TCP/IP Protocols and Networking Basics
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP protocol suite is the foundation of the internet and modern networking. It
consists of a set of protocols organized into layers. Each layer is responsible for specific tasks
and interacts with the layers directly above and below it.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model:
1. Application Layer: Interfaces directly with user applications. Protocols include
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.
2. Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication services. Key protocols are
TCP and UDP.
3. Internet Layer: Manages logical addressing and routing. The primary protocol is IP
(Internet Protocol).
4. Network Interface Layer: Concerned with physical addressing and access to the
transmission medium. Includes Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and ARP.
Key Protocols:
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transmitting web pages.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for file transfers.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked
delivery of data.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides a connectionless, unreliable service for
low-latency transmissions.
• IP (Internet Protocol): Handles logical addressing and routing. IPv4 and IPv6 are
the two versions.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses in a
local network.
OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and implement network protocols in seven layers. It helps in designing and
troubleshooting networks.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
o Function: Transmits raw bit streams over a physical medium.
o Examples: Cables (Ethernet, fiber optic), Hubs, Repeaters.
o Protocols/Technologies: Ethernet (physical aspect), USB.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
o Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer and error detection/correction.
o Examples: Switches, Bridges.
o Protocols/Technologies: Ethernet (MAC), Wi-Fi (MAC), ARP.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):
o Function: Handles logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding.
o Examples: Routers.
o Protocols/Technologies: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):
o Function: Provides end-to-end communication, error recovery, and flow
control.
o Examples: Gateways.
o Protocols/Technologies: TCP, UDP.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):
o Function: Manages sessions between applications.
o Examples: N/A (mostly implemented in software).
o Protocols/Technologies: NetBIOS, RPC.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
o Function: Translates data formats, encrypts/decrypts data.
o Examples: N/A (mostly implemented in software).
o Protocols/Technologies: SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
o Function: Provides network services directly to applications.
o Examples: Web browsers, Email clients.
o Protocols/Technologies: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses
IPv4 Addresses
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers, typically represented in dot-decimal notation (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
Structure:
• Network Portion: Identifies the network segment.
• Host Portion: Identifies the specific device on the network.
Classes of IPv4:
• Class A: Supports 16 million hosts on each of 128 networks.
o Format: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
• Class B: Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
o Format: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
• Class C: Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
o Format: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
• Class D: Reserved for multicast groups.
o Format: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
• Class E: Reserved for experimental use.
o Format: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Special IPv4 Addresses:
• Private IP Addresses:
o Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
o Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
o Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
• Loopback Address: 127.0.0.1
• Broadcast Address: 255.255.255.255
Subnetting: Dividing a network into smaller sub-networks. Subnets are identified by a
subnet mask (e.g., 255.255.255.0).
IPv6 Addresses
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers, typically represented in hexadecimal notation (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Structure:
• Global Unicast: Similar to IPv4 public addresses, routable on the internet.
• Link-Local: Used for communication within a local network segment.
• Unique Local: Used within a site or organization, not routable on the global internet.
• Multicast: Used for one-to-many communication.
Features of IPv6:
• Larger Address Space: 128-bit addresses provide a vastly larger number of unique
addresses.
• Simplified Header: Improves routing efficiency.
• Auto-configuration: Supports stateless address auto-configuration (SLAAC).
• No Broadcasts: Uses multicast and anycast instead of broadcast.
• Enhanced Security: IPSec is mandatory for IPv6.
Network Devices
Router
A router is a network device that forwards data packets between computer networks. It
performs traffic directing functions on the Internet.
Functions:
• Routing: Determines the best path for data packets based on IP addresses.
• Inter-network Communication: Connects different network segments.
• Packet Filtering: Uses ACLs (Access Control Lists) to filter incoming and outgoing
traffic.
• NAT (Network Address Translation): Translates private IP addresses to a public IP
address for internet access.
Types:
• Home Routers: Typically combine routing, switching, and wireless access.
• Enterprise Routers: High-performance devices used in large networks.
• Core Routers: Operate within the backbone of the network and route data across the
network.
Switch
A switch is a network device that connects devices within a local area network (LAN) and
uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination.
Functions:
• MAC Address Learning: Stores MAC addresses in a table and uses it to forward
traffic.
• Frame Forwarding: Directs data packets only to the intended recipient device.
• Loop Prevention: Uses protocols like STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) to prevent
network loops.
Types:
• Unmanaged Switch: Simple, plug-and-play devices with no configuration options.
• Managed Switch: Provides more control over data traffic and network configuration,
typically used in enterprise networks.
• Layer 3 Switch: Combines switching and routing capabilities, often used in large
networks.
Hub
A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple Ethernet devices, making them act
as a single network segment.
Functions:
• Broadcasts Data: Sends incoming data packets to all ports, regardless of the
destination.
• No Intelligence: Does not filter or manage traffic, leading to potential collisions and
inefficiencies.
Types:
• Active Hub: Amplifies the signal before broadcasting.
• Passive Hub: Simply connects devices without signal amplification.
Comparison of Devices:
• Hub vs. Switch:
o Hubs broadcast data to all devices, while switches send data only to the
intended recipient.
o Hubs operate at the OSI Physical Layer, while switches operate at the Data
Link Layer.
• Switch vs. Router:
o Switches connect devices within the same network and operate based on MAC
addresses.
o Routers connect different networks and operate based on IP addresses.
