i206: Lecture 20:

Networking Standards and

Protocols

Tapan Parikh
Spring 2013

Some slides courtesy Marti Hearst, John Chuang and others

 Confidentiality
Distributed
Security Integrity
Systems
Authentication

Network Cryptography …

Network Standards
& Protocols

Inter-process Methodologies/ Principles

Communication TCP/IP,
RSA, … Tools

Operating Application Design Formal models

Process
I/O System
Finite automata
regex
Context switch
Process vs. Thread Program Algorithms Analysis
Locks and deadlocks
Memory Memory ALUs, Registers,
hierarchy Compiler/ Big-O
Program Counter, Assembly
Instruction Register Interpreter
Instructions Data Structures
Register, Cache Searching, sorting,
Main Memory, Encryption, etc.
CPU Machine
Secondary Storage Instructions
Data Op-code, operands
storage Instruction set arch
Stacks, queues,
Circuits maps, trees,
Lossless v. lossy
Info entropy & Decimal, graphs, …
Huffman code Hexadecimal, Adders, decoders,
Binary Memory latches,
Gates ALUs, etc.
Data Number
compression Data Systems
AND, OR, NOT,
Boolean XOR, NAND, NOR,
Logic etc.
Numbers, text,
audio, video,
Truth table
image, … Data Binary Venn Diagram
Representation Numbers Bits & Bytes
DeMorgan’s Law
Lecture Outline

• Different abstractions of a network

• Network architecture
– Layered protocol architecture
– Message encapsulation
 Network as Communication
Channel

process p process q

send m receive

Communication channel
Outgoing message buffer Incoming message buffer

Source: Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg

Network Cloud

Network

client server
Network: Routers & Links

A
1
B

Hosts
2

3
Links
4

or local
C

networks
5

D
6
E

Routers

Source: Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg

Network: More Details
Inter-exchange Customer Premises Internet Service Providers
Carrier (IXC) Long- Telephone Network Internet backbones
Distance
Point of Network Backbone Router
Presence Provider 1
Router
Tandem ISP
Local Switch
Exchange
Carrier Exchange
(LEC) DNS Point
Local Router
Egress
Server
Local
Ingress Switch
Switch Content
Provider
Local Headend
Loop Cable ISP Backbone
Provider 2 Remote ISP
Analog xDSL
Modem Modem Router
router
Cable
Modem Firewall

Client
Wireless ISP
7Corporate
LAN
Mobile Client
 Network Types circa 2000

Range
Bandwidth (Mbps)
Latency (ms)

LAN
1-2 kms
10-1000
1-10

WAN
worldwide
0.010-600
100-500

MAN
2-50 kms
1-150
10

Wireless LAN
0.15-1.5 km
2-11
5-20

Wireless WAN
worldwide
0.010-2
100-500

Internet
worldwide
0.010-2
100-500

Source: Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg

§ An internet: a set of interconnected networks

§ The Internet: the global internetwork based upon the Internet
Protocol (IP)
Network Building Blocks
• Transmission media
– Copper (coax, twisted pair), optical fiber, free
space (wireless)
• Signals
– Electrical currents, light, RF (radio-frequency),
microwave
• Hardware devices
– End hosts, network interfaces
– Routers, switches, hubs, bridges, repeaters
• Software components
– Communication protocol stack
Network Architecture
• Networking can be quite complex and requires a high
degree of cooperation between the involved parties.

• Cooperation is achieved by forcing parties to adhere to

a set of rules and conventions (protocol).

• The complexity of the communication task is reduced by

using multiple protocol layers:
• Each layer is implemented independently.
• Each layer is responsible for a specific subtask.
• Layers are grouped in a hierarchy.

