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Module
1
Fundamentals of
machine design
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Lesson
3
Brief overview of design
and manufacturing
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Concept of limits and fits

Preferred numbers
Various manufacturing processes

1.3.1 Design and Manufacturing

A machine element, after design, requires to be manufactured to give it a shape
of a product. Therefore, in addition to standard design practices like, selection of
proper material, ensuring proper strength and dimension to guard against failure,
a designer should have knowledge of basic manufacturing aspects.
In this lesson, we will discuss briefly about some of the basic manufacturing
requirements and processes.
First and foremost is assigning proper size to a machine element from
manufacturing view point. As for example, a shaft may be designed to diameter
of, say, 40 mm. This means, the nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, but the
actual size will be slightly different, because it is impossible to manufacture a
shaft of exactly 40 mm diameter, no matter what machine is used. In case the
machine element is a mating part with another one, then dimensions of both the
parts become important, because they dictate the nature of assembly. The
allowable variation in size for the mating parts is called limits and the nature of
assembly due to such variation in size is known as fits.

1.3.2 Limits
Fig. 1.3.1 explains the terminologies used in defining tolerance and limit. The
zero line, shown in the figure, is the basic size or the nominal size. The definition
of the terminologies is given below. For the convenience, shaft and hole are
chosen to be two mating components.

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HOLE

Upper
Deviation

Tolerance
Allowance

ZERO LINE
Lower
Deviation

SHAFT

Max.
Diameter
(upper limit)

Min. Diameter
(lower limit)
Basic Size
Fig. 1.3.1 Interrelationship between tolerances and limits

Tolerance
Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a
component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type of
application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available
standard grades.
Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and
unilateral. When tolerance is present on
both sides of nominal size, it is termed
as bilateral; unilateral has tolerance only
on one side. The Fig.1.3.2 shows the
types of tolerance. 500 y , 500+ x and 50+ yx is

Basic size

Unilateral
Bilateral
Fig. 1.3.2 Types of tolerance

a typical example of specifying tolerance

for a shaft
of nominal diameter of 50mm. First two values denote unilateral tolerance and
the third value denotes bilateral tolerance. Values of the tolerance are given as x
and y respectively.
Allowance
It is the difference of dimension between two mating parts.
Upper deviation
It is the difference of dimension between the maximum possible size of the
component and its nominal size.

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Lower deviation
Similarly, it is the difference of dimension between the minimum possible size of
the component and its nominal size.
Fundamental deviation
It defines the location of the tolerance zone with respect to the nominal size. For
that matter, either of the deviations may be considered.

1.3.3 Fit System

We have learnt above that a machine part when manufactured has a specified
tolerance. Therefore, when two mating parts fit with each other, the nature of fit is
dependent on the limits of tolerances and fundamental deviations of the mating
parts. The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of fit
system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit. The fit system is shown
schematically in Fig.1.3.3.
There are two ways of representing a system. One is the hole basis and the
other is the shaft basis. In the hole basis system the dimension of the hole is
considered to be the datum, whereas, in the shaft basis system dimension of the
shaft is considered to be the datum. The holes are normally made by drilling,
followed by reaming. Therefore, the dimension of a hole is fixed due to the nature
of the tool used. On the contrary, the dimension of a shaft is easily controllable
by standard manufacturing processes. For this reason, the hole basis system is
much more popular than the shaft basis system. Here, we shall discuss fit
system on hole basis.

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HOLE

HOLE

SHAFT

SHAFT

Transition fit

Clearance fit
HOLE
SHAFT

Interference fit
Fig. 1.3.3 Schematic view of Fit system

Clearance Fit
In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can also be fitted easily
even in the hole of smallest possible diameter.
Transition Fit
In this case, there will be a clearance between the minimum dimension of the
shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. If we look at the figure carefully,
then it is observed that if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole
dimension is minimum then an overlap will result and this creates a certain
amount of tightness in the fitting of the shaft inside the hole. Hence, transition fit
may have either clearance or overlap in the fit.

Interference Fit

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In this case, no matter whatever may be the tolerance level in shaft and the hole,
there is always a overlapping of the matting parts. This is known as interference
fit. Interference fit is a form of a tight fit.

