DataCommunication&ComputerNetworking

Data Communication Components

o Message
o Sender
o Media
o Protocol
o Receiver
Data Flow
o Simplex
o Half-Duplex
o Full-Duplex
Distributed computing
o Task divided into multiple devices
Network Criteria
o Performance
o Reliability
o Security
Physical Topologies
o Mesh
N(N-1) physical links required
Reliable but costly
o Star
Central controller (HUB)
o Bus
Backbone cable with drop lines at multipoints
o Ring
Uni-directional traffic
Repeater incorporated for each device
Network Categories
o Local Area Network (LAN)
Fewer Kilometers
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Over a city
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
Long distant
Switched WAN
Connects end systems via devices like routers
Point-to-Point WAN
Connects small LAN or home internet user to ISP
Protocol
o Syntax
Format of data
o Sementax
Meaning of formatted data (Bits)
o Timing
When to be sent and reach

Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model

o To facilitate communication between different systems without changing their logic
o Not a protocol but the architecture
o Seven Layers
o Physical Layer -1
Responsible for
Individual Bits exchange between Hops/Nodes
Bit representation of data
Synchronization
Header added
Data rates
Physical Properties of Medium
o Topology
o Transmission Mode
o Data Link Layer -2
Responsible for
Frame exchange between Hops/Nodes
Framing
Header + Trailer Added
Error Control (at this layer, it is Retransmission)
Flow Control ( Data Rates - How many Data user can send before acknowledgement )
Access Control
o Physical Addressing ( MAC Address )
Communication Protocols
High Level Data Link Control
HLDC
Point-to-Point Protocol
PPP
Password Authentication Protocol
PAP
Challenge Handshake Authentication CHAP
Multiple Access Protocols
Random Access
o ALOHA
( Pure/Slotted )
o CSMA
1-Persistent
(Continuous sensing transmit)
Non-Persistent (Wait Sense Transmit)
P-Persistent
(Continuous sense wait slotssend)
o CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
o CSMA/CA
(Collision Avoidance via Inter-frame Space IFS)
Controlled Access (Ask to send Send if agree)
o Reservation
o Polling
o Token Passing
Channelization Access
o FDMA
(Channels are Frequency Separated)
o TDMA
(Channels are Time Separated)
o CDMA
(All transmission simultaneously on a channel)
IEEE Standards
Project 802 (Enables interconnection b/w devices of different manufacturers)

 Standards for LANs

o Logical Link Control LLC
o Media Access Control MAC
Ethernet ( 802.3)
o

o
o MAC addresses, Type defined by last bit of frame
Last bit is 0
Uni-Cast
Last bit is 1
Multi-Cast
all bits are 1
Broadcast

Standard Ethernet Implementations

o 10Base5
100Mbps
500meters
Thick Coaxial
o 10Base2
10Mbps
185meters
Thin Coaxial
o 10Base-T
10Mbps
Twisted Pair
o 10Base-F
2000meter
Optical Fiber
Manchester is type of coding used in all kinds of Ethernet
Bridging in Ethernet separates collision domains
Fast Ethernet Implementations ( 802.3u )
o 100Base-TX
2 wire type 5 UTP
100 meter
o 100Base-TF
2 wire fiber
100 meter
o 100Base-T4
4 wire type 3 UTP
100 meter
Gigabit Ethernet Implementations ( 802.3z )
o 1000Base-SX
2 wire Fiber Short-Wave
550 meter
o 1000Base-LX
2 wire Fiber Long-Wave
5000 meter
o 1000Base-CX
2 wire STP
25 meter