• A structured set of protocols is called a network

architecture, protocol architecture, or protocol suite.
 What each layer does

Layer 7
Application • Application (layer 7): specific to
layer application need
Layer 6
Presentation • Presentation (layer 6): conversion
layer of data representation
Layer 5
Session • Session (layer 5): access mgt,
layer synchronization
Layer 4
Transport • Transport (layer 4): end-to-end
layer delivery, congestion and flow
Network control
Layer 3
layer • Network (layer 3): addressing,
Data link routing
Layer 2
layer • Data Link (layer 2): framing, error
Physical detection
Layer 1
layer • Physical (layer 1): bits (0/1),
voltages, frequencies, wires, pins, …
ISO/OSI Reference Model
Layered Protocol Architecture
Application
Layer 7 Layer 7
layer Application Software
layer
Presentation
Layer 6
layer Socket API
Session
Layer 5 Transport
layer Layer 4
layer
Transport
Layer 4 Operating
layer
System
Network Network
Layer 3 Layer 3
layer layer
Data link
Layer 2 Layer 2
layer Link layer
Hardware
Physical
Layer 1 Physical layer Layer 1
layer

ISO/OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model

The “IP Hourglass”

Application Layer HTTP, FTP, SSH, SMTP,

Your python program, ...

Transport Layer TCP, UDP

A single protocol
Network Layer IP

Data Link Layer Ethernet,

WiFi, SONET

Physical Layer coax, twisted pair, fiber,

wireless, pigeons, ...
TCP/IP Model
end-to-end
Appl Appl

Trans end-to-end Trans

port port

Net Net point-to-point Net Net

work work work work

point-to-point
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

TCP/IP Model (ping)
client server

end-to-end
Appl Appl

Trans end-to-end Trans

port port

Net Net point-to-point Net Net

work work work work

point-to-point
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

Message Flow

Appl Appl

Trans Trans
port port

Net Net Net Net

work work work work

Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

Encapsulation
Data
Appl Appl

Data
Trans Trans
port port

Net Net Data Net Net

work work work work

Data
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

Encapsulation
Example: Sending HTTP message using TCP/IP over
Ethernet

HTTP message

TCP header
port
HTTP message

IP header
TCP
TCP segment

Ethernet header
IP
IP datagram/packet

Ethernet frame

Adapted from Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg
Ensuring Reliability
• Layering:
– Hourglass: many different applications and
underlying network technologies, but
Internet Protocol establishes universal
addressing scheme
– Envelope/Encapsulation: layer-specific
functionalities; isolation between layers
• Reliable communication over unreliable
network
– IP provides “best-effort” packet delivery
service
– TCP supports retransmission of lost packets
Internetworking Standards

• Internetworking standards set by IETF

(Internet Engineering Task Force)
• Documented as RFCs (Requests for
Comment):
– RFC 791: IP
– RFC 793: TCP
– RFC 2460: IPv6
– RFC 1034, 1035: DNS
• http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html
Formal Definition of the Internet

• Resolution passed by the Federal Networking Council October

24, 1995
• "Internet" refers to the global information system that --
– (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address
space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its
subsequent extensions/follow-ons;
– (ii) is able to support communications using the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or
other IP-compatible protocols; and
– (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or
privately, high level services layered on the
communications and related infrastructure described
herein.
Network Layer
end-to-end
Appl Appl

Trans end-to-end Trans

port port

Net Net point-to-point Net Net

work work work work

point-to-point
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

Internet Protocol (IP)
• Two main functions of network layer:
– Addressing
– Packet switching (routing + packet
forwarding)
• Allow packets to traverse multiple
networks
• Deliver packet to specified destination
host
• Best effort: network delivers packets
as reliably and as quickly as it can (but
provides no guarantee of delivery)
– Routers can and often do drop packets as
part of normal operations
 IP Packet Format (v4)
Field length in bits

Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4)
TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)

Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)

Heade

Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)

r

Source IP Address (32)

Destination IP Address (32)

Options (if any)

Data

Data (variable length)

IP Address

• Every networked host is identified by its

IP address
• IP (version 4) addresses are 32 bits
long
– 232 = 4,294,967,296 unique IP addresses
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long
– 2128 =
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211
,455 unique IP addresses
IP Address: Dotted Decimal
Notation

• Hostname: ischool.berkeley.edu Domain Name

Service (DNS)
• IP address: 128.32.226.87 performs
translation

128 32 226 87
0 8 16 24 31
10000000 00100000 11100010 01010111
Packet Switching (Routing)

