hydrologic or quality

parameters, e.g. to determine return periods of
concentration/loads.

5.

To provide input to economic analyses.

locations,

17.2.6 Modelling Procedures

According to the requirements of the software used, the
designer will first assemble and carefully check all the
required data on design rainfall, drainage geometry,
hydraulic roughness, runoff coefficients, and rainfall
abstraction parameters.
In many cases, some of the desired data will not be
available and the designer will have to make assumptions
and/or use default values given in the users manual of the
chosen software. If these default values seem unsuitable
for the design conditions, the designer should test the
model sensitivity to these values, using their probable
range. If the model is too sensitive to such parameters, it
should not be used and the designer should select another
model of a similar complexity, or even a simpler one (e.g.
as simple as the Rational Method).
The first review and analysis of the required and available
data is very important and should not be attempted
without a detailed users manual. From a general point of
view, the designer should not operate any comprehensive
software without careful inspection of its detailed users
manual describing, with a sufficient detail, the operations,
which are performed.
After the preliminary analysis, and according to the design
objectives, drainage network complexity, available data,
computer facilities, and other factors, the designer should
be able to select an appropriate modelling procedure and
software to suit the desired purpose.
(a) Data Requirements
Before a model is even considered, some data will be
available to indicate that there is a problem. Such

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Computer Models and Software

observations constitute a data set in and of themselves,

and usually indicate the direction for subsequent data
collection. At every stage of the preliminary analysis, one
must ask if measured data can solve the problem. If so,
there is no need to model.

antecedent conditions for runoff and quality, can then be

analysed in more detail in a single-event mode. Rainfall is
variable in space as well as in time; models that accept
multiple hyetographs can simulate storm motion and
spatial variation that can strongly affect runoff.

If modelling is required, there are three types of required

data; model input data, calibration data, and verification
data. Input data consist simply of the required parameters
to run the model, and typically include rainfall information,
area, imperviousness, runoff coefficient and other quantity
prediction parameters, plus quality prediction parameters
such as constituent concentration (median value and
coefficient of variation, CV), regression relationships, buildup and washoff parameters, etc. Calibration is the process
of parameter adjustment to obtain a match between
predicted and measured output. Verification holds the
parameters constant and tests the calibration on an
independent data set. Calibration is used to estimate the
value of these parameters, and verification is used to test
the validity of the estimate.

A critical factor in successful hydraulic modelling of existing

drainage systems is an accurate survey to determine invert
elevations and conduit or channel condition. These are
seldom the same as shown on as-built plans because of
settlement, deterioration, and modifications to the system.

Data sets that can be used for calibration and verification

may not exist for the site of interest. If the project
objectives absolutely require such data (e.g., if a model
must be calibrated to derive a receiving water quality
model), then extensive local monitoring may be necessary.
(b) Basic Input Data
All models require the user to enter some form of input
data.
For quantity simulation, these data include
catchment areas, imperviousness, slopes, roughness, etc.;
channel and conduit linkages, shapes, sizes, slopes,
roughnesses, invert and round elevations; characteristics
of hydraulic structures or controls such as weirs, orifices
and pumps; depth-area-volume-outflow relationships for
storage units; information on downstream hydraulic
controls, such as river stages or tidal elevations. Since the
overall system is driven by rainfall, suitable rainfall
hyetographs must be found (see below), as well as
baseflow, if any, in the receiving waters.
Rainfall is the driving force for all hydrologic simulation
models. If adequate measured rainfall is not available, a
good calibration between measured and predicted
hydrograph cannot be expected. For calibration purposes,
measured rainfall must be input to produce output for
comparison with measured hydrographs. However for
design purposes, synthetic design storms are used (see
Chapter 13).
Continuous simulation or statistical methods offer
alternatives to the use of pre-defined design rainfalls. For
example, a selection of historic storms can be made from a
continuous simulation on the basis of the return period of
the runoff or quality parameter of interest, e.g., peak flow,
maximum runoff volume, maximum stage, peak runoff
load, peak runoff concentration. These events, with their

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

For water quality simulation, measured or estimated

concentrations are generally used to simulate the mix of
stormwater and baseflow that occurs during a storm, as
well as the characteristics of solids scour and deposition
that are to be simulated.
(c) Solution Methods
Methods of various types have been developed for the
numerical solution of the equations describing unsteady
and varied flow: these have included characteristic
methods, finite-difference methods and finite-element
methods.
At the present time, finite-difference methods form the
basis of the most commonly used procedures/models for
the solution of the equations: the partial differential
equations are discretised and replaced by the
corresponding finite-difference expressions, and values of
water level and velocity are derived at discrete locations
and at discrete values of time. The progress of the
calculation can be visualised as a progression across a
plane defined by x and t coordinate axes, x denoting
position and t denoting time. The calculation starts from a
set of initial conditions specified (for each member of a set
of discrete values of x) at an initial value of time, and
solutions (for stage and velocity) are obtained at discrete
values of x at successive values of time that is, solutions
are obtained at discrete points on an x-t grid, on which the
grid spacings are denoted by x (the incremental distance
along the channel) and t (the time increment). It is not
necessary that x and t have constant values over the
entire x-t grid, although a constant value is usually
specified for the time increment t.
Finite difference methods can be classified as

explicit methods, or

implicit methods

In an explicit method, the determination of the flow

parameters at a given value of x (position) and t (time) is
carried out without reference to the parameter values at
other values of x at the same value of t that is, the
advancement of the solution through a time step is carried
out at one grid point at a time. An implicit method, on the
other hand, involves the setting-up and solution of a set of