1.3.4 Standard limit and fit system

Fig. 1.3.4 shows the schematic view of a standard limit and fit system. In this
figure tolerance is denoted as IT and it has 18 grades; greater the number, more
is the tolerance limit. The fundamental deviations for the hole are denoted by
capital letters from A and ZC, having altogether 25 divisions. Similarly, the
fundamental deviations for the shaft is denoted by small letters from a to zc.
A

Tolerance (IT)

HOLE

Fundamental deviation

H
Basic size

0
Fundamental deviation
(A-ZC)

ZC

zc

+
Fundamental deviation
(a-zc)

Basic size

SHAFT
a
Fig. 1.3.4 Schematic view of standard limit and fit system

Here H or h is a typical case, where the fundamental deviation is zero having an

unilateral tolerance of a specified IT grade.

Therefore in standard limits and fit system we find that,

Standard tolerances
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0 and IT1-1T16

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Fundamental deviations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
a- zc (For shafts)

The values of standard tolerances and fundamental deviations can be obtained

by consulting design hand book. It is to be noted that the choice of tolerance
grade is related to the type of manufacturing process; for example, attainable
tolerance grade for lapping process is lower compared to plain milling. Similarly,
choice of fundamental deviation largely depends on the nature of fit, running fit or
tight fit etc. The approximate zones for fit are shown in Fig. 1.3.5. Manufacturing
processes involving lower tolerance grade are generally costly. Hence the
designer has to keep in view the manufacturing processes to make the design
effective and inexpensive.
Sample designation of limit and fit, 50H6/g5.
The designation means that the nominal size of the hole and the shaft is 50 mm.
H is the nature of fit for the hole basis system and its fundamental deviation is
zero. The tolerance grade for making the hole is IT6. Similarly, the shaft has the
fit type g, for which the fundamental deviation is negative, that is, its dimension is
lower than the nominal size, and tolerance grade is IT5.
A
HOLE

Fundamental deviation

+
0

Basic size

ZC
Clearance
fit

Snug
Fit

Tight fit

zc

Very Tight
fit

+
h

0
-

Basic size
SHAFT

Fig. 1.3.5 Typical zones of fit

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1.3.5 Preferred numbers

A designed product needs standardization. It means that some of its important
specified parameter should be common in nature. For example, the sizes of the
ingots available in the market have standard sizes. A manufacturer does not
produce ingots of sizes of his wish, he follows a definite pattern and for that
matter designer can choose the dimensions from those standard available sizes.
Motor speed, engine power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a
definite pattern or series. This also helps in interchangeability of products. It has
been observed that if the sizes are put in the form of geometric progression, then
wide ranges are covered with a definite sequence. These numbers are called
preferred numbers having common ratios as,
5

10 1.58,

10

10 1.26,

20

10 1.12 and

40

10 1.06

Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are formed; these are R5 , R10
, R20 and R40 . These are named as Renard series. Many other derived series are
formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc.
Typical values of the common ratio for four basic G.P. series are given below.
Preferred Numbers
R5:

R10:

10

10

1.26: 1.0, 1.25, 1.6, 2.0,

R20:

20

10

1.12: 1.0, 1.12, 1.25, 1.4,

R40:

40

10

1.06: 1.0, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18,..

10

1.58: 1.0, 1.6, 2.5, 4.0,

Few examples
R10 , R20 and R40 : Thickness of sheet metals, wire diameter
R5 , R10 , R20
: Speed layout in a machine tool (R10 : 1000, 1250,1600,
2000)
: Machine tool feed
R20 or R40
R5
: Capacities of hydraulic cylinder

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1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes

The types of common manufacturing processes are given below in the Fig.1.3.6.
Manufacturing processes

Shaping

Joining

Machining

Surface finishing

Non-conventional machining
Heat treatment of the product
Fig. 1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes
The types of shaping processes are given below in the Fig.1.3.7.
Shaping processes
Casting

Forging

Extruding

Rolling

Fig. 1.3.7 Shaping processes

Following are the type of machining processes, shown in Fig.1.3.8.
Machining
Turning

Shaping

Milling

Drilling

Fig. 1.3.8 Machining processes

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Various joining processes are shown in Fig.1.3.9.

