Experimental Techniques in
Particle Physics
Eric Prebys
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Some Definitions…
• Particle – the propagation of momentum, energy, and other
“information” through space-time.
• Force - something which changes a particle in some way
(sometimes to a different particle).
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
The Standard Model – The Fundamental Particles
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Relativistic Quantum Mechanical Perturbation Theory
Non-relativistic perturbation theory:
Free particle
Potential Discrete interaction
Relativistic perturbation theory “Feynman Diagram”:
Free particle
Discrete absorption of
intermediate “virtual”
particle.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
The Intermediate Vector Bosons (Mediators of Force)
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Some Basic QED Interactions
e− e−
γ* e+e- scattering
e + e+
e− µ −
γ *
e+e- annihilation
+
e +
µ
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Some Basic Weak Interactions
e− νe
W
eν scattering
νµ µ −
e−
W νe
β decay
d u
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Some Basic Strong Interaction (QCD)
u red ublue
g RB
d blue d red
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
The Fundamental Forces
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
How Quarks Combine
• Quarks come in three “colors”: red, green, blue
• Combine to form “colorless” (white) particles:
– Three quarks (or antiquarks), one of each color⇒ “Baryons”
– A quark of one color and an anti-quark of the associated anti-color ⇒”Mesons”
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
The Big Questions in Particle Physics
• What is the origin of mass?
– The standard model diverges if we just “plug-in” a mass for all the
particles.
– An effective mass comes in through the interaction with a pervasive
field with a non-zero vacuum expectation value.
– Perturbations about this vacuum give us a “Higgs Particle”, which
probably has a mass 100 GeV< m < 1TeV
• What is the nature of CP violation?
– The physics of matter in a right-handed universe is almost the same as
that for anti-matter in a left-handed universe.
– This small difference is accomodated in the standard model by
complex terms in the quark mixing matrix.
– This must be firmly established, and if true, the associated parameters
must be measured.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Big Questions (cont’d…)
• Do neutrinos have mass/do they mix?
– In the Standard Model, all neutrino masses are zero by definition.
– There is growing evidence that neutrinos do have mass.
• Solar neutrino deficit.
• Atmospheric neutrino “problem”.
• LSND result.
– If true this could explain the “dark matter” in the universe, at least
partially.
– Must be verified, and if true, the details must be studied.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Big Questions (cont’d…)
• What lies beyond?
– The standard model eventually diverse
– There is a philosophical (aesthetic? religious?) impulse to unify the
quark and the lepton sectors, as well as include gravity.
• Supersymmetry (SUSY):
– Every fermion is associated with a boson.
– Predicts a veritable zoo of new particles, the lightest of which
should have m<2TeV.
• String theory
– All particles are states of fundamental objects (strings)
– Supersymmetry is a consequence.
– As yet, absolutely no experimental evidence for either of these
theories. Must keep looking.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
What we Actually Study
interaction
incident particle incident particle
big mess!!!
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
What We Actually Detect
• Almost all of the particles of most interest to us are very
unstable; we must detect them indirectly through their decay
products.
• Everything in the universe ultimately decays to
γ, e − , p, ν e , ν µ , ν τ + anti - particles
CANNOT be individually detected
• In addition, the following particles live long enough (cτ>1m)
to be detected directly:
n, π + , µ − , K + , K L + anti - particles
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Classes of Particle Detection
• Charged Particle Tracking
– Precision: decay position determination.
– Spectroscopy: measure momentum in conjunction with magnetic
field.
– Projection: match information from different detectors.
• Calorimetry
– Electromagnetic: measure energy of photons, identify electrons.
– Hadronic: measure energy of neutral hadrons, identify types of
charged particles.
• Particle Identification
– Indirect: based on interaction characteristics
– Direct: determine mass by measuring velocity
• dE/dX
• Time-of-flight
• Cerenkov Radiation
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Charged Particle Tracking
• As charged particles traverse matter, they deposit energy
according to the Bethe-Bloch equation:
≈ 1.5 − 2.0 MeV g -1cm 2
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
The Detection of Charge
• Ultimately almost all types of detectors work through the
detection of ionized charges, which induce electrical signals
as they move.
