III.
ANALYZING ARGUMENTS
TWO TECHNIQUES:
A.PARAPHRASING
Paraphrase an argument> setting forth its propositions in clear language
and logical order.
Example:
Upright walking therapods,the group that includes Tyrannosaurus rex, could
not have evolved into modern bird, for three main reasons.The first is that
most fossils of bird like therapod dinosaurs originated 75 million years after
the fossilized remains of the first bird.The second is that the ancestors of
birds must have been suited for flight---and therapods are not.A third
problem is that.every therapod dinosaur has serrated teeth,but no bird has
serrated teeth.
Paraphrase: listing each premiss, restating the conclusion and simplifying the
language for the sale of clarity.
1. Fossils of bird-like therapod dinosaurs originated long after the fossilzed
remains of the first bird.
2.The ancestors of birds must have been suited for flight,buttherapod
dinosaurs were not so suited.
3.Every therapod dinosaur has serrated teeth, but no bird has serrated teeth.
Therefore therapod dinosaurs could not have evolved into modern birds.
B.DIAGRAMMING
Diagram an Argument>to exhibits an structure.
To do this we number each proposition in the order in which it appears,
circling the numbers.We then exhibit the logical relations of premises and
conclusion using arrows between the numbers.This avoids the need to
restate the premises.
1
Contrary to what many people think, a positive test for HIV is not
necessarily a death 2
sentence.For one thing, the time from the development
3 averages nearly ten years.For another,
of antibodies to clinical symptoms
many reports are now suggesting that a significant number of people who
test positive may never develop clinical AIDS.
Without restating the propositions of this argument:
2
But in some arguments the premises serve their purpose only when
combined.
1
If an action promotes the best of everyone concernedand violates no
ones rights,then that action2 is morally acceptable .
In at least some
casesactive euthanasia promotes the best interests of3 everyone
concerned,and violates no ones rights.Therefore,
in at least some
cases active euthanasia is morally acceptable.
1
_________________
3
In this case neither premise supports the conclusion independently. If the
principle expressed in the first premise were true, but there no case in which
active euthanasia promoted everyones best interests, the conclusion would
be given no support at all.
INTERWOVEN ARGUMENTS
When a passage contains two or more arguments and a number of
propositions whose relations are not obvious, a diagram may prove
particularly useful.
Example: A passage from one of the letters of Karl Marx to Friedrich Engels
1
To hasten the social revolution in England is the most important object
of the International Workingmans2 Association.
The sole means of
hastening it is to 3make Ireland independent. Hence
the task of the
z
International is everywhere to put the conflict4 between England and Ireland
in the foreground, and
everywhere to side openly with Ireland.
The number of arguments in a passage is generally agreed to be determined
by the number of conclusions.Thus,because there are two conclusions in this
passage,it contains two arguments.
1
4
s
________________
Another example: In some passages two conclusions, and hence two
arguments, have a single stated premise.
Older women have less freedom to fight sexual harassment at their jobs or to
leave a battering husband because age discrimination means they wont
easily find other ways of supporting themselves.
Premise: Older women cannot easily find alternative ways of supporting
themselves.
That premise supports two conclusions: that older women have less freedom
to fight sexual harassment at their jobs, and that older married women have
less freedom to leave battering husband.
When there are two or more premises in an argument or two or more
arguments in a passage,the order of appearance of premises and
conclusions may need to be sorted out.
The conclusion may be stated last, or first, or it may be sandwiched between
the premises offered in its support.
Example:
The real and original source of inspiration for the Muslim thinkers was the
Quran and the sayings of the Holy Prophet.It is therefore clear that the
Muslim philosophy was not a carbon copy of a Greek thought,as it concerned
itself primarily and specifically with those problems which originated from
and had relevance to Muslims.
Conclusion: Muslim philosophy was not a carbon copy of a Greek thought.
It appears after the first premise of the argument and before the second.
IV. ARGUMENTS AND EXPLANATIONS
Need to know: The INTENTION of the author of the passage.
Explanation>is an expression that purports to shed light on some event or
phenomenon.The event or phenomenon in question is usually accepted as a
matter of fact.
Examples:
The sky appears blue from the earths surface because light rays from the
sun are scattered by particles in the atmosphere.
The AIDS virus causes sickness and death because it infects certain white
blood cells called T cells,and these cells are essential to the bodys immune
system.
Explanation is composed of two distinct components:
1.Explanandum>is the statement that describes the event or phenomenon
to be explained
2.Explanans> is the statement or group of statements that purports to do
the explaining.
Example:
Explanandum:The sky appears blue from the earths surface.
Explanans:Light rays from the sun are scattered by particles in the
atmosphere.
ARGUMENT
EXPLANATION
---Accepted
facts
Explanans
Premises
---Claimed to prove
shed light on
---Claimed to
Explanand
--Accepted fact
V. COMPLEX ARGUMENTATIVE PASSAGES
Passages in which several arguments are interwoven,with many propositions
appearing,some of which serve only as premises and some of which serve as
both premises and sub-conclusions.
Diagramming technique is very helpful,but there is no mechanical way to
assure that the diagram we construct represents the passage accurately.
Example 1:
2
1
Government mandates for zero-emission vehicles wont work because
1 electric cars qualify as zero-emission
only
vehicles,and
3
4 electric cars
wont sell.5
5
too limited,and
They are too expensive
, their
range of operation is
6
recharging facilities are not generally available.
(William Campbell.Technology is not Good
Enough)
4
5
1
6
1
2
3
_______
1
1
1
1
Example 2:
1
Many people believe that the crime of bribery cannot extend to2
1
campaign contributions.
From a legal standpoint, however, countless1
campaign contributions are in fact bribes.
A bribe is anything of value
or advantage given with the intent to unlawfully influence the person
3 to
whom it is given in his official capacity.
A campaign contribution
1 is
certainly something of value or advantage.
Furthermore,
every
4
contribution from a lobbyist or5special interest group is given with the intent
to influence voting, and
thousands of such contributions are made in
6
every important election.
(Daniel Hays Lowestein,Can Candidates Run For
Political Office Without Taking Bribes?)
Sources:
Irving M. Copi& Carl Cohen. Textbook on Introduction to Logic, Chapter
1 Basic Logical
concepts, 11th Edition,3p.- 97p.
Irving M. Copi, Carl Cohen, Kenneth McMahon. Textbook on Introduction
to Logic, Chapter 1 Basic Logical concepts,14th Edition,1p. - 35p.
Patrick J. Hurley. A Concise Introduction to Logic, 10thEdition, Part 1,
Basic Concepts,8p.72p.
Hardegree, Symbolic Logic