Joining processes

Welding

Riveting

Brazing

Screw fastening

Fig. 1.3.9 Joining processes

The surface finishing processes are given below (Fig.1.3.10),

Surface finishing processes

Grinding

Honing

Lapping

Buffing
Electroplating

Fig. 1.3.10 Surface finishing processes

The non-conventional machining processes are as follows (Fig.1.3.11),
Non-conventional machining processes

Ultrasonic Machining
Electrochemical Machining

Laser Beam Machining

Chemical Machining

Abrasive jet Machining

Fig. 1.3.11 Non conventional machining processes

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Questions and answers

Q1. What is meant by tolerance? How many types of tolerance is there?
A1. Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of
a component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type
of application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available
standard grades. Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and unilateral. When
tolerance is present on both sides of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral;
unilateral has tolerance only on one side.
Q2. What are the types fit? Describe the differences.
A2.

The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of fit
system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit.
Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can be
fitted easily in the hole of smallest possible diameter.
Interference Fit : In this type of fit, irrespective of tolerance grade there is
always a overlapping of the matting parts.
Transition Fit: In this case, a clearance is present between the minimum
dimension of the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. However,
the fit is tight, if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is
minimum. Hence, transition fit have both the characteristics of clearance fit
and interference fit.

Q3. What are preferred numbers?

A3.

Preferred numbers are the numbers belonging to four categories of

geometric progression series, called basic series, having common ratio of,
5

10 1.58,

10

10 1.26,

20

10 1.12 and

40

10 1.06

Preferred numbers of derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing

the basic series by 10, 100 etc. These numbers are used to build-up or
manufacture a product range. The range of operational speeds of a
machine or the range of powers of a typical machine may be also as per a
series of preferred numbers.

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References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
3. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
4. Chapman, W.A.J., Workshop Technology (part 2), ELBS, 4th edition, 1975
5. Maitra, G.M., Handbook of Design, Tata McGraw Hill Publication, New
Delhi, 1998.

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Module
7
Design of Springs
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Lesson
1
Introduction to Design of
Helical Springs
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Uses of springs
Nomenclature of a typical helical spring
Stresses in a helical spring
Deflection of a helical spring

Mechanical springs have varied use in different types of machines. We shall briefly
discuss here about some applications, followed by design aspects of springs in
general.

7.1.1 Definition of spring: Spring act as a flexible joint in between two parts
or bodies

7.1.2 Objectives of Spring

Following are the objectives of a spring when used as a machine member:
1.
Cushioning , absorbing , or controlling of energy due to shock and
vibration.
Car springs or railway buffers
To control energy, springs-supports and vibration dampers.
2.

Control of motion
Maintaining contact between two elements (cam and its follower)
In a cam and a follower arrangement, widely used in numerous applications, a
spring maintains contact between the two elements. It primarily controls the
motion.
Creation of the necessary pressure in a friction device (a brake or a clutch)
A person driving a car uses a brake or a clutch for controlling the car motion. A
spring system keep the brake in disengaged position until applied to stop the car.
The clutch has also got a spring system (single springs or multiple springs) which
engages and disengages the engine with the transmission system.
Restoration of a machine part to its normal position when the applied force is
withdrawn (a governor or valve)
A typical example is a governor for turbine speed control. A governor system
uses a spring controlled valve to regulate flow of fluid through the turbine, thereby
controlling the turbine speed.

3.

Measuring forces
Spring balances, gages

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Storing of energy
In clocks or starters
The clock has spiral type of spring which is wound to coil and then the stored
energy helps gradual recoil of the spring when in operation. Nowadays we do not
find much use of the winding clocks.

Before considering the design aspects of springs we will have a quick look at the
spring materials and manufacturing methods.