17-3

Computer Models and Software

simultaneous equations involving the unknown parameter

values at all values of x (together with the boundary
conditions) at a given value of time. Some methods
incorporate features of both classes, and hybrid implicitexplicit methods exist.
(d) Numerical Stability
If a numerical model is to yield useful results, it is essential
that the scheme of computation on which the model is
based should cause errors in calculated parameter values
to decay rather than to propagate with increasing
amplitude as the calculation proceeds forward in time. A
computation scheme having this attribute is said to be
stable. In practice, stability requirements impose upper
limits on the spacing (x) of values of x and on the time
increment t used in the calculation.
The conditions for stability in computation schemes of the
explicit type are generally defined by the relation known as
the Courant Criterion.
Computation schemes of the implicit type are inherently
more stable than explicit schemes, as a result of the
interaction amongst the simultaneous equations which are
solved at each time step in an implicit scheme. Hausler
and Apelt (1981) discuss the stability of implicit
computational schemes.
(e) Initial and Boundary Conditions
The calculation starts with a prescribed set of initial
conditions and must incorporate, as it progresses through
time, the appropriate boundary conditions. Zoppou and
O'Neill (1981) discuss some aspects of initial and boundary
conditions.
In the interests of efficiency, it is desirable that the
prescribed initial conditions should be as realistic as
possible. Uniform flow conditions, or a steady-state water
surface profile, may provide a suitable set of initial
conditions. In general, the effects of the initial conditions
will decay as the calculation progresses; Zoppou and
ONeill (1981) have drawn attention to certain cases in
which errors in the initial conditions may not decay.
The boundary conditions which may exist at the
extremities of a numerical model include a specification of
discharge as a function of time (for example, a flood
hydrograph), a specification of stage as a function of
discharge (a rating curve) and a specification of stage as a
function of time (for example, a tide curve).
(f) Calibration and Verification
The process of calibration of the model involves the
adjustment (tuning) of the model to cause it to
reproduce, with an acceptable degree of precision, known

17-4

prototype behaviour. Adjustment (usually on a trial-anderror basis) of the following features may be undertaken:

details of the computation scheme itself;

the grid spacing, the distance x and the time step t;

the definition in the model of the channel/storage

geometry;

values of the roughness parameter for various parts of

the boundary;

boundary conditions;

values of discharge coefficients in cell models.

Failure to reproduce prototype behaviour may be due to

errors in geometry: such errors may arise either from
actual errors in survey information or from erroneous entry
of data into the model. Where the form of a channel reach
of irregular shape has been schematised and
approximated by a regular geometric shape, adjustment of
the schematised shape may be required.
Initial estimates of values of the Manning roughness
parameter will usually be derived by application of
recognised procedures, on the basis of the recognisable
physical characteristics of the boundary surfaces. It is to
be expected that calibration of the model should be
possible without gross variations of the roughness
parameter values from these initial estimates, although the
effects of flow unsteadiness may necessitate some
variation, particularly in cases involving tidal flows (with
reversals of direction) in alluvial channels. Any necessity
to adopt roughness parameter values which are grossly
inconsistent with the physical characteristics of the channel
boundaries should be a cause for concern, and must
dictate caution in the use of the model for the prediction of
flow parameters under conditions which are substantially
different from the conditions applying in the calibration of
the model.
Verification of the model involves further confirmation,
after the process of calibration has been completed, of the
models ability to reproduce known prototype behaviour.
The prototype data used in verification of the model should
obviously be independent of the data used as the basis for
calibration of the model.
Only in exceptional circumstances will a completely
adequate body of appropriate and reliable prototype data
be available for the calibration and verification of the
model. The probable limitations applying to the reliability
and precision of the available data should be kept in mind.
It is necessary to assess, in each individual case, the
precision with which agreement between model results
and prototype data must be achieved in order to establish
that calibration and verification of the model have been
effected; this assessment must take into account all the
circumstances associated with the particular investigation.

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Computer Models and Software

(g) Accuracy
On the assumption that a given computation scheme is
stable, as discussed in the preceding section, consideration
of the accuracy of the scheme involves assessment of the
correctness of the results yielded by the scheme that
is, of the extent to which the calculated parameter values
are in agreement with the true physical values. In the
case of free-surface flow in irregular channels, the true
values are rarely known. Thus, in general it is not possible
to assess the absolute accuracy of a computation scheme.
The inherent accuracy of a computation scheme will
depend upon the extent to which higher-order terms are
included in the finite-difference expressions derived from
the basic differential equations or use of higher order
elements in finite element method. In principle, the
accuracy of a scheme can be improved by the inclusion of
higher-order terms. The accuracy of the results derived
from a given finite difference model can also be improved
by decreasing x and t. Improvements in accuracy
gained in either of these ways will involve increases in the
run-time and costs of operating the model.
Recent improvements in computing power have allowed
most of these problems to be overcome. In general it can
be stated that with most present-day models, errors
arising from the inherent characteristics of the
computation scheme will probably not be significant, in
comparison with the much greater uncertainties associated
with the definition of rainfall inputs, losses, system
geometry and hydraulic roughness.
(h) Sensitivity Analysis
Before attempting to calibrate and verify a model, the user
should be familiar with its capabilities and nuances. Some
models have very few parameters to adjust, simplifying the
calibration process, but others may have more. The user
should perform a sensitivity analysis (with hypothetical
data if necessary), varying key parameters by known
percentages and inspecting the change in output. In this
way, it will be far easier to know which parameters should
be changed during the calibration process.

output agrees with measured observations. For example,

the predicted hydrograph or pollutograph may be adjusted
to agree with the measured hydrograph or pollutograph.
For most models, calibration will be performed using
observed storm events. How many storms are required
cannot be answered exactly, but 3-6 events are desirable.
The
calibration
process
should
be
performed
simultaneously for all available storms in order to produce
a robust calibration. In this instance, the single set
calibration parameters will result in less-than-perfect fits
for any single storm but better for all storms together, and
presumably better for further predictions.
Calibration tends to be subjective. When several storms
are used, it is customary to plot predicted versus measured
peaks and predicted versus measured volumes, seeking to
produce points that fall on the 45-degree line indicating
perfect agreement. Deviations from the line of perfect fit
are one measure of the goodness of fit. Hydrographs
should also be compared visually for shape and peak.
During the calibration process, care must be taken to make
sure that the physical parameters are not adjusted outside
their reasonable range to achieve a "calibration". For
example, if the Manning roughness coefficient for a
concrete pipe has to be set at 0.10 to achieve calibration,
most likely there is an error in the input data of some
other variable such as channel/pipe slope or model
conceptualisation.
Calibration usually provides the only means for
determining values for input parameters related to water
quality, such as build-up rates and washoff coefficients.
Although limited measurements of surface constituents
have been conducted (Terstriep et al, 1982), such data are
generally useful only for a first parameter estimate.
Quality concentrations and loads are so difficult to predict
that calibration data provide almost the only practical
means for parameter estimation.
(j) Verification

For example, in urban areas, most models are highly

sensitive to imperviousness but only slightly sensitive to
soil infiltration parameters. First runs with any model
should deal with a very simple configuration for which the
result is known, e.g., steady rain on an impervious surface
and build up gradually to more complex and realistic
systems.
In this way, the user can exercise good
judgement regarding the validity and reasonableness of
the results.