Host A Host B
12.2.14.60 128.32.226.87
 Two Basic Functions in Packet
Switching
• Routing
– Learn the best route to (or best next-hop for)
any given destination
• Routers exchange local link status or destination
reachability information
• Compute best path to destinations
– Algorithms for computing shortest paths (e.g., Dijkstra’s)
– Policies that reflect business agreements (use BGP)
– Update the routing table
• Packet forwarding
– For each packet received on an incoming link,
forward it to an outgoing link according to the
routing table
 Network Utilities
• Run from Terminal in unix/mac
– Ping: round trip time on an IP network from the
originating host to the destination computer
– Traceroute: displaying the route (path) and
measuring transit delays of packets across an IP
network

$ ping www.ischool.berkeley.edu!
PING www.ischool.berkeley.edu (128.32.78.21): 56 data bytes
!
64 bytes from 128.32.78.21: icmp_seq=0 ttl=61 time=0.846 ms
!
64 bytes from 128.32.78.21: icmp_seq=1 ttl=61 time=0.915 ms
!
!
!
TraceRoute
!
$ traceroute www.ischool.berkeley.edu!
traceroute to www.ischool.berkeley.edu (128.32.78.21), 64 hops max, 52 byte packets!
1 g2-11.inr-270-doecev.berkeley.edu (128.32.226.1) 0.681 ms 0.362 ms 0.495 ms!
2 g3-3.inr-202-reccev.berkeley.edu (128.32.255.34) 0.437 ms 0.540 ms 0.476 ms!
3 t5-5.inr-211-srb.berkeley.edu (128.32.255.127) 0.626 ms 0.648 ms 1.163 ms!
4 www (128.32.78.21) 0.930 ms 1.220 ms 1.085 ms!
!
$ traceroute www.google.com!
traceroute: Warning: www.google.com has multiple addresses; using 74.125.224.83!
traceroute to www.l.google.com (74.125.224.83), 64 hops max, 52 byte packets!
1 g2-11.inr-270-doecev.berkeley.edu (128.32.226.1) 0.673 ms 0.431 ms 0.427 ms!
2 g3-3.inr-201-sut.berkeley.edu (128.32.255.32) 0.482 ms 0.505 ms 0.510 ms!
3 xe-0-1-0.inr-001-sut.berkeley.edu (128.32.0.64) 0.597 ms 0.450 ms 0.355 ms!
4 dc-svl-agg1--ucb-10ge.cenic.net (137.164.50.18) 10.662 ms 7.790 ms 6.443 ms!
5 dc-svl-core1--svl-agg1-10ge.cenic.net (137.164.47.121) 3.623 ms 3.477 ms
3.133 ms!
6 dc-svl-px1--svl-core1-10ge-2.cenic.net (137.164.46.13) 4.791 ms 3.045 ms
2.955 ms!
7 137.164.131.61 (137.164.131.61) 3.582 ms 3.415 ms 3.637 ms!
8 137.164.130.94 (137.164.130.94) 8.095 ms 58.649 ms 7.700 ms!
9 216.239.49.250 (216.239.49.250) 4.307 ms 4.829 ms 4.534 ms!
10 64.233.174.19 (64.233.174.19) 4.943 ms 4.812 ms 5.091 ms!
11 nuq04s07-in-f19.1e100.net (74.125.224.83) 4.528 ms 4.510 ms 4.802 ms!
Packet Switch in Action

Incoming links Packet Outgoing links

Data Plane

Destination Outgoing
Address Link

w.x.y.z C

Routing table Control Plane

Control plane of a router communicates with its counterparts

at other routers using routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP)
Transport Layer
end-to-end
Appl Appl

Trans end-to-end Trans

port port

Net Net point-to-point Net Net

work work work work

point-to-point
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
• End-to-End reliable data
transport
• Addressing (using ports)
 TCP Segment Format
Bit 0 Bit 31

Source Port # (16) Destination Port # (16)

Sequence Number (32 bits)

Heade

Acknowledgement Number (32 bits)

r

Hdr Len
(4)
Reserved (6) Flags (6) Window Size (16)