7.1.3 Commonly used spring materials

One of the important considerations in spring design is the choice of the spring
material. Some of the common spring materials are given below.
Hard-drawn wire:
This is cold drawn, cheapest spring steel. Normally used for low stress and static
load. The material is not suitable at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above
1200C.
Oil-tempered wire:
It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general purpose spring steel. However,
it is not suitable for fatigue or sudden loads, at subzero temperatures and at
temperatures above 1800C.
When we go for highly stressed conditions then alloy steels are useful.
Chrome Vanadium:
This alloy spring steel is used for high stress conditions and at high temperature up
to 2200C. It is good for fatigue resistance and long endurance for shock and impact
loads.
Chrome Silicon:
This material can be used for highly stressed springs. It offers excellent service for
long life, shock loading and for temperature up to 2500C.
Music wire:
This spring material is most widely used for small springs. It is the toughest and has
highest tensile strength and can withstand repeated loading at high stresses.
However, it can not be used at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above
1200C.
Normally when we talk about springs we will find that the music wire is a common
choice for springs.
Stainless steel:
Widely used alloy spring materials.
Phosphor Bronze / Spring Brass:
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It has good corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity. Thats the reason it is
commonly used for contacts in electrical switches. Spring brass can be used at
subzero temperatures.

7.1.4 Spring manufacturing processes

If springs are of very small diameter and the wire diameter is also small then the
springs are normally manufactured by a cold drawn process through a mangle.
However, for very large springs having also large coil diameter and wire diameter
one has to go for manufacture by hot processes. First one has to heat the wire and
then use a proper mangle to wind the coils.
Two types of springs which are mainly used are, helical springs and leaf springs. We
shall consider in this course the design aspects of two types of springs.

7.1.5. Helical spring

The figures below show the schematic representation of a helical spring acted upon
by a tensile load F (Fig.7.1.1) and compressive load F (Fig.7.1.2). The circles denote
the cross section of the spring wire. The cut section, i.e. from the entire coil
somewhere we make a cut, is indicated as a circle with shade.

F
Wire Diameter (d)

Shear Force (F)

Torsion (T)
Coil diameter (D)
Fig 7.1.1

Fig 7.1.2
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If we look at the free body diagram of the shaded region only (the cut section) then
we shall see that at the cut section, vertical equilibrium of forces will give us force, F
as indicated in the figure. This F is the shear force. The torque T, at the cut section
and its direction is also marked in the figure. There is no horizontal force coming into
the picture because externally there is no horizontal force present. So from the
fundamental understanding of the free body diagram one can see that any section of
the spring is experiencing a torque and a force. Shear force will always be
associated with a bending moment.
However, in an ideal situation,
Force F is acting perpendicular
when force is acting at the centre
to the plane of the paper
of the circular spring and the coils
of spring are almost parallel to
each other, no bending moment
The cut section
would result at any
Fig 7.1.3
section of the spring ( no moment arm), except torsion and shear force. The
Fig.7.1.3 will explain the fact stated above.

7.1.5.1 Stresses in the helical spring wire:

From the free body diagram, we have found out the direction of the internal torsion T
and internal shear force F at the section due to the external load F acting at the
centre of the coil.
The cut sections of the spring, subjected to tensile and compressive loads
respectively, are shown separately in the Fig.7.1.4 and 7.1.5. The broken arrows
show the shear stresses ( T ) arising due to the torsion T and solid arrows show the
shear stresses ( F )due to the force F. It is observed that for both tensile load as
well as compressive load on the spring, maximum shear stress (T + F) always
occurs at the inner side of the spring. Hence, failure of the spring, in the form of
crake, is always initiated from the inner radius of the spring.

Fig 7.1.4

Fig 7.1.5

The radius of the spring is given by D/2. Note that D is the mean diameter of the
spring.
The torque T acting on the spring is

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T = F

D
2

(7.1.1)
If d is the diameter of the coil wire and polar moment of inertia, I p =

d 4
, the shear
32

stress in the spring wire due to torsion is

D d
Tr F 2 2 8FD
T =
=
=
d 3
Ip
d 4
32

(7.1.2)

Average shear stress in the spring wire due to force F is

F
4F
F =
= 2
2
d
d
4
(7.1.3)

Therefore, maximum shear stress the spring wire is

T + F =

8FD
4F
+
3
d
d 2

8FD
1
=
1+
3
2D
d
d

or

max

or

max =

8FD
1
D
1+
where, C = , is called the spring

3
d
2C
d

index.
finally,

max = ( K s )

8FD
d 3

where, K s = 1 +

1
2C

(7.1.4)
The above equation gives maximum shear stress occurring in a spring. Ks is the
shear stress correction factor.

