Residential water demand analysis by household
activities
Yurina Otaki*, Masahiro Otaki**, Toshiya Aramaki*** and Osamu Sakura****
*The University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo,
Tokyo 113-0033, Japan ([email protected])
**Ochanomizu University, Humanities and Science, 2-1-1 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
***Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro,
Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
****The University of Tokyo, Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo
113-0033, Japan
ABSTRACT Sanitary water demand was defined as primary needs and the water for residential use would have to be increased for
this requirement. However the world water resources are limited. Therefore, reasonable and accurate estimations of water demand
are necessary. .
In this paper, we investigated the factors which have influence on the residential water demand. We dividedly studied residential
water use by household activities; toilet flushing, bath and shower, laundry, cooking and others, and we could find that the
geographical (water resources and climate), political (water price) and cultural (dietary culture) factors influence to the residential
water use for each activity in the cities of developed countries.
When we predict the future water demand, we have to analyze two groups separately;
If a countrys economy is below a certain level, the economic factors are the most important for the estimation. If its economy
grows above a certain level, we have to use the analysis by each activity dividedly.
KEYWORDS Residential water use, Household activities, Multi Regression Analysis, Water Resources, Water Price
Residential Water Use (l/capita/day)
INTRODUCTION
In the declaration of the Johannesburg Summit 2002, sanitary water demand was defined as primary needs
and the water for residential use would have to be increased for this requirement. However the world water
resources are limited. Therefore, reasonable and accurate estimations of water demand are necessary. .
In this paper, we investigated the factors which have influence on the residential water demand. Figure 1
shows the relation between GDPPPP per capita and residential water use per capita per day by country.
From this figure, we can see that the increase of residential water use is accompanied with the economic
condition until the certain economic level (around US$10,000 GDPPPP per capita). Above this level, the
water demand has no relation with economy, and some countries with higher GDP levels have lower water
demand. For example, the residential water use per capita per day in Tokyo is 249 L/d/person, that in
Singapore is 167 L/d/person, and that in New York is 466 L/d/person, though they have small economic
difference. Only economic factors hardly explain the water demand in developed countries. To predict
future water demand in the world, it is important to estimate potential needs to which developing countries
will reach when their economies grow above the critical level.
800
600
400
200
0
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
GDPPPP per capita ($/capita/year) Source: World Bank, World Resources
Figure 1 Economic Condition and Residential Water Use
To clarify the reasons that caused the differences of the residential water demand in developed countries,
we investigated the residential water use for various activities, such as toilet flushing, bathing, laundry,
cooking and others, and analyzed the important and contributing factors by activity. The investigated factors
include geographic, economic and social aspects, such as climate, water price, and cultural background.
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Residential water use for each household activity
We selected some cities (table 1) in developed countries and collected information on the residential water
use per capita by households activities; toilet flushing, bath & shower, laundry, cooking (including drinking
and washing dishes), and others.
Total amount of residential water use in North America, Japan, and Australia are larger than those in
European cities and Singapore, and the amount for each activity varies by city (figure 2). We analyzed these
data by activity to clarify the reasons causing these differences, and which factor is the key to influence the
cities water demand.
Key factors to influence the cities residential water demand
The following factors were thought to have influence on residential water use pattern;
Water resources
We calculated cities annual water resources per capita by river basin. This factor indicates the
abundance of water resources. It is assumed that people living in the city without enough water
resources tend not to waste water, and their municipality take a lead to introduce technologies to save
water (such as low flush toilet). Water resources are expected to influence the amount of water use for
all activities.
