Lecture 6
Electrical Measurement and
Instrumentation
Electrodynamometer
Used in making AC
Voltmeters
Ammeters
Wattmeter
Varmeter
Power-factor meter
Frequency meter
Unlike PMMC permanent magnet is replaced by two fixed coils
which produces the necessary flux.
Movable coil attached to pointer indicates the intensity of
quantity such as voltage current etc as shown in figure
T= B x A x I x N
Developed torque becomes a function of the current squared (I2)
because flux(B) is dependent on the current supplied.
Electrodynamometer
Electrodynamometer
The electrodynamometer movement may also serve
as a transfer instrument, because it can be
calibrated on dc and then used directly on ac,
establishing a direct means of equating ac and dc
measurements of voltage and current.
Where the dArsonval movement uses a permanent
magnet to provide the magnetic field in which the
movable coil rotates, the electrodynamometer uses
the current under measurement to produce the
necessary field flux.
A fixed coil, split into two equal halves, provides the
magnetic field in which the movable coil rotates.
Electrodynamometer
Electrodynamometer
The two coil halves are connected in series with the moving coil
and are fed by current under measurement.
The fixed coils are spaced far enough apart to allow passage of
the shaft of the movable coil.
The movable coil carries a pointer, which is balanced by
counterweights.
Its rotation is controlled by springs, similar to the dArsonval
movement construction.
The complete assembly is surrounded by a laminated shield to
protect the instrument from stray magnetic fields which may
affect its operation.
Damping is provided by aluminum air vanes, moving in sectorshaped chambers.
Electrodynamometer
The entire movement is very solid and rigidly constructed in order to keep its
mechanical dimensions stable and its calibration intact. A cutaway view of the
electrodynamometer is shown in Fig. 4-27.
The operation of the instrument may be understood by returning to the
expression for the torque developed by a coil suspended in a magnetic field.
We previously stated [Eq. (4-1)] that
T= B x A x I x N
indicating that the torque, which deflects the movable coil,
is directly proportional to the coil constants (A and N),
the strength of the magnetic field in which the coil moves (B), and
the current through the coil (I).
In the electrodynamometer the flux density (B) depends on the current
through the fixed coil and is therefore directly proportional to the deflection
current (I).
Since the coil dimensions and the number of turns on the coil frame are fixed
quantities for any given meter, the developed torque becomes a function of the
current squared (I2).
Af the electrodynamometer is exclusively designed for dc use, its square-law
scale is easily noticed, with crowded scale markings at the very low current
values, progressively spreading out at the higher current values.
Electrodynamometer
For ac use, the developed torque at any instant is proportional to the
instantaneous current squared (I2).
The instantaneous value of P is always positive and torque pulsation are
therefore produced.
The movement, however, cannot follow the rapid variations of the torque and
takes up a position in which the average torque is balanced by the torque or
the control springs.
The meter deflection is therefore a function of the mean of the squared
current.
The scale of the electrodynamometer is usually calibrated in terms of the
square root of the average current squared, and the meter therefore reads the
rms or effective value of the ac.
The transfer properties of the electrodynamometer become apparent when we
compare the effective value of alternating current in terms of their heating
effect or transfer of power.
An alternating current that produces heat in a given resistance at the same
average rate as a direct current (I) has by definition, a value of I amperes.
Electrodynamometer
Designed specially for use of dc as well as ac current
Scale is calibrated in rms or effective value of ac current
1 T 2
2
I
i
dt
average
i
T 0
This current, I, is then called the root-mean-square (rms) or effective
value of the alternating current and is often referred to as the
equivalent dc value.
And its power can be calculated as
I
I R
T
2
i 2 Rdt
Is also known as transfer instrument as is used interchangeably
between dc and ac current on equivalent rms scale
One of its disadvantage is its high power consumption
Electrodynamometer
Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer
One of these is its high power consumption, a direct result of its
construction.
The current under measurement must not only pass through the
movable coil, but it must also provide the field flux.
To get a sufficiently strong magnetic field, a high mmf is required and
the source must supply a high current and power.