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7.1.5.2 Stresses in helical spring with curvature effect

What is curvature effect? Let us look at a small section of
a circular spring, as shown in the Fig.7.1.6. Suppose we
hold the section b-c fixed and give a rotation to the section
a-d in the anti clockwise direction as indicated in the
figure, then it is observed that line a-d rotates and it takes
up another position, say a'-d'. The inner length a-b being
smaller compared to the outer length c-d, the shear strain
i at the inside of the spring will be more than the shear
strain o at the outside of the spring. Hence, for a given
wire diameter, a spring with smaller diameter will
experience more difference of shear strain between
outside surface and inside surface compared to its larger
counter part. The above phenomenon is termed as
curvature effect. So more is the spring index ( C = D ) the
d
lesser will be the curvature effect. For example, the
suspensions in the railway carriages use helical springs.
These springs have large wire diameter compared to the
diameter of the spring itself. In this case curvature effect
will be predominantly high.

c
b

d
d'

a
c

d
a'

d'

b
O

a,d
a'

Fig 7.1.6

To take care of the curvature effect, the earlier equation for maximum shear stress in
the spring wire is modified as,
(7.1.5)

max = (K w )

8FD
d 3

Where, KW is Wahl correction factor, which takes care of both curvature effect and
shear stress correction factor and is expressed as,

Kw =
(7.1.6)

4C 1 0.615
+
4C 4
C

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7.1.5.3 Deflection of helical spring

c
b
ds

d
d'

a
d
a'

Fig 7.1.7 (b)

d
Fig 7.1.7 (a)
O

O'

The Fig.7.1.7(a) and Fig.7.1.7 (b) shows a schematic view of a spring, a cross
section of the spring wire and a small spring segment of length dl. It is acted upon by
a force F. From simple geometry we will see that the deflection, , in a helical spring
is given by the formula,

=
(7.1.7)

8FD3 N
Gd 4

Where, N is the number of active turns and G is the shear modulus of elasticity. Now
what is an active coil? The force F cannot just hang in space, it has to have some
material contact with the spring. Normally the same spring wire e will be given a
shape of a hook to support the force F. The hook etc., although is a part of the
spring, they do not contribute to the deflection of the spring. Apart from these coils,
other coils which take part in imparting deflection to the spring are known as active
coils.

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7.1.5.4 How to compute the deflection of a helical spring ?

Consider a small segment of spring of length ds, subtending an angle of d at the
center of the spring coil as shown in Fig.7.1.7(b). Let this small spring segment be
considered to be an active portion and remaining portion is rigid. Hence, we consider
only the deflection of spring arising due to application of force F. The rotation, d, of
the section a-d with respect to b-c is given as,
D D
2
Tds F 2 2 d 8FD ( d )
=
=
d =
d 4
GI p
G d 4
G
32

(7.1.8)
The rotation, d will cause the end of the spring O to rotate to O', shown in
Fig.7.1.7(a). From geometry, O-O' is given as,
O O = ld
However, the vertical component of O-O' only will contributes towards spring
deflection. Due to symmetric condition, there is no lateral deflection of spring, ie, the
horizontal component of O-O' gets cancelled.
The vertical component of O-O', d, is given as,
d = ld sin = ld
8FD 2 ( d ) D

G d 4
2
3
4FD
d
=
G d 4

D
2l

Total deflection of spring, , can be obtained by integrating the above expression for
entire length of the spring wire.