∆V
Equipotential surfaces
∆V
Qinduced =q
V0
V0
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Proportional Wire Chambers
- - --
-
- - ---
-- -
Track
−V •As the ionized charge gets close to the wire,
the rapidly increasing field results in an
avalanche of multiple ionization.
•A charged particle ionizes gas
•The motion of the resulting ions away from
molecules as it passes.
the wire induces a signal.
•This ionized charge drifts
•The total signal is proportional to the total
toward a wire which is held a
ionized charge.
relatively positive potential.
•The time of the signal can accurately measure
the position of the track.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Silicon Detectors
Readout strips
n-type
oo --
oo -- Fully depleted
≈ 300 µm oo --
oo --
p-type
-70V
Electron-hole pairs
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Typical Charged Tracking Resolution
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Electromagnetic Calorimetry
Energetic photons in material can
convert to e+e- pairs through
Bethe-Heitler pair production
Energetic electrons
in material loose
energy through
bremsstrahlung.
These processes continue,
ultimately depositing all the
energy of the incident particle
(e+, e-, or γ) in a well
characterized shower.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Electromagnetic Calorimetry (cont’d)
There are basically two types of EM calorimeters...
Total Absorption
shower
Scintillation
light
shower Sampling
Absorption layer Detection layer
(shower develops) (scintillator, PWC,
liq. Ar, etc)
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Electromagnetic Calorimeter Resolution
Energy in GeV
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Hadronic Calorimetry
EM Component
Hadronic Shower
Nuclear collision Escaping neutron
•Based on nuclear interactions.
•Longer and messier than EM showers.
•Always use sampling calorimeters (e.g. steel+scintillator)
•Very good resolution would be 50% / E
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Particle Identification
• We can broadly distinguish particles by how they interact
(we’ll discuss this in a minute).
• But particles of the same time class (eg charged hadrons)
must be distinguished by their different masses.
• We determine the mass by independently measuring the
momentum and velocity.
• One way to do this is to directly measure the time of flight
– Can usually measure time to better than 100 ps
– In a central detector, this can separate π and K up to about 1 GeV
• In addition, there are common indirect ways to measure
velocity.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
dE/dx
• Recall that as particles
traverse matter, the energy
they deposit is dependent
only on the velocity.
• ⇒particles of the same
momentum will deposit
different amounts of energy
if their masses are different.
• This can be easily measured
with proportional wire
chambers.
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Cerenkov Radiation
• A charged particle which is traveling faster than the speed of
light in a particular medium will radiate its energy in the
form of photons in a cone whose angle is 1
cosθ =
nβ
• The existence of such light can be used to discriminate two
particles of different masses for a range of momenta
(threshold Cerenkov detector).
• OR the angle can be directly measured (more accurate but
more difficult).
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
General Detector Layout and Classes of Particles
±
e
γ
± ±
π , K , p, p
K L , n, n
±
µ
Charged Hadronic
Tracking Calorimetry
Precision Particle ID Electromagnetic
Tracking (sometimes) Calorimetry
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Example – the BELLE Detector
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
DAQ Overview
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Pictures (Tracking)
SVD
Central Drift
Chamber
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Pictures (Electromagnetic Calorimeter)
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Pictures (Particle ID)
Module Assembly
Barrel Detector
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Pictures (K-long Catcher/Muon Tracker)
Barrel Module
Endcap Module
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
Pictures (DAQ/Control)
Readout
Electronics
Event
Custom Builder
LeCroy 1877
Champaign
Bottles
Control
Room
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
All Finished!!
Me
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
What an Event Looks Like
• J/ψ→µµ
– M(µµ) = 3.1 GeV
•Precision Tracking
•Charged Tracking
•Particle ID (Cerenkov)
•Electromagnetic Calorimetry
•Solenoidal Magnet
•Muon ID/Hadronic Calorimetry
Physics 312, April 24th 2000