Verification is the process of testing whether a calibrated

model can reproduce observations in an independent set
of model events. Ideally, an equal number of storms
should be used for verification as for calibration; however,
1-3 events often seems to be the pragmatic limit of the
number of storms that can be afforded for this purpose.
Goodness of fit may be assessed similarly to the method
used for calibration. In the more unlikely event that the
verification is poor, an improved calibration can be
attempted. This is sometimes performed using a different
grouping of storms for calibration and verification than was
used during the first attempt.

(i)

(k) Uncertainty Analysis

Calibration

Model calibration consists of adjusting model parameters

(e.g. imperviousness, roughness) until the predicted

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Uncertainty analysis is rapidly becoming part of accepted

modelling practice. It involves varying the model-input

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Computer Models and Software

parameters and examining the effect on the output, as

described above under Sensitivity Analysis.
Uncertainty analysis can be used to compute expected
output variability as a function of ill-defined input
parameters. This technique can serve as a means of
quantifying the model's acceptability.
Uncertainty analysis can also be useful in evaluating the
relationship between field data sampling and modelling.
Hypothetical sampling scenarios can be tested to
understand the expected uncertainty in model output. If
the level of output variability is too large, the sampling
strategy can be improved until an acceptable level of
model output uncertainty is achieved. Finally, uncertainty
analysis can also be used to quantify model acceptability
(expansion of goodness-of-fit testing).
(l)

Production Runs

Following the successful calibration and verification

processes, the model is ready for application to the
practical problem. During this phase, just as in earlier
phases, all model parameters and results should be
double-checked for reasonableness. Continuity checks
built into a model often aid in checking results so that an
unrealistic gain or loss of water or pollutants can be
noticed.
Violations of continuity sometimes indicate
numerical problems, but more likely they may indicate an
error in model schematisation.

17.3.

OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE SOFTWARE

17.3.1 Classification Schemes

Several classification schemes can be developed for
models and software, to differentiate the type and
versatility of various models, e.g., deterministic versus
stochastic, transient versus steady state, lumped versus
distributed, number of dimensions, quality and/or
simulation, etc.
One way of looking at modelling is to consider that there
are several levels of the process/application from
planning, analysis and design to operation that can be
used for classifying software.
(a) Planning Level
Planning involves a comparison of general design and/or
mitigation strategies and may include optimisation and risk
assessment.
At the planning level, the relative
effectiveness of alternative drainage and flood control
practices may be assessed and economic trade-offs
evaluated. Modelling is likely to be somewhat less detailed
in an effort to screen several alternative strategies.
Continuous simulation can be useful at this level to
determine relative flooding frequency as affected by

17-6

alternative stormwater management programs, selection of

hydrologic events for detailed design and assessment of
the reliability of a proposed design, and economic
optimisation.
(b) Analysis and Design Level
At the analysis/design level, the detailed analysis of an
existing
system,
proposed
system,
or
system
improvements is investigated. Examples include analysis
of alternative surface drainage patterns, location of
detention storage facilities, and alternative runoff transport
systems (e.g. swales vs. pipes). Design models must be
capable of performing realistic simulation of hydrologic,
hydraulic and possibly, water quality phenomena.
(c) Operation Level
Operational control facilities/structures are devices that
function during a storm such as variable weirs, pumps and
gates. The operational rules and performance of these
devices can be simulated using an appropriate computer
software in order to optimise their operation rules and
design. A further development is application of real-time
control of pumps, diversions, weirs and storages to
optimise the performance of the drainage system.
Another important division of models is into deterministic
and stochastic types. Deterministic models attempt to
reproduce physical, chemical and even biological processes
(to the extent that such processes can be understood
scientifically) to produce outputs, while stochastic models
represent the outcomes of processes by statistical analysis.
In practice many models use a mixture of the two
techniques. Processes that are too complex or poorly
understood to be modelled deterministically, may be
represented by statistical characteristics; while many
statistical models also employ simple process-type
mechanisms.
A third useful classification is into hydrologic, hydraulic and
water quality model types. The usage of these three
terms is the same as elsewhere in this Manual. Some
models are only of one type, but others include two or all
three of the above types. A fourth type of model, of
receiving waters, is used in environmental assessments.
Receiving water models are outside the scope of this
Manual and therefore, they are only briefly mentioned.
Quantity modelling is relatively well understood. Many
models can convert rainfall into runoff and perform flow
routing; the user can make a selection on the basis of
method used, computer supported options included, etc.
A reasonably accurate prediction of a runoff hydrograph
will result if the modeller knows just three input
parameters: the catchment imperviousness (or directly
connected or hydraulically effective imperviousness), the
catchment area and the rainfall hyetograph. Given these

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Computer Models and Software

three parameters, hydrograph volumes and peaks may be

predicted within reasonable accuracy even before
calibration.
Quality modelling is quite different. In a review of quality
modelling methodologies, Huber (1985) concluded that
prediction of absolute values of concentrations of quality
parameters was not possible without calibration and
verification data. That is, first-cut modelling attempts may
differ from true values by orders of magnitude for
concentrations and loads. The general conclusion is that
modelling of quality parameters should be performed only
when necessary, and only when requisite calibration and
verification data are available. Nevertheless, modelling
without measured calibration and verification data can still
be used to assess the relative effect of control strategies.
This can be a valuable planning tool.
Subsequent sections discuss each type of model. A
summary of some of the currently available modelling
software is given in Appendix 17.A.
17.3.2 Software Selection
The brief abstracts in subsequent sections, information in
Appendix 17.A, and the comparative reviews referenced
previously may help in selection of modelling software, but
the choice is often made on much more pragmatic
grounds. For instance, a Government agency may specify
that certain software be used for reasons of
standardisation; or local support may be available for a
particular software.
Probably the most important factor is familiarity of the
potential user with techniques employed by the software.
Inferior techniques applied by a knowledgeable engineer
will often produce much more reliable results than a
sophisticated model that the user does not understand and
therefore treats as a black box.
Data availability is another important consideration. For
instance, complex flow routing cannot be performed in a
stormwater system without extensive data, which may lead
the engineer to a simpler technique that is not so data
intensive. The need for data should not be ignored,
however. If the problem is sufficiently complex, there may
be no alternative to the use of a sophisticated model and
its attendant data collection requirements.
The number of modelling options is very large; the reviews
provided here are representative of the best known
operational models, but are not all-inclusive. The potential
modeller should consult current publications for
information on availability of new models. All of the listed
models use metric units.
This Chapter discusses only those models that are
operational, i.e. defined as satisfying the following three
criteria:

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

1.