In spite of this high power consumption, the magnetic field is very
much weaker than that of a comparable dArsonval movement because
there is no iron in the circuit,
i.e., the entire flux path consists of air.
Some instruments have been designed using special laminated steel for
part of the flux path, but the presence of metal introduces calibration
problems caused by frequency and waveform effects.
Electrodynamometer
The reactance and resistance of the coils also increase with increasing
frequency, limiting the application of the electro-dynamometer
voltmeter to the lower frequency ranges.
It is, however, very accurate at the power-line frequencies antis
therefore often used as a secondary standard.
The electrodynamometer movement (even unshunted) may be
regarded as an ammeter, but it becomes rather difficult to design a
moving coil which can carry more than approximately 100 mA.
Larger current would have to be carried to the moving coil through
heavy lead-in wires, which would lose their flexibility.
A shunt, when used, is usually placed across the movable coil only.
The fixed coils are then made of heavy wire which can carry the large
total current and it is feasible to build ammeters for currents up to 20
A. Larger values of ac currents are usually measured by using a
current transformer and a standard 5-A ac ammeter (Sec. 4-16).
Rectifier-Type Instruments
Rectifier type instruments are used to convert ac into a unidirectional
dc and then to use a dc movement to indicate the value of the rectified
ac.
dc movement generally has a higher sensitivity than either the
electrodynamometer or the moving-iron instrument.
Rectifier type instruments generally use a PMMC movement in
combination with some rectifier arrangement.
The rectifier element usually consist germanium or a silicon diode.
Rectifier instrument work sometimes consist of four diodes in a bridge
configuration.
Providing full wave rectification. Figure 4-28 shows an ac voltmeter
circuit consisting of a multiplier, a bridge rectifier, and a PMMC
movement.
Because of the inertia of the moving coil, the meter will indicate a
steady deflection proportional to the average value of the current.
Rectifier-Type Instruments
The form factor relates the average value and the rms value of timevarying voltages and currents:
effective value of the ac wave
form factor
average value of the ac wave
For a sinusoidal waveform:
E
( 2 / 2 ) Em
(4-27)
form factor rms
1.11
E av
(2 / ) E m
The form factor of Eq. (4-27) is therefore also the factor by which the
actual (average) dc current is multiplied to obtain the equivalent rms
scale markings.
The ideal rectifier element should have zero forward and infinite
reverse resistance.
Rectifier-Type Instruments
The resistance of the rectifying element changes with
varying temperature, one of the major drawbacks of
rectifier-type ac instruments.
At very much higher or lower temperatures, the
resistance of the rectifier changes the total resistance of
the measuring circuit sufficiently to cause the meter to
be gravely in error.
Frequency also affects the operation of the rectifier
elements.
Rectifier-Type Instruments
Typical Multimeter Circuits
General rectifier-type ac voltmeters often use the arrangement shown in Fig. 4-30.
Two diodes are used in this circuit, forming a full-wave rectifier with the movement so
connected that it receives only half of the rectified current.
Diode D1 conducts during the positive half-cycle of the input waveform and causes the
meter to deflect according to the average value of this half-cycle.
The meter movement is shunted by a resistance Rh, in order to draw more current
through the diode D1 and move its operating point into the linear portion of the
characteristic curve.
In the absence of diode D2, the negative half-cycle of the input voltage would apply a
reverse voltage across diode D2, causing a small leakage current in the reverse direction.
The average value of the complete cycle would therefore be lower than it should be for
half-wave rectification. Diode D2 deals with this problem.
On the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts heavily, and the current through the measuring
circuit, which is now in the opposite direction, bypasses the meter movement.
The commercial multimeter often uses the same scale markings for both its dc and ac
voltage ranges.
Since the dc component of a sine wave for half-wave rectification equals 0.45 times the
rms value, a problem arises immediately.
In order to obtain the same deflection on corresponding dc and ac voltage ranges, the
multiplier for the ac range must be lowered proportionately.