o 1000Base-T
4 wire category 5 UTP
100 meter
Wireless LAN ( 802.11 a, b, g, n)
o Base Service Set (BSS) without Access Point (AP) = Adhoc Network
o BSS with AP = Infrastructure Network
o Extended Service Set (ESS) = Multiple BSS connected to a Distributed
System Connected to Server/Gateway
o 802.11 b, g, n use 2.4 2.4835 GHz Band
o 802.11a uses 5.725 5.850 GHz Band
o Industrial, Scientific & Medical (ISM) Band = 902 928 MHz
o Bluetooth
Piconet
(All devices connected to single device)
Scatternet
(Multiple Piconet interconnected)
o Network Layer -3
Responsible for
Packets Exchange between Source & Host
Routing
o Logical Addressing ( IP Address )
Header Added
IP Addressing
Five classes A, B, C, D and E
Class A
o 0 127
o Default Mask = 255.0.0.0
Class B
o 128 191
o Default Mask = 255.255.0.0
Class B
o 192 223
o Default Mask = 255.255.255.0
Classless Inter Domain Routing CIDR
o Address defined as a. b. c. d/N
o N defines Mask
o To find 1st address set right (32-N) bits to 0s
o To find last address set right (32-N) bits to 1s
o Number of address/Hosts available = 2
o Private Addresses
10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255
2
172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
2
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255
2
o Network Address Translator (NAT)
Enables organizations to have large number of addresses to have
internally but single or fewer for external communication
Small to many Translation
In internet, at network layer the communication is connectionless
Minimum number of bytes in IPv4 packet header = Header Length * 4 = 20
In first 8 bits of IPv4 packet, 1 4 bits show version and next4 bit show header length

MTU Maximum Transfer Unit for IPv4 is 65535 bytes

Fragmentation
Division of datagram to make it possible to travel through network
Fragmentation offset = Place of 1st byte / 8
IPv4 to IPv6 Transition
Three strategies
o Dual Stack
Station uses both IPv4 & IPv6 simultaneously
Host queries DNS Domain Name Server
DNS returns either IPv4 or IPv6 and host then sends
corresponding packet to destination
o Tunneling
Both Source and Destination use IPv6 but in b/w there is some
device using IPv4
Encapsulates into IPv4 Packet Passes the IPv4 device Decapsulate
o Header Translation
Sender using IPv6 while receiver uses IPv4
Header format totally changed i.e. converted from IPv6 to IPv4
o Transport Layer -4
Responsible for
Message exchange between Processes ( Application Program )
Segmentation & Reassembly
Error control
Flow control
Header Added
Connection Control
Service Point Addressing ( Port Address Define running process )
In classless addressing we need four columns for routing table
Mask (/n)
Network Address
Next hop Address
Interface (Physical Link)
Autonomous System
Groups of networks and routers under authority of single administration
Routing Protocols
Intra-Domain
o Distance Vector
( RIP )
Destination
Cost
Next Hop
o Link State
( OSPF )
Router learn about directly connected devices
Creates Link State Packets and broadcasts to directly connected
Database throughout the network is updated
Decision of shortest path is made by router based on updated
Database

Inter-Domain
o Path Vector
( BGP )
o Session Layer -5
Responsible for
Establishing, Maintenance and Synchronization of connection
Dialog Control
Header Added
o Presentation Layer -6
Responsible for
Translation
Encapsulation
Compression
Header Added
o Application Layer -7
Responsible for
User Services
o File Transfer
o Mail Transfer
o Directory Services
Header Added
TCP/IP Protocol
o Five Layers
Physical + Data Link
Physical Address
6Byte = 48 bits = 12 Hexadecimal Digits = XX : XX : XX : XX : XX : XX
Network
Logical Address

Transport
Service Point Address

16-bit Port Number = 1 decimal number = 555

Application
Specific Address

IPv4 & IPv6 = 32-bits & 128-bits

E-mail & Universal Resource Locator (URL)

Physical Address changes from Hop to Hop while others remain unchanged.
Transmission Impairments
o Attenuation
o Distortion
o Noise
Data Rate Limits
o Bandwidth Available
o Signal Levels used ( Level Increases Data Rate Increases Reliability Decreases )
o Channel Quality
o
o

Analog to Digital Conversion

o Pulse Code Modulation

Sam
mpling
(

In telepphony

o
o
Quaantization
Enccoding
o Delta Moduulation
Com
mparator
Delay Unit Feedd Back Comparator
Stairrcase Makerr Fed Back Delay

Uniit
Coding Schemes
o Digital Dataa Digital Signal
o Line Codingg
Alw
ways needed
Unii-Polar
( NR
RZ )
Polaar
( NR
RZ, RZ and
d Bi-phase ( Manchesterr/Differentiaal Manchestter ))
Bi-P
Polar
( AM
MI and Pseu
udoternary )
Mullti-Level
( 2B
B/1Q, 8B/6T
T, 4D-PAM55 )
Mullti-transition
n
( MLT-3 )
o Block Codin
ng
o Scrambling
Transm
mission Modees
o Parallel
( Multip
ple Parallel Links
L
)
o Serial
( Single Link )