Table 1 List of Cities
Country
USA
Canada
Australia
Japan
Singapore
UK
Austria
Germany
Netherland
Switzerland
France
Finland
Sweden
Czech
City
Servey Year
Atlanta
1997
Waterloo/Cambridge
1999
Seattle
1999
Tampa
1999
Lompoc
1999
Eugene
1999
Boulder
1999
San Diego
1999
Denver
1999
Phoenix
1999
Scottsdale/Tempe
1999
Walnut Valley Water District
1999
Las Virgenes Water District
1999
Winnipeg
2001
Melbourne
2002
Tokyo
1997
Osaka
2001
Kobe
1990
Fukuoka
1997
Singapore
1995
East Anglian Region
1993
Vienna
1995
Hamburg
2002
Amsterdam
2001
Zurich
1997
France Total
2001
Helsinki
2001
Stockholm
2001
Prague
2001
350
Toilet
Bath&Shower
Laundry
Cooking
Others
Water Consumption (l/capita/day)
300
250
200
150
100
Prague
Stockholm
France
Helsinki
Zurich
Amsterdam
Hamburg
Vienna
East Anglian(UK)
Singapore
Fukuoka
Kobe
Osaka
Tokyo
Melbourne
Winnipeg
Walnut Valley WD
Las Virgenes MWD
Scottsdale/Tempe
Phoenix,
Denver
San Diego
Boulder
Eugene
Lompoc
Tampa
Seattle
Atlanta
Waterloo/Cambridge
50
Figure 2 Residential Water Use for each activity in various cities
In case of cities in USA, only water for dishwasher is included in cooking. Water for preparation for food and
drinking is included in others. In addition, water for gardening is excluded from total amount.
Water price
This factor includes not only water price but also sewerage price, because most of cities charged
sewerage treatment fee according to the amount of water used. To compare water price among different
countries and different currencies, we standardized water price by average income.
Standardized water price = (Water & sewerage price / m3) / (Average income/capita/year)
It is assumed that high water price makes people use water efficiently. Water price is can influence the
amount of water use for bath, laundry and cooking.
Family size
This means average number of persons in one household. It is assumed that large families can save
water because of scale merit. Family size is possible to influence the amount of water use for laundry
and cooking.
Climate
Annual rainfall and average temperature represent the characteristic of cities climate. AS Climate
relates to lifestyle, it is possible to influence the amount of water use for all activities.
Dietary Culture
To compare the dietary culture and customs, we consider the intake calories from staple food (rice or
wheat). This factor is thought to relate to the amount of water use for cooking.
Analysis of key factors by household activities
We analyze and select the factors influence water use pattern using multiple regression analysis.
Water Consumption (l/capita/day)
140
120
Toilet Leak
Toilet
100
80
60
40
Figure 3 Water Use for Toilet
Toilet flushing Water resources could explain the amount of water for toilet flushing (figure 3, 4);
Toilet flushing = 53.4 * Log (water resources) - 129.5
R = 0.78
Toilet flushing : l/capita/day
Water resources : 106m3/year
Water for toilet (l/capita/day)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
3
3.5
4
LOG(Water Resources)
Figure 4 Water Resources and Water for Toilet
4.5
Prague
Stockholm
Helsinki
France
Zurich
Amsterdam
Hamburg
Vienna
Singapore
East Anglian(UK)
Fukuoka
Kobe
Osaka
Tokyo
Melbourne
Winnipeg
Walnut Valley WD
Las Virgenes MWD
Scottsdale/Tempe
Denver
Phoenix
San Diego
Boulder
Eugene
Lompoc
Tampa
Seattle
Atlanta
Waterloo/Cambridge
20
It is assumed that the less water resources result in the more introduction of low flush toilet (technological
development). For the least amount example, Fukuoka municipality decided to introduce low flush toilet
(less than 10L per flush) after water shortage in 1977 and now 6L per flush toilet began to spread. In
Singapore, the second least amount, government commenced to install low flush toilet (4.5L per flush) to
public housing instead of ordinary toilet (9L per flush) in 1992, and decided to install it to all of the new and
on-going projects by law from 1997.
In addition to the amount for toilet flushing, we have to consider toilet leak. Toilet leak indicates the
trickling water to avoid water pipe from freezing. Cities where the temperature goes lower than -10 degrees
centigrade need to include water for toilet leak as the climate factor.
Bath and shower We could find no factor which influenced the amount of water for bath and shower. By
comparing the amount, we can classify cities to four groups; North America, Asia, Western Europe and
Northern & Eastern Europe (figure 5). However, we could not clarify the reasons causing difference of these
groups.