Typical Multimeter Circuits
Example 4-10
Example 4-10
Section 4-10 dealt with the dc circuitry of a typical multimeter, using the simplified circuit
diagram of Fig. 4-20. The circuit for measuring ac volts (subtracted from Fig. 4-20) is
reproduced in Fig. 4-32. Resistances R9, R13, R7, and R6 form a chain of multipliers for the
voltage ranges of 1,000V, 250V, 50V, and 10V, respectively, and their values are indicated in the
diagram of Fig. 4-32. On the 2.5-V ac range, resistor R23 acts as the multiplier and corresponds
to the multiplier R24 of Example 4-10 shown in Fig. 4-31. Resistor R24 is the meter shunt and
again acts to improve the rectifier operation. Both values are unspecified in the diagram and
are factory selected. A little thought, however, will convince us that the shunt resistance could
be 2,000 (1, equal to the meter resistance. If the average forward resistance of the rectifier
elements is 500 (a reasonable assumption), then resistance R23 must have a value of 1,000.
This follows because the meter sensitivity on the ac ranges is given as 1,000/V; on the 2.5-V ac
range, the circuit must therefore have a total resistance of 2,500. This value is made up of the
sum of R13, the diode forward resistance, and the combination of movement and-shunt
resistance, as shown in Example 4-10.
Thermoinstruments
Figure 4-33 shows a combination of a thermocouple and a PMMC movement
that can be used to measure both ac and dc. This combination is called a
thermocouple instrument, since its operation is based on the action of the
thermocouple element.
When two dissimilar metals are mutually in contact, a voltage is generated at
the junction of the two dissimilar metals. This voltage rises in proportion to the
temperature of the junction.
In Fig. 4-33, CE and DE represent the two dissimilar metals, joined at point E.
and are drawn as a light and a heavy line, to indicate dissimilarity. The
potential difference between C and D depends on the temperature of the socalled cold junction, E. A rise in temperature causes an increase in the voltage
and this is used to advantage in the thermocouple. Heating element AB, which
is in mechanical contact with the junction of the two metals at point E, forms
part of the circuit in which the current is to be measured. AEB is called the hot
junction.
Heat energy generated by the current in the heating element raises the
temperature of the cold junction and causes an increase in the voltage
generated across terminals C and D shown on scale. The heat generated by the
current is directly proportional to the current squared (12R), and the
temperature rise (and hence the generated dc voltage) is proportional to the
square of the rms current.
Thermocouple
Thermocouple Devices
Thermocouple based Temperature Sensor
Thermoinstruments
Thermoinstruments
Self-contained thermoelectric instruments of the compensated type are available in the 0.5-20A range. Higher current ranges are available, but in this case the heating element is external to
the indicator. Thermo-elements used for current ranges over 60 A are generally provided with
air cooling fins.
Current measurements in the lower ranges, from approximately 0.1-0.75 A, use a bridge-type
thermo-element, shown schematically in Fig. 4-35. This arrangement does not use a separate
heater: the current to be measured passes directly through the thermo-elements and raises
their temperature in proportion to I2R. The cold junctions (marked c) are at the pins which are
embedded in the insulating frame, and the hot junctions (marked h) are at splices midway
between the pins. The couples are arranged as shown in Fig. 4-35, and the resultant thermal
voltage generates a dc potential difference across the indicating instrument. Since the bridge
arms have equal resistances, the ac voltage across the meter is 0 V, and no ac passes through
the meter. The use of several thermocouples in series provides a greater output voltage and
deflection than is possible with a single element, resulting in an instrument with increased
sensitivity.
Thermo-instruments may be converted into voltmeters using low-current thermocouples and
suitable series resistors. Thermocouple voltmeters are available in ranges of up to 500 V and
sensitivities of approximately 100 to 500/V.
A major advantage of a thermocouple instrument is that its accuracy can be as high as 1
percent, up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHz. For this reason, it is classified as an RF
instrument. Above 50 MHz, the skin effect tends to force the current to the outer surface of the
conductor, increasing the effective resistance of the heating wire and reducing instrument
accuracy. For small currents (up to 3 A), the heating wire is solid and very thin. Above 3 A the
heating element is made from tubing to reduce the errors due to skin effect.
Thank You