TCP Checksum (16) Urgent Pointer (16)

Options (if any) Padding

Data

Data (variable length)

 Source: Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg

TCP Ports socket

any port
agreed port

socket

message

client
server

other ports

Internet address = 138.37.94.248
Internet address = 138.37.88.249

• TCP port number designates

communicating processes
Bit 0 Bit 31

Source Port # (16) Destination Port # (16)

Sequence Number (32 bits)

Acknowledgement Number (32 bits)

Hdr Len
(4)
Reserved (6) Flags (6) Window Size (16)

TCP Checksum (16) Urgent Pointer (16)

Options (if any) Padding

 Ports
• The port numbers are divided into three ranges:
– Well known ports (0-1023)
– Registered ports (1024-49151)
– Dynamic and/or private ports (49152 – 65535)
• Some “well known ports”
– ftp (21); ssh (22); telnet (23); smtp (25);
finger (79); http (80)
– assigned by Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (www.iana.org/numbers.html)
 Reliable Delivery?

Process A Process B

Data

Data
Data Packet Loss

Q: how to support reliable data transfer when underlying network is unreliable?

time
 Reliable Delivery
• Positive acknowledgment with
retransmission
• Sequence and acknowledgement
numbers
0 16 31

Source Port Number (16) Destination Port Number (16)

TCP Header

Sequence Number (32)

Acknowledgement Number (32)

Hdr Len
Reserved (6) Flags (6) Window Size (16)
(4)
TCP Checksum (16) Urgent Pointer (16)

Options (if any) Padding

Data
 Reliable Delivery
• Each packet has a sequence number (SEQ)
– SEQ represents byte offset with respect to initial SEQ
– Duplicate packets can be detected and discarded
– Out of order packets can be re-ordered

• Each packet carries acknowledgment of received

packet
– ACK = sequence number of next byte expected by the
receiver

• Lost packet can be detected by missing ACK

• Lost packet can be retransmitted after a timeout

period
 ACK and Packet Retransmission
Process A Process B

Data (Seq=x+1)

Data (Ack=x+2)
Data (Seq=x+2) IP loses packet
Timeout

Data (Seq=x+2) TCP resends packet

Data (Ack=x+3)

time
 ACK and Packet Retransmission
Process A Process B

Data (Seq=x+1)

Data (Ack=x+2)
Data (Seq=x+2)
Timeout

Data (Ack=x+3) IP loses ACK

Data (Seq=x+2) TCP resends packet

TCP resends ACK;

Data (Ack=x+3) drops duplicate

time
 User Datagram Protocol
• Port numbers for addressing
• No mechanism for reliable data transfer
• Light-weight:
– low overhead; no connection setup
– used for real-time applications (don’t need
retransmission)
– non-standard protocols can be implemented on top of
UDP
0 16 31
UDP Header

Source Port Number (16) Destination Port Number (16)

Message Length (16) UDP Checksum (16)

Data
Application Layer
end-to-end
Appl Appl

Trans end-to-end Trans

port port

Net Net point-to-point Net Net

work work work work

point-to-point
Link Link Link Link

Host A Router 1 Router 2 Host B

 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
(HTTP)
Request line GET /index.html HTTP/1.1<CRLF>

Request header Host: www.ischool.berkeley.edu <CRLF>

Blank line <CRLF>

HTTP message

TCP header
port
HTTP message

IP header
TCP
TCP segment

Ethernet header
IP
IP datagram/packet

Ethernet frame

Adapted from Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg
 Real-Time Transport Protocol
(RTP)
• Protocol for transport of real-time multi-media
data
– Sequence number
and timestamp in
RTP header
– RTP messages
encapsulated in
UDP datagrams

Source: Douglas Comer

Domain Name Service (DNS)

• Routers and end-hosts use IP addresses

– e.g., 128.32.226.87
• Human beings remember hostnames
– e.g., ischool.berkeley.edu
• Need translation service!
• Client sends DNS query message
(hostname) to domain name server
using UDP
• Name server sends DNS response
message (with resolved IP address)
back to client