An operational model must have documentation. This

must include a users manual that describes input data
requirements, outputs to be expected, and computer
requirements. In addition, the theory and numerical
procedures used in the model predictions should be
stated. Documentation is the characteristic that most
often distinguishes a model that can be accessed and
used by others from the other computerised
procedures described in the literature.

2.

An operational model must have support. Normally

this is provided on commercial terms by the original
software developer. Support means that the user can
obtain
answers,
by
telephone
or
written
correspondence, to problems that arise during model
implementation and use.

3.

An operational software program should have been

widely used by other than just the software developer.
Regardless of its technical virtues, a procedure
described in a single journal article or report with no
experience or review by the engineering community
is a poor candidate for use by a third party.
Furthermore, user feedback is an invaluable means for
identifying software limitations and bugs, and
initiating improvements and corrections to a software.
Of course, no model will meet this third criterion
initially, and the prospective user must decide on the
relative merits of new options versus older ones.

17.3.3 Public-Domain or Commercial Software

Modelling software may be provided either in the public
domain, or by commercial suppliers. A few well-known
models, such as SWMM, have versions in both domains
and it is important that the user considers the choice.
Public-domain software usually is produced by either
government agencies, particularly in the USA, or academic
institutions. It is available either free or at a nominal cost
(usually less than US $100) to cover the cost of
distribution. Many public-domain models are available for
download from the Internet and these have been noted,
where possible, in Appendix 17.A. Public-domain software
generally has only limited user support and documentation.
In some cases volunteer user groups can provide support.
Training courses may be available from commercial
operators.
Commercial software, on the other hand, has a higher cost
but contain more useful features. Value-added features
such as graphical interfaces or linkages to Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and CADD are usually only
available in commercial software. On-line documentation
is now accepted practice and it should be provided with
the software. Almost all commercial software suppliers
offer training, support and more regular upgrades and all
of these features would involve additional costs. The cost
of these features should be compared with their value to
the user.

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Computer Models and Software

An important consideration with either type of software is

the reliability of the supplier. Problems will be caused if
either a public-domain or commercial software ceases to
be supported. Because of incompatible data formats it is
difficult to transfer data from one model to another.
17.3.4 Computer Aided Design and Drafting
(CADD)
Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) has become
synonymous with microcomputer workstations and high
quality graphics or drawings transferable from the
computer to mylar, and then to blueprints. It is possible to
computerise standard design details, such as manholes,
catch basins, headwall and piping, and to store them in the
computer for later recall and insertion on a detail sheet.
Many manufacturers of drainage products have developed
design drawings that can be modified on the users
computer to customise them for an individual project.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) in the field of urban
development, usually involves the creation of a Digital
Terrain Model or DTM. This is a three-dimensional model
of the existing and finished land surfaces by coordinates
and graphical representations. Several CAD programs are
able to directly generate a DTM from survey data obtained
by means of a Total Station instrument. Once a DTM has
been set up it facilitates many of the routine design
calculations, and it also allows rapid checking of a number
of design alternatives.
In hydrology and hydraulics, computer simulation has been
significantly enhanced by the use of graphic displays to aid
in data entry and editing, for instance to follow graphically
changes in the hydraulic gradient as the simulation
progresses.
Moreover, these capabilities have been
expanded and merged with surveying and drafting
packages to provide even greater flexibility. For example,
after digitising topographic data into the computer, a
detention basin can be graphically designed on the
computer screen.
The basin's volume then can be
calculated from the drawings and interactively input into
the hydraulic model (in the models required format).
Other programs are available that can combine standard
input data with data supplied for the individual design by
the user and calculate times of concentration, travel times,
inflow/outflow hydrographs, stage/storage/ outflow curves,
etc.
The rapid improvements in both software and
computer hardware mean that, in the future, the
possibilities will be limited only by the imagination and skill
of the user.
17.3.5 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) enable the user to
incorporate a wide range of spatial information about the
physical system into a computer database. This can
include not only information about the ground surface, but

17-8

details of the urban infrastructure (water, wastewater,

streets, electric, gas, etc).
Rapid developments are occurring in the GIS field in order
to integrate all the elements described above into a
complete mapping and hydrology/hydraulic analysis and
design package that can:
1.

Provide watershed physical feature mapping

2.

Compute hydrologic model input parameters such as

catchment areas.

3.

Model the rainfall/runoff process to determine design

flows

4.

Provide the capability for on-screen design of the

system, including conveyance structures and
appurtenances

5.

Optimise the final design

6.

Map or draw the system as designed, including plan

and profile drawings of all structural components.

These developments can eliminate many of the repetitive

calculations in drainage design. Opportunities for linkage
to GIS systems are an important factor in the selection of
computer models.
It should be noted that the requirements for checking and
verification of designs so developed will still be necessary
(or perhaps even more important).