2 N

4FD3 ( d )
Gd 4

Simplifying the above expression we get,

8FD3 N
=
Gd 4

(7.1.9)

The above equation is used to compute the deflection of a helical spring. Another
important design parameter often used is the spring rate. It is defined as,
K=

(7.1.10)

F Gd 4
=
8D3 N

Here we conclude on the discussion for important design features, namely, stress,
deflection and spring rate of a helical spring.
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Problem
A helical spring of wire diameter 6mm and spring index 6 is acted by an initial load of
800N.
After compressing it further by 10mm the stress in the wire is 500MPa. Find the
number of active coils. G = 84000MPa.
Solution:
D=spring index(C) x d=36 mm

max = ( K w )

8FD
d3

or ,500 = 1.2525

Kw =
8F 36
63

(Note that in case of static load one

can also use KS instead of KW .)

F = 940.6 N

K=

4C 1 0.615
+
= 1.2525
4C 4
C

940.6 800
= 14 N / mm
10

Gd 4
8D 3 N
Gd 4
84000 6 4
=
21 turns
or, N =
K 8D 3 N 14 8 36 3
K=

Questions and answers

Q1. What are the objectives of a spring?
A1. The objectives of a spring are to cushion, absorb, or controlling of energy arising
due to shock and vibration. It is also used for control of motion, storing of energy
and for the purpose of measuring forces.
Q2. What is the curvature effect in a helical spring? How does it vary with spring
index?
A2. For springs where the wire diameter is comparable with the coil diameter, in a
given
segment of the spring, the inside length of the spring segment is relatively
shorter than the outside length. Hence, for a given magnitude of torsion, shearing
strain is more in the inner segment than the outer segment. This unequal
shearing strain is called the curvature effect. Curvature effect decreases with the
increase in spring index.
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Q3. What are the major stresses in a helical spring?

A3. The major stresses in a helical spring are of two types, shear stress due to
torsion and direct shear due to applied load.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.

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Module
7
Design of Springs
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Lesson
2
Design of Helical Springs
for Variable Load
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Nature of varying load on springs

Modification of Soderberg diagram
Estimation of material properties for helical spring
Types of helical springs
Design considerations for buckling and surge.

7.2.1 Design of helical spring for variable load

In the earlier lecture, we have learned about design of helical springs for static loads.
In many applications, as for example in railway carriages or in automobile
suspension systems the helical springs used are constantly under variable load.
Hence, it is understood that whenever there is a variable load on a spring the design
procedure should include the effect of stress variation in the spring wire. The
methodology used is the modified Soderberg method. we have learnt about
Soderberg method in earlier chapter, here, the necessary modifications applicable to
helical spring design will be discussed.
In the case of a spring, whether it is a compression spring or an extension spring,
reverse loading is not possible. For example, let us consider a compression spring
placed between two plates. The spring under varying load can be compressed to
some maximum value and at the most can return to zero compression state (in
practice, some amount of initial compression is always present), otherwise, spring
will loose contact with the plates and will get displace from its seat. Similar reason
holds good for an extension spring, it will experience certain amount of extension
and again return to at the most to zero extension state, but it will never go to
compression zone. Due to varying load, the stress pattern which occurs in a spring
with respect to time is shown in Fig.7.2.1. The load which causes such stress pattern
is called repeated load. The spring materials, instead of testing under reversed
bending, are tested under repeated torsion.

stress

max
min = 0

time
Fig 7.2.1

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From Fig.7.2.1 we see that ,

max
m = a =
2

(7.2.1)

Where, a is known as the stress amplitude and m is known as the mean stress or
the average stress. We know that for varying stress, the material can withstand
stress not exceeding endurance limit value. Hence, for repeated torsion experiment,
the mean stress and the stress amplitude become,

m = a =

max e
=
2
2

(7.2.2)

7.2.1.1 Soderberg failure criterion

The modified Soderberg diagram for repeated stress is shown in the Fig 7.2.2.

Stress
amplitude
Stress
amplitude

e e
, )
2 2

f
m

A
a
c

d
Mean stress

Y
FS

b
Y

Soderberg failure criterion for springs

Fig 7.2.2
The stress being repeated in nature, the co-ordinate of the point a is

e e

, . For safe
2 2
design, the design data for the mean and average stresses, a and m respectively,
should be below the line a-b. If we choose a value of factor of safety (FS), the line ab shifts to a newer position as shown in the figure. This line e-f in the figure is called
a safe stress line and the point A ( m , a ) is a typical safe design point.