Asyn
nchronous ( Start bit 00 and End bits
b 1s addeed to data )
Synchronous ( No start/E
End bits add
ded )
Isocchronous

Multipleexing
o Bandwidth efficiency
o Frequency Division
D
FDM Anaalog
o Wavelength
h Division WDM Anaalog
o Time Divisiion
TDM Dig
gital

Spreadin
ng
o Privacy & Anti-Jammin
A
ng

o Different signals fit into larger bandwidth

o Frequency Hoping
FHSS
Pseudorandom Codes
Frequency Table
o Direct Sequence
DSSS
Chip Generator
Switching
o Circuit Switching
On Physical Layer
Switches connected via Physical Link
Link divided into n-channels via FDM or TDM
Only 1 channel for each user connected to link
Setup Phase
Resources to be used reserved and remain dedicated
Teardown Phase
o Packet Switching
Datagram Network
On Network Layer
No resource allocation but on demand availability
Routing Tables based on destination addresses
Destination Address (Inside Header of Packet) remains same throughout
Virtual Circuit Network
On Data Link Layer
Setup & Teardown Phases
Both the reservation and on demand resources allocation
Data Packetized
All packet belonging to same destination follow same path
Virtual Circuit Identifier VCI ( Changes Hop-to-Hop)
Used in WANs
o Message Switching
Error Detection & Correction
o Single Bit Error
o Burst Error
Extra bits sent for error checking and correction
Hamming Distance = # of bits changed
To detect N bit error
Hamming Distance = N+1
To correct N nits Error
Hamming Distance = 2N+1
Connecting Devices
o Repeater/Hub
Physical Layer
Connects Segments of LAN
No Filtering, Every frame forwarded
Regenerator but not an Amplifier
o Bridge/Two Layer Switch
Data Link & Lower Layers

Preserves table used in filtering (MAC Addresses)

Transparent Bridge
Forwarding Tabled automatically filled on basis of frame movements
Loop prevention
o Router/3 Layer Switch
Network & Lower Layers
o Gateway
Application & Lower Layers
Backbone Network
o Connects LANs
Virtual LAN
o Configured via software, not physically
o Create broadcast domains
o Grouping based on
Port Number
MAC Address
IP Address
Combination of above

Virtual Circuit Networks

o Frame Relay
Effective high speed Switching Network
Operates Physical and Data Link Layers
Doesnt provide flow and error control instead leaves to upper layers
Three types of address fields in frame relay frame (2, 3 & 4 bit address)
Frame Assembler/Re-assembler FRAD allows frames coming from other protocol to be
carried out by Frame Relay
o Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM )
Cell relay protocol
Uses Cell as basic data unit i.e. small fixed size data unit = Cell
Frames from different networks split into cell sized packets to travel over ATM
Asynchronous Time division Multiplexing
Network switches are connected via Network-to-Network Interface NNIs
User devices are connected via User-to-Network Interface UNIs
Transmission path (TPs) contain multiple Virtual paths (VPs) each of which further
contains Virtual Circuits (VCs)
Each VC is link for 1 user device
VC is uniquely defined by VPI & VCI numbers
In UNI
VPI = 8 bits
VCI = 16 bits
In NNI
VPI = 12 bits
VCI = 16 bits
1 ATM Cell = 53 bytes= 5 byte header + 48 bytes payload
ATM Layers
Physical Layer

ATM Layer
o Routing
o Traffic Management
o Switching
o Multiplexing
Application Adoption Layer AAL

WirelessCommunicationSystem

Hexagonal Cell
o Area = 2.598
o Radius = R
o Perimeter = 6R
Mega-Cell
Macro-Cell
Micro-Cell
Pico-Cell
o System M-Clusters N Cells/cluster K-Frequency Channels/cell
o Capacity of system = C = MNK
o Decreasing N, increases M so the capacity increases but Interference also increases
o Geographical Area covered by a cell is called Footprint
o Means of Increasing System Capacity
Cell Clustering
Cell Sectoring
Cell Splitting
Frequency Reuse
o Center-Excited Cells
Omni-directional antenna at center
o Edge Excited Cells
Directional Antennas at 3 of cell vertices
o Cells using same frequency but in different cluster ar called c0-channels and interference due to
them called co-channel interference

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CreationDate:
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