17.4

HYDROLOGIC MODELS

17.4.1 Description
Most hydrologic models attempt to simulate the rainfallrunoff process. This ensures that the effects of rainfall,
the single most important hydrologic variable, are properly
taken into account.
17.4.2 Rational Method Models
The Rational Method is quite simple to program into a
spreadsheet and therefore few efforts have been made to
produce it in computer model form. One such model
which is used for small sub-divisions in Australia and
elsewhere is RatHGL.
This software combines the
Rational Method hydrology with HGL calculations in an
iterative manner.
17.4.3 Hydrograph Method Models
(a)

Time-Area Method

The Illinois Urban Drainage Area Simulator (ILLUDAS)

(Terstriep and Stall, 1974) evolved from the British Road
Research Laboratory Model (Watkins, 1962; Stall and
Terstriep, 1972). The model uses time-area methods to
generate hydrographs from the directly connected
impervious area and from the pervious area. For pervious

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Computer Models and Software

The ILSAX program (O'Loughlin, 1993) is a widely used

Time-Area model in Australia. It is a general-purpose
hydrologic and hydraulic model. ILSAX is a MS-DOS
program developed from the South African ILLUDAS-SA
program, which was itself a development of the American
ILLUDAS program and the British Transport and Road
Research Laboratory Method (known as the TRRL or RRL
model). In 1998 an enhanced version of ILSAX, known as
DRAINS was released commercially in Australia. Within a
single package, it integrates several types of procedure
(design, analysis, hydrology and hydraulics) and various
scales of operation (property drainage, street drainage,
trunk drainage and river flooding analysis). Its design and
analysis procedures lie between relatively simple methods
(such as the Rational Method and a water surface profile
for maximum flows) and rigorous, complex procedures
(such as hydrological physical process models and full
hydrodynamic, unsteady flow models), providing a good
compromise between simplicity, ease of use and accuracy.
DRAINS/ILSAX and the Transport and Road Research
Laboratory (TRRL) Model, both use the Hydrograph
Method. These models require the user to divide the
catchment into sub-areas and enter the following general
types of input: catchment characteristics, travel times,
and characteristics of the assumed concentrated storage at
the sub-area outlet. DRAINS/ILSAX allows for separate
routing of three distinct areas:

directly-connected impervious area

supplementary area

pervious area

Separate routing is recommended in urban areas in order

to adequately represent the catchment response.
Other similar hydrograph models/Software include MIDUSS
and StormCAD (Appendix 17.A).
(b)

SCS Method

The original Soil Conservation Service (SCS) methodology

developed for general application (USDA, 1971) was later
adapted specifically to urban areas, and the latter
procedure has come to be known as TR55 (USDA, 1975).

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

An updated users manual is available (USDA, 1986a),

along with a microcomputer version (USDA, 1986b).
Unit hydrographs are used to convert rainfall into runoff.
Flow routing in channels can be performed separately by
another model such as by the companion TR20 program
(USDA, 1983). SCS methods are widely used in the United
States due to the wealth of soil information provided by
the agency. Additional background on the method is
provided by Viessman et al (1989) and McCuen (1982).
Information on application is usually available from local
SCS offices as well.
17.4.4 Rainfall-Runoff Routing Models
Rainfall-runoff models are so called because they use
various mathematical representations of the rainfall-runoff
process. A generalised depiction of this process is shown
in Figure 17.1.
The different formulations vary in
complexity and suitability for different applications.

Rainfall

Depression
storage

Evapo-transpiration

areas, the Horton infiltration equation is used to generate

typical infiltration rates based on input of the soils SCS
hydrologic group. A design routine is included that will resize pipes of insufficient hydraulic capacity. User-provided
stage/discharge/ storage relationships are used to provide
detention facilities anywhere in the system. Plots of
calculated and observed hydrographs may be produced.
Its simplicity and metric option have given ILLUDAS
widespread use. Although quality is not formally included
in the model, it has been added for special applications
(Noel and Terstriep, 1982).

Runoff

Upper soil
storage
Lower soil
storage

Loss to deep
storage

Figure 17.1 Rainfall-Runoff Processes

In urban drainage applications, separate routing of the
impervious and pervious catchment area components is
recommended in order to adequately represent the
catchment response.
RORB (Laurenson and Mein, 1990) and RAFTS (Goyen et
al, 1991) are Australian examples of rainfall-runoff and
streamflow routing models. Both are suitable for systems
ranging from urban drains to large river catchments. They
include optional channel routing and optional storage
routing for dams or ponds. Alternatively, they can be used
in combination with a detailed hydraulic model such as
those in Section17.5. Other overseas programs with

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Computer Models and Software

similar capabilities include HEC-1 or its latest version

HEC-HMS.
The HEC-1 model developed by the U.S. Corps of
Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Centre is designed to
simulate the surface runoff response of a river catchment
to precipitation by representing the catchment as an
interconnected system of hydrologic and hydraulic
components. Each component models, an aspect of the
precipitation-runoff process within a portion of the
catchment, commonly referred to as a sub-catchment. A
component may represent a surface runoff entity, a stream
channel, or a reservoir. The result of the modelling
process is the computation of streamflow hydrographs at
desired locations in the river catchment.
Multiplanmultiflood analysis allows the simulations of up to nine
multiples (ratios) of a design flood for up to five different
plans (or characterisations) of a stream network in a single
computer run.
Dam-break simulation provides the
capability to analyse the consequences of dam overtopping
and structural failures.
The original version of the Storm Water Management
Model (SWMM) was developed for EPA as single-event
model specifically for the analysis of combined sewer
overflows (Metcalf and Eddy Inc., 1971).
Through
continuous maintenance and support, the software now is
well suited to all types of storm water management from
urban drainage to flood routing and floodplain analysis.
Version 4 (Huber and Dickinson, 1988; Roesner et al,
1988) performs both continuous and single-event
simulations.
SWMM is segmented into the Runoff, Transport, Extran,
Storage/Treatment and Statistics blocks for rainfall-runoff,
routing and statistical computations. The Runoff block
provides five alternative hydrograph methods: the Runoff
Non-linear Method, Kinematic Wave, Laurenson Routing,
SCS Unit Hydrograph, and Time-Area Methods. Water
quality may be simulated in all blocks except EXTRANS,
and metric units are optional. Ex-proprietary portions have
been adapted for various specific purposes and locale by
individual consultants and other federal agencies, e.g.,
FHWA.
Mainframe and microcomputer versions are
available from EPA in Athens, Georgia. Several proprietary
versions are available (see list in Appendix 17.A).
17.4.5 Hydrologic Models for Other Purposes
All of the methods listed in the preceding sections can be
successfully used in urban drainage calculations. These
calculations are primarily concerned with flow peaks during
intense rainfall. Under these conditions, impervious area
response dominates and the influence of soil type and loss
rate is relatively insignificant.
Different problems arise in the modelling of large
catchment areas and river systems. The influence of
pervious areas, soil loses and evapo-transpiration becomes

17-10

significant. Rainfall-runoff models can be used in this

situation with careful calibration. The issues involved in
modelling the hydrology of large river systems are outside
the scope of this Manual.
Many of the well-known hydraulic models listed in the next
section have optional input hydrograph generation
procedures. For example, SWMM has a range of options in
its RUNOFF module, ranging from simple Rational Method
type calculations to rainfall-runoff routing. Some of the
widely-used hydrologic software in Europe and the US are
designed for calculating inflows to combined sewer
systems. As such they have only limited application to
drainage problems in Malaysia. Also, it should be borne in
mind that different parts of the world have very different
climate and hydrologic responses.
More research is
needed to identify the most suitable hydrologic models for
Malaysian conditions.