Laundry Water resources and water price could explain the amount of water for laundry (figure 6, 7, 8);
80
60
40
Prague
Stockholm
Helsinki
France
Zurich
Hamburg
Amsterdam
Vienna
East Anglian(UK)
Fukuoka
Singapore
Kobe
Osaka
Tokyo
Winnipeg
Melbourne
Las Virgenes MWD
Walnut Valley WD
Scottsdale/Tempe
Denver
Phoenix
San Diego
Boulder
Eugene
Lompoc
Tampa
Atlanta
Seattle
20
Waterloo/Cambridge
Water Consumption (l/person/day)
100
Figure 5 Water Use for Bath and Shower
Laundry = -0. 079* Water price +21.9* Log (Water resource) -25.8
Standardized beta Water price: -0.626, Water Resource: 0.420
Adjusted R square = 0.684
Laundry : l/capita/day
Water price : (capita*year* 106)/m3
Water resources : 106m3/year
If people reduce the number of times to wash clothes and wash more clothes together, the amount of water
for laundry can be reduced. We assumed that water price made people reduce the number from economical
point of view, and similarly the lack of water resources did from mental (conscious for saving water) point of
view.
Water for Laundry (l/capita/day)
Water for Laundry (l/capita/day)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0
50
100
150
Water Price
200
250
3.5
4
LOG(Water Resources)
4.5
Figure 8 Water Resources and Water for Laundry
Figure 7 Water Price and Water for Laundry
Cooking Because the data for cooking in USA and Canada was included in other uses, we omitted them and
analyzed the cities in Europe, Asia and Oceania only. Water price could explain the amount of water for
cooking (figure 9, 10);
Cooking = 2,049 * 1/ Water price +4.73
R = 0.760
Cooking : l/capita/day
Water price : (capita*year* 106)/m3
In addition, there is some possibility of that type of staple food influences the amount of water for cooking.
Rice eater tended to use more water than wheat eater, because rice is so sticky that we need more water for
dish washing (figure 11).
Figure 9 Water Use for Cooking
Water for Cooking & Drinking (l/capita/day)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
1/Water&Sewerage Price
0.020
0.025
Water for Cooking (l/capita/day)
50
40
30
20
10
Water for Cooking(l/capita/day)
Water Consumption (l/capita/day)
200
400
Wheat Calory (cal/capita/day)
600
800
60
Cooking-Wheat Calory
200
400
As a result, key factors influencing each residential activity are determined as figure 12.
600
Rice Calory (cal/capita/day)
Helsinki
Stockholm
Prague
Helsinki
Stockholm
Prague
France
Zurich
Zurich
France
Hamburg
Amsterdam
Hamburg
Amsterdam
Vienna
Vienna
Fukuoka
East Anglian(UK)
Kobe
Fukuoka
Kobe
East Anglian(UK)
Osaka
Osaka
Singapore
Tokyo
Tokyo
Singapore
Winnipeg
Melbourne
Winnipeg
Las Virgenes MWD
Las Virgenes MWD
Melbourne
Walnut Valley WD
Denver
Denver
Walnut Valley WD
San Diego
San Diego
Phoenix
Boulder
Boulder
Scottsdale/Tempe
Eugene
Eugene
Phoenix
Lompoc
Lompoc
Scottsdale/Tempe
Tampa
Tampa
Seattle
20
Seattle
40
Atlanta
60
Waterloo/Cambridge
80
Atlanta
Waterloo/Cambridge
Water Consumption (l/capita/day)
60
40
20
Figure 10 Water Price and Water for Cooking
60
Cooking-Rice Calory
50
40
30
20
10
800
Water
Resources
0.780
Residential
Water Use
Toilet
0.420
Water Price
Bath & Shower
-0.626
Laundry
Climate
0.760
Dietary Culture
Household Size
Cooking
Others
Figure 12 key factors
influencing each residential activity
CONCLUSION
The detailed estimation of residential water use could be analyzed by each activity, and we could find that
the geographical (water resources and climate), political (water price) and cultural (dietary culture) factors
were important in the cities of developed countries. In addition to the factors which we examined in this
report, we could think some factors influencing water use, such as water pressure, number of people who
usually stay in home, variety of dietary habitat, and so on.
When we predict the future water demand, we have to analyze two groups separately;
If a countrys economy is below a certain level, the economic factors are the most important for the
estimation. If its economy grows above a certain level, we have to use the analysis by each activity
dividedly.
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