Unit -IV

VEHICLE HANDLING : Over steer, under steer,

steady state cornering, Effect of braking, driving
torques on steering, Effect of camber, transient
effects in cornering, Directional stability of vehicles

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• Understeer and oversteer are vehicle
dynamics terms used to describe the sensitivity of
a vehicle to steering.
• Oversteer is what occurs when a car turns (steers)
by more than (over) the amount commanded by
the driver.
• Conversely, understeer is what occurs when a car
steers less than (under) the amount commanded
by the driver.
• Automotive engineers define understeer and over
steer based on changes in steering angle
associated with changes in lateral acceleration
over a sequence of steady-state circular turning
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tests
Under Steer: the car does not turn Over Steer: the car turns more
enough and leaves the road sharply than intended and could get
into a spin

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• Understeer and oversteer are defined by an
understeer gradient K that is a measure of how
the steering needed for a steady turn changes as
a function of lateral acceleration.

• Steering at a steady speed is compared to the

steering that would be needed to follow the same
circular path at low speed. The low-speed
steering for a given radius of turn is called
Ackermann steer.

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• The vehicle has a positive understeer gradient if
the difference between required steer and the
Ackermann steer increases with respect to
incremental increases in lateral acceleration.

• The vehicle has a negative gradient if the

difference in steer decreases with respect to
incremental increases in lateral acceleration.
• Understeer and oversteer are formally defined
using the gradient K: if K is positive, the vehicle
shows understeer; if K is negative, the vehicle
shows oversteer; if K is zero, the vehicle is
neutral. 6
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Causes of steer

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Causes of steer

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Steady state handling characteristics of a vehicle

Steady state handling characteristics is concerned with the

directional behavior of a vehicle during a turn under nontime-
varying conditions.

When a vehicle is negotiating a turn at moderate or higher

speed, the effect of the centrifugal force acting at the C.G can
no longer be neglected.

To balance the centrifugal force, the tires must develop

appropriate cornering forces. To simplify the analysis, the pair
of tires on an axle are represented by a single tire with double
cornering stiffness.
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Steady state handling characteristics of a vehicle

δf = L/R + Kus V2/gR

Kus = understeer coefficient

Neutral steer:
Kus = 0

Under steer:
Kus > 0

Over steer
Kus < 0
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Transient effects in cornering.

Between the application of steering input and the attainment of

steady state motion, the vehicle is in a transient state.

The optimum transient response of a vehicle is that which has

the fastest response with a minimum of oscillation in the
process of approaching the steady-state motion.

In analyzing the transient response, the inertia properties of the

vehicle must be taken into consideration.

During a turning maneuver, the vehicle is in translation as well

as in rotation.
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Effect of braking, driving torques on a automobile

When a driving torque is applied to a tire, a tractive force is

developed at the tire-ground contact patch.

At the same time, the tire tread in front of and within the contact
patch is subjected to compression.

A corresponding shear deformation of the sidewall of the tire

is developed.

As tread elements are compressed before entering the contact

region, the distance that the tire travels when subject to a
driving torque will be less than that in free rolling.
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Effect of camber

Camber is the inclination of the wheel plane from a plane

perpendicular to the road surface when viewed from the force
and aft directions of the vehicle.

Its main purpose is to achieve axial bearing pressure and to

decrease the king-pin offset. High camber angles promote
excessive tire wear. Camber causes a lateral force developed
on the contact patch.

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Ride properties of tires.

Supporting the weight of the vehicle and cushioning it over

surface irregularities are two of the basic functions of tire.

When a normal load is applied to an inflated tire, the tire

progressively deflects as the load increases.

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Steady State Cornering
❏Handling — responsiveness of vehicle to driver
inputs or ease of control
❏Handling is measure of the driver–vehicle closed–
loop system
❏Vehicle only must be characterized as open–loop
system
❏Vehicle response to steering input or directional
response
❏Most common measure of open–loop response is
the Understeer Gradient
❏Understeer Gradient only valid for steady state
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Low Speed Turning

❏ At low speed (parking lot maneuvers) tires need

not develop lateral forces
❏ Tires roll with no slip angle — center of turn must
lie off projection of rear axle
❏ Perpendiculars from front wheels pass through
same turn center

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Ackerman Angle (Low Speed)
❏ Exact geometry of front wheels as on previous
slide
❏ Correct angles depend on vehicle wheelbase &
turn angle

❏ Deviations from Ackerman angles for the right or

left steer angles can significantly affect tire wear

❏ Deviations do not significantly affect directional

response for low speed turns

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Ackerman Angle (Low Speed)

❏ Deviations do affect steering torques

❏ With correct Ackerman geometry, steering
torques increase with steer angle and provide
feedback to driver
❏ With parallel steering, steering torque increases
initially and then decreases
❏ Steering torque can become negative. So, that
vehicle turns more deeply into turn (undesirable)

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Off–tracking is primarily a concern for long
wheelbase vehicles like trucks and buses

For articulated trucks, the geometric equations become more

complicated and are known as "tractrix“ equations

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High Speed Cornering
❏ High speed cornering produces different
equations w.r.t. low speed cornering

❏ Tires must develop significant lateral forces to

counteract the lateral acceleration

❏ Slip angles will be present at each wheel

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Tire Cornering Forces
❏ Tire slip–angle between direction of heading and
direction of travel

❏ Lateral or cornering force grows with slip angle

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Below about
5° slip relationship
is linear

❏ Cα — cornering stiffness
❏ Positive slip angle produces negative force (to the
left) on tire
❏ Thus, Cα must be negative
As per SAE convention, Cα must be positive.

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Slip Angle
❏ Cornering stiffness depends on several variables
❏Tire size
❏ Number of plies
❏Tire type (radial or bias ply)
❏ Cord angles
❏Wheel width ❏ Load
❏Tread design ❏ Inflation pressure

❏ Speed is not a strong influence on cornering

forces produced by tire
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Cornering Coefficient
❏ Cornering stiffness divided by load

Cornering force — strong dependence on load

❏ Cornering coefficient largest at light load and
diminishes as load reaches rated value

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Cornering Equations
❏ Apply dynamics and description of geometry in
turns
❏ At high speed turn radius >> wheelbase assume
small angles – inner and outer slip angles same

❏ Both front wheels represented by one with steer

angle δ

❏ Sum forces in lateral direction

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Cornering Equations
Fyf = cornering force at front
Fyf = cornering force at rear
M = mass of vehicle
V = forward velocity
R = turn radius

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Cornering Equations
Fyf = cornering force at front
Fyf = cornering force at rear
M = mass of vehicle
V = forward velocity
R = turn radius

For vehicle to be in equilibrium

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Cornering Equations
Slip angles are:

Geometry gives

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Understeer Gradient
❏ Previous equation is the Understeer Gradient

Lateral acceleration

❏ Magnitude and direction

of steering inputs required

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