17.5

HYDRAULIC MODELS

17.5.1 Description
All hydraulic models are deterministic. The basic hydraulic
and hydrodynamic equations are well known and described
in Chapter 12, and in numerous theoretical texts. Different
hydraulic models take various approaches to solving these
equations within the bounds of user friendliness,
reasonable computing requirements, and stability.
Unlike the situation with hydrologic models, the basic
hydraulic principles are common throughout the world and
therefore there is no difficulty associated with adopting
models developed in other countries.
17.5.2 Free Surface Hydraulics
(a)

Steady-state Models

By far the most widely used steady-state one-dimensional

hydraulic model for open channels is HEC-RAS or its
predecessor, HEC-2. This program, which was developed
by the U.S. Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering
Centre, is intended for calculating water surface profiles for
steady, gradually varied flow in natural or man-made
channels. Both subcritical and supercritical flow profiles
can be calculated. The effects of various obstructions such
as bridges, culverts, weirs and structures in the floodplain
may be considered in the computations.
The computational procedure is based on the solution of
the one-dimensional energy equation with energy loss due
to friction evaluated with Mannings equation.
The
computational procedure is generally known as the
standard-step method. The program is also designed for
application in floodplain management and flood insurance
studies to evaluate floodway encroachments and to
designate flood hazard zones. It is also capable of

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Computer Models and Software

assessing the effects of channel improvements and levees

on water surface profiles.
HEC-RAS was developed from HEC-2 to provide better
capability with modern personal and microcomputers. The
current Version 2.2 released in 1998, has user-friendly
data entry and graphical output and a comprehensive
online help function. HEC-RAS is available both in the
public domain and commercially.
(b)

One-dimensional Hydrodynamic Models

Among the best-known and widely used one-dimensional

open channel hydrodynamic models are MIKE-11 and
EXTRAN. MIKE-11 is mainly suitable for rivers. Both
models use a link-node approach where the channel is
divided into sections, of uniform cross-section and flow.
Flow hydrographs and other boundary conditions are
applied at nodes.
EXTRAN, a component of SWMM is a one-dimensional
model, which is particularly applicable to urban drainage
channels, where it is necessary to be able to also model
structures such as weirs, culverts, drops and super-critical
flow.
Hydrodynamic models are recommended for situations
where storage behaviour and other time-dependent effects
such as varying tailwater, are being considered. Steadystate models such as HEC-RAS can give misleading results
in such situations.

In a link-node model, the channel system is schematised

(in plan) in the form of a system of storage elements, each
of which is centred on a node of the model, and a system
of conveyance elements (channels) connecting the nodes.
The storage elements and the conveyance elements are
not physically separate the storage elements collectively
occupy the entire volume of the channel system, as also
(in general) do the conveyance elements. Accordingly, a
given element of space within the channel system will
usually form part of a storage element and also part of a
conveyance element. Operation of the model involves the
application, at each time step, of the one-dimensional
equation of motion to the flow in each conveyance element
and of the continuity equation at each storage element.
(c)

Two-dimensional Hydrodynamic Models

In a narrow river channel, the predominant direction of

flow in the channel is parallel to the boundaries. In a
pond, the boundaries dictate the flow pattern only in the
immediate vicinity of the boundaries.
The investigation of flow in ponds requires the use of a
two-dimensional model. With the x and y co-ordinate
directions in the horizontal plane, the governing equations
are:

the Equation of Motion for the x co-ordinate direction;

the Equation of Motion for the y co-ordinate direction;

the Equation of Continuity, in a form appropriate to

two-dimensional flow.

Up to this point, the discussion has been limited to

consideration of a one-dimensional model of flow in a
single channel. An extension of the concept permits the
investigation of flow in a channel system which consists of
(or may be schematised into the form of) a network, of
greater or less complexity, of one-dimensional channels by
constructing a branched link-node system (Phillips et al,
1991).

Starting from a prescribed set of initial conditions, the

calculation is advanced through time in a manner
analogous to that outlined above of a one-dimensional
model.

Examples of such systems include channels with junctions

(of tributary channels) or branches, or where the flow is
divided around one or more islands. Such a configuration
may also be used to represent flow in a channel of
compound cross section where the interaction between the
main channel flow and the overbank flow is of such
complexity that the traditional one-dimensional approach,
is considered inadequate.

17.5.3 Pipe Hydraulics

The simplest type of network model is that in which the

channel system consists of a main channel and tributary
streams only that is, the system includes junctions but
does not include branches or flow divisions. When channel
systems of greater complexity are considered, two
particular types of network model may be recognised the
link-node type and the cell type.

two-dimensional models may also be used for wide rivers,

floodplains and estuaries. Such applications are generally
outside the scope of this Manual.

(a)

Steady-State Models

In contrast to the widespread use of HEC-RAS for open

channels, steady-state pipe hydraulic models are not
widely used.
Essentially they perform the same
calculations as in the manual Hydraulic Grade Line
computation, described in Chapter 25. The hydraulic
grade line component of RatHGL is one example of such a
model. In practice, since very little more effort is required
to set up or run a hydrodynamic pipe model than a steadystate pipe model, the former is more widely used.
(b)

Hydrodynamic Models

A number of hydrodynamic models of pipe systems exist.

