Steady State
Cornering
Timothy T. Maxwell
Advanced Vehicle Engineering Laboratory
Texas Tech University
2006
Conduction 3
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Steady State Cornering
Handling responsiveness of vehicle to driver
inputs or ease of control
Handling is measure of the drivervehicle
closedloop system
Vehicle only must be characterized as
openloop system
Vehicle response to steering input or
directional response
Most common measure of openloop response is the
Understeer Gradient
Understeer Gradient only valid for steady state
Steady State Cornering
Low Speed Turning
At low speed (parking lot maneuvers) tires need not develop
lateral forces
Tires roll with no slip angle center of turn must lie off projection
of rear axle
Perpendiculars from front wheels pass through same turn center
Steady State Cornering
Low Speed Turning
Ideal turning angles
Average angle is the
Ackerman Angle
Steady State Cornering
!o =
( R + t 2)
!i =
( R " t 2)
L
!!
R
Ackerman Angle (Low Speed)
Ackerman angle or Ackerman Geometry
Exact geometry of front wheels as on previous slide
Correct angles depend on vehicle wheelbase & turn angle
Deviations from Ackerman angles for the right or left
steer angles can significantly affect tire wear
Deviations do not significantly affect directional response
for low speed turns
Deviations do affect steering torques
With correct Ackerman geometry, steering torques
increase with steer angle and provide feedback to driver
With parallel steering, steering torque increases initially
and then decreases
Steering torque can become negative so that vehicle turns more
deeply into turn
Steady State Cornering
OffTracking at Low Speed
Offtracking at rear wheels
Offtracking distance
Recall series form of cos
Then
( )
! = R #1 " cos L R %
$
&
z2 z4 z6 z8
cos z = 1 ! + ! + !
2! 4! 6! 8!
L2
!=
2R
Offtracking is primarily a concern for long
wheelbase vehicles like trucks and buses
For articulated vehicle Tractrix equations
Steady State Cornering
High Speed Cornering
High speed cornering produces different equations
wrt low speed cornering
Tires must develop significant lateral forces to
counteract the lateral acceleration
Slip angles will be present at each wheel
Steady State Cornering
Tire Cornering Forces
Tire slipangle between direction of heading and
direction of travel
Lateral or cornering force grows with slip angle
Steady State Cornering
Slip Angles
Below about
5 slip
relationship
is linear
Fy = C! !
C cornering stiffness
Positive slip angle produces negative force (to the
left) on tire
Thus, C must be negative
SAE defines C as the negative of the slope
Steady State Cornering
Slip Angle
Cornering stiffness depends on several variables
Tire size
Tire type (radial or bias ply)
Wheel width
Tread design
Number of plies
Cord angles
Load
Inflation pressure
Speed not a strong influence on cornering forces
produced by tire
Steady State Cornering
Cornering Coefficient
Cornering stiffness divided by load
CC! =
C!
"
$
Fy #lbf y / lbfz / deg %
Cornering force strong dependence on load
Cornering coefficient largest at light load and
diminishes as load reaches rated value
Tire & Rim Association rated load
At 100% load cornering coefficient
approximately
0.2 lbf cornering force / lbf load / deg slip angle
Steady State Cornering
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Slip Angle Dependence
Steady State Cornering
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Cornering Equations
Apply NSL and description of geometry in turns
Bicycle model
At high speed turn radius >> wheelbase
assume small angles inner and outer slip angles same
Both front wheels represented by one with steer angle
Sum forces in lateral direction
2
MV
! Fy = Fyf + Fyr =
R
Fyf = cornering force at front
Fyf = cornering force at rear
M = mass of vehicle
V = forward velocity
R = turn radius
Steady State Cornering
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Cornering Equations
For vehicle to be
in equilibrium
Fyf b ! Fyr c = 0
Slip angles are
!f =
WfV 2
!r =
WrV 2
C! f gR
C! r gR
Geometry gives ! = 57.3 L + " f + " r
R
Combining
Steady State Cornering
$& W f Wr (& + V 2 .
! = 57.3 L R + %
#
)- 0
&' C" f C" r &* , gR /
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Understeer Gradient
Previous equation is the Understeer Gradient
! = 57.3 L R + kay
Lateral acceleration
V2
gR
Magnitude and direction
of steering inputs required
Steady State Cornering
Wf
C! f
Wr
"
C! r
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Understeer Gradient
Neutral Steer
Wf
C! f
Wr
" K = 0 " ! f = !r
C! r
Understeer
Wf
C! f
>
Wr
" K > 0 " ! f > !r
C! r
Oversteer
Wf
C! f
Wr
<
" K < 0 "! f < ! r
C! r
Steady State Cornering
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