Their development has tended to focus on the combined

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17-11

Computer Models and Software

sewer systems in the USA and Europe, but they are equally
suitable for stormwater pipes.
17.5.4 Hydraulics of Drainage Networks
Many of the newer models can handle both pipe and open
channel hydraulics. This allows modelling of complex
drainage networks including a range of different
conveyance systems.
The hydraulic component of DRAINS/ILSAX can model
pit entry capacities, bypass flows, and overflows from
inlets, and route them from one entry pit to another. It
can also simulate the behaviour of detention basins, noncircular conduits, and open channels.
SWMM can simulate backwater, surcharging, pressure
flow and looped connections (by solving the complete
dynamic wave equations in its Extran Block); and has a
variety of options for quality simulation, including
traditional build-up and washoff formulations as well as
rating curves and regression techniques. Subsurface flow
routing (constant quality) may be performed in the Runoff
Block in addition to surface quantity and quality routing,
and treatment devices may be simulated in the
Storage/Treatment Block using removal functions and
sedimentation theory.
A hydraulic design routine is
included for sizing of pipes, and a variety of regulator
devices may be simulated, including orifices (fixed and
variable), weirs, pumps, etc. A bibliography of SWMM
usage is available (Huber, 1986) that contains many
references to case studies. Other software with similar
capabilities includes MOUSE.

17.6

WATER QUALITY MODELS

17.6.1 Description
Only the deterministic type of water quality model is really
useful for urban stormwater studies. Because this type of
model allows the inputs to be varied, the effects of various
alternative stormwater management actions can be tested
(at least in principle). Stochastic models exist but are not
discussed here.
All water quality models of the deterministic type have a
hydrodynamic model as their base.
It is obviously
necessary to have an adequate understanding of the
quantities of stormwater and its movement, before any
attempt can be made to investigate its quality. It is
equally essential to calibrate the hydrodynamic base as
accurately as possible, before investigating water quality.
Various water quality modules are then applied to the
basic hydrodynamic model. Often there is a facility for the
user to select which of the different water quality modules
are required for a particular application.

17-12

17.6.2 Water Quality Load Models

AQUALM-XP is a relatively simple model for calculating
pollutant loads over long periods. It also includes some
types of structural control measures such as ponds or
GPTs.
AQUALM-XP uses the modified Boughton rainfall/ runoff
model, which is especially suitable for long-period
simulation. It uses a daily time step. The model is not
intended for flood simulation as it does not accurately
represent flood peaks. Pollutant loads are generated using
either export rates or EMCs.
It is strongly recommended that the AQUALM-XP model
should only be used if flow calibration data is available, or
if hydrology model parameters can be transposed from a
nearby catchment for which model calibration has been
performed. Use of the model without flow calibration can
give very misleading answers.
17.6.3 Water Quality Process Models
Much of the recent and ongoing development in water
quality models is directed at the modelling of water quality
processes.
SWMM is an example of a general-purpose model capable
of being used in a wide variety of water quality studies.
Processes, which can optionally be simulated within the
software, include pollutant build-up, wash-off during
rainfall, transport, advection, sedimentation, and biochemical processes. In all cases the user will need to
choose suitable values for the process parameters.
Limited guidance is available within the program, or from
documentation.
However in the current state of
knowledge these models are best used only by those with
adequate expertise and in situations where calibration to
local conditions is possible.
Other software with similar capabilities includes the water
quality components of MOUSE.

17.7

RECEIVING WATER MODELS

To complete the full cycle of network analysis, it is

necessary to consider the impact of the quantity and
quality of urban stormwater that is discharged to a
receiving water such as a river, lake or estuary. A range of
receiving water models exists for this purpose.
In principle, receiving water modelling could be used to
assess whether, in the face of loads generated from urban
development or other activities, the receiving waters meet
or are likely to meet the target water quality standards. In
practice, this is a major task, which is outside the scope of
this Manual. These models are generally very demanding
in the amount of data entry required for initial set up, and

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Computer Models and Software

in the computing power and run time required for an

accurate simulation. Many users of this Manual would
have little or no need to use such models. They are
therefore only described briefly.
As well as the inputs of quantity and quality of urban
stormwater, receiving water models typically require input
of natural river flows, tidal boundary conditions, currents,
wind, temperature, solar radiation, and any point source
loads such as from a wastewater treatment plant.
Ignoring any of these inputs will result in an invalid model.
Therefore, by their very nature these models require an
interdisciplinary approach.
(a)

Types of Receiving Water Models

All receiving water models use a hydrodynamic model as

their base. Various water quality modules are then applied
to the basic water movements. Often there is a facility for
the user to select which of the different water quality
modules are required for a particular application.
Receiving water modelling software can be classified as
one-, two- or three-dimensional according to its
representation of the basic flow hydrodynamics. Not
surprisingly, the complexity increases greatly as the
number of dimensions increases.
One-dimensional models are suitable for analysing
stormwater or other impacts in many well-mixed river
systems. The assumption involved is that river flow is
completely mixed due to turbulence and therefore it is not
necessary to consider variations across the river, nor
variations with depth.
A useful variation of the one-dimensional model is the onedimensional layered model. In essence this consists of two
or more one-dimensional models, one above the other
representing layered or stratified flow. Special routines
handle the hydraulic interaction and pollutant mixing
between the model layers.
Stratified flow is often
encountered in estuaries/reservoirs, where freshwater
runoff passes relatively unmixed over deep, saline water,
and these models are useful in that application.
Two-dimensional models are used in situations where the
effects of flow in the horizontal direction need to be
considered, but the flow can be considered to be uniform
in a vertical direction. They are therefore, typically used
for shallow lakes, wide rivers and estuaries where
stratification is not likely to occur.
Three-dimensional models solve the full hydrodynamic
equations in three dimensions.
Because of their
complexity and computing power requirements their
application is generally only warranted in the most detailed
and sophisticated analyses.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

17.8

CURRENT STATE-OF-THE-ART

The "state-of-the-art" of computer modelling for

stormwater drainage, at the time this Manual published
(2000), can be summarised as follows:
(a)

Routine Applications

Use of computer methods for these applications is

widespread among government agencies and consultants
in the developed world, e.g. Europe, North America, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand; and increasingly in Malaysia.
These include:

use of standard design rainfall inputs, derived by

statistical analysis of local data;

use of geometric data and real-world coordinates,

directly transferred from DTMs in CAD or GIS systems;

computer-assisted sizing of drainage system designs

prepared at the sub-division level;

HGL calculations (pipes) or water surface profile

calculations (open channels) for design;

analyses of the behaviour of existing drainage systems

in order to identify deficiencies;

hydrodynamic analysis of detention storage systems;

and

sizing of water quality control devices based on

nominated performance criteria.

(b)

Specialised Applications

Use of computer methods for these applications is more

limited because of the specialised nature of the software,
cost and skill requirements.

modelling of internal circulation and processes in lakes

and ponds;

modelling of water quality loadings at a catchment

scale;

modelling of the impacts of point and non-point

source loads on receiving waters.

It is the aim of this Manual to encourage the adoption in

Malaysia of similar practices to those listed above.

17.9

REVISIONS

While it is as up to date as possible, it is inevitable that the

information herein will rapidly be superseded by new
technological developments.
Users interested in updating their knowledge should
regularly review the technical literature.
Technical
conference papers, in particular, often contain reviews of
the latest 'state-of-the-art' of computer modelling.

17-13

Computer Models and Software

APPENDIX 17.A

LIST OF COMPUTER MODELLING SOFTWARE

This list contains a summary and information on the computer modelling software referred to in this Chapter. The list does not include all available software.
Inclusion of a program on this list does not imply endorsement by DID. Other programs that are not listed may be equally or more suitable for particular applications.

Table 17.A1
Hydrology
Program Group &
Software Name

Description
(see text for details)

Flood
Routing

List of Computer Software and Suppliers

Hydraulics

Open
Channels,
Waterways

Pipe
Systems

Water Quality

Culverts,
Bridges,
Structures

Storage Pollutant
Routing Estimation

Planning

Water
BMP
GIS/ CAD
Quality Evaluation Integration
Controls

Suppliers
(see List)

Hydrology only
RORB

Conceptual Model

Event

HEC-1/HMS

Conceptual Model

Event

3, 4, 7, 10

XP-RAFTS

Conceptual Model

Event

11

3, 4, 5, 7, 10

11

Hydraulics only
HEC-RAS

One-dimensional open
channel steady-state
hydraulics

Hydrology and
Hydraulics
XP-RatHGL

Rational Method hydrology,

steady-state hydraulics

Event

DRAINS (ILSAX)

Time-Area hydrology,
storage, pipe or open
channel hydraulics

Event

MIDUSS

Time-Area hydrology,
storage, pipe or open
channel hydraulics
Time-Area hydrology,
storage, pipe hydraulics

StormCAD

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Event

Event

17-15

(continued)
Program Group &
Software Name

Hydrology

Hydraulics

Description
(see text for details)

Flood
Routing

Open
Channels,
Waterways

Pipe
Systems

Hydrology, water quality,

BMPs

Continuous

Pipe hydraulics and

water quality *

Event or
continuous

Integrated hydrology,
pipe and open channel
hydraulics, pumps, water
quality, BMPs

Event or
continuous

XP-SWMM

Integrated hydrology,
pipe and open channel
hydraulics, pumps, water
quality, BMPs

Event or
continuous

MOUSE

Pipe hydrodynamics,
water quality *

Event or
continuous

Water Quality

Culverts,
Bridges,
Structures

Planning
BMP
GIS/ CAD
Evaluation Integration

Suppliers
(see List)

Storage
Routing

Pollutant
Estimation

Water
Quality
Controls

(daily)

2, 4

11

Water quality
XP-AQUALM
Hydraulics and
water quality
HYDROWORKS
Hydrology,
hydraulics and
water quality
SWMM

Special purpose
XP-CULVERT

Culvert hydraulics

CULVERTMASTER

Culvert hydraulics

11

11

PDMOD

Pond water quality

WMOD

Wetland water quality

NOTES: The user is responsible for selecting modelling software to suit the project requirements.
*
L

Software so marked includes optional, simplified hydrology modules predominantly intended for sewer modelling.
Limited capability (at time of writing)
Receiving water models are not listed. For a brief discussion on receiving water models see Section 17.7 of the text.

17-16

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Subject Index

List of Software Suppliers in Table 17.A1.

Public Domain
1.

CRCFE, University of Canberra, Canberra ACT 2601 Australia. Tel: +61 (2) 6201-5371. Website:
http://lake.canberra.edu.au

2.

EPA, USA. Website: http://www.epa.gov

3.

Hydrologic Engineering Centre, US Army Corps of Engineers, USA. Website: http://www.hec.usace.army.mil

Commercial
4.

Alan A. Smith Inc., 17 Lynndale Dr, Dundas Ont, Canada L9H 3L4. Tel: +1 (905) 628-4682. Website:
http://www.alanasmith.com

5.

BOSS International, 6300 University Avenue Madison, Wisconsin USA 53562. Website: http://www.bossintl.com

6.

Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI), Agern All 5, DK 2970 Hrsholm Denmark. Tel: +45 (45) 179 333. Website:
http://www.dhi.dk/general/dhisoft.htm
Distributors: DHI Malaysia, Suite 10, 8th floor, Wisma Perindustrian, Jalan Istiadat, Likas 88400 Kota Kinabalu. Tel:
(88) 260-780. E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Nik & Associates, No. 20-2 Jalan 10/55A, Taman Setiawangsa, 54200 Kuala Lumpur. Tel. (3) 451-8866

7.

Haestad Methods, 37 Brookside Rd, Waterbury CT 06708 USA. Tel: +1 (203) 755-1666. Website:
http://www.haestad.com/software

8.

Wallingford Software, Howbery Park, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BA UK. Tel: +44 (0) 1491 826392. Website:
http://www.wallingfordsoftware.com
Agent: HWRA Sdn Bhd, 52 Jalan Negara, Phase 1, Taman Melawati, 53100 Kuala Lumpur. Tel: (03) 405 3167. Email: [email protected]

9.

Watercom, Australia. Tel: +61 (2) 9587-5384. Website: http://www.watercom.com.au

10. WRCS, 1390 Market St Ste. 2115, San Francisco, CA 94102 USA. Tel +1 (707) 447-6724. Website :
http://waterengr.com
11. XP Software, 8-10 Purdue St Belconnen ACT 2616 Australia. Tel +61 (2) 6253-1844.
and 2000 42nd Ave #214 Portland, Oregon 97213 USA. Tel +1 (888) 554-5022. Website:
http://www.xpsoftware.com
Distributor: Abadi Land & Environment Sdn. Bhd., 17, Jalan Daud, 50300 Kuala Lumpur. Tel (03) 291-3007. E-mail:
[email protected]

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

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