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Considering two similar triangles, abc and Aed respectively, a relationship between
the stresses may be developed and is given as,

FS m

e
2

e
2

(7.2.3)

where Y is the shear yield point of the spring material.

In simplified form, the equation for Soderberg failure criterion for springs is

1
= m + a ( Y 1)
FS Y Y e

(7.2.4)

The above equation is further modified by considering the shear correction factor, Ks
and Wahl correction factor, Kw. It is a normal practice to multiply m by Ks and to
multiply a by Kw.

K
K 2
1
= s m + w a ( Y 1)
Y
Y
e
FS

(7.2.5)

The above equation for Soderberg failure criterion for will be utilized for the
designing of springs subjected to variable load.

7.2.1.2 Estimation of material strength

It is a very important aspect in any design to obtain correct material property. The
best way is to perform an experiment with the specimen of desired material. Tensile
test experiments as we know is relatively simple and less time consuming. This
experiment is used to obtain yield strength and ultimate strength of any given
material. However, tests to determine endurance limit is extremely time consuming.
Hence, the ways to obtain material properties is to consult design data book or to
use available relationships, developed through experiments, between various
material properties. For the design of springs, we will discuss briefly, the steps
normally used to obtain the material properties.
One of the relationships to find out ultimate strength of a spring wire of diameter d is,

ut =

As
d ms

(7.2.6)

For some selected materials, which are commonly used in spring design, the values
of As and ms are given in the table below.

As

ms
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Hard-drawn wire
Oil-tempered wire
Chrome-vanadium wire
Chrome-silicon wire
Music wire

1510
1610
1790
1960
2060

0.201
0.193
0.155
0.091
0.163

The above formula gives the value of ultimate stress in MPa for wire diameter in mm.
Once the value of ultimate strength is estimated, the shear yield strength and shear
endurance limit can be obtained from the following table developed through
experiments for repeated load.

e
ult

Wire Type
Hard-drawn wire
Oil-tempered wire
Chrome-vanadium wire
Chrome-silicon wire
Music wire
302 SS wire

ult

0.21
0.22
0.20
0.20
0.23
0.20

0.42
0.45
0.51
0.51
0.40
0.46

Hence, as a rough guideline and on a conservative side, values for shear yield point
and shear endurance limit for major types of spring wires can be obtained from
ultimate strength as,

y
ult

= 0.40

and

e
= 0.20
ult

(7.2.7)

With the knowledge of material properties and load requirements, one can easily
utilize Soderberg equation to obtain spring design parameters.

7.2.2 Types of springs

There are mainly two types of helical springs, compression springs and extension
springs. Here we will have a brief look at the types of springs and their
nomenclature.

7.2.2.1 Compression springs

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Following are the types of compression springs used in the design.

(a) Plain ends
Total coils, NT

:N

Solid length, LS

: d ( NT + 1 )

Free length, L

: LS + max + allowance

Pitch, p

:(Ld)/N

Plain end spring

Fig 7.2.3

In the above nomenclature for the spring, N is the number of active coils, i.e., only
these coils take part in the spring action. However, few other coils may be present
due to manufacturing consideration, thus total number of coils, NT may vary from
total number of active coils.
Solid length, LS is that length of the spring, when pressed, all the spring coils will
clash with each other and will appear as a solid cylindrical body.
The spring length under no load condition is the free length of a spring. Naturally, the
length that we visualise in the above diagram is the free length.
Maximum amount of compression the spring can have is denoted as max, which is
calculated from the design requirement. The addition of solid length and the max
should be sufficient to get the free length of a spring. However, designers consider
an additional length given as allowance. This allowance is provided to avoid clash
between to consecutive spring coils. As a guideline, the value of allowance is
generally 15% of max.
The concept of pitch in a spring is the same as that in a screw.
(b) Plain and Ground ends
Total coils, NT

:N+ 1

Solid length, LS

: d ( NT )

Free length, L
Pitch, p

LS + : max + allowance
: L / ( N + 1)
Plain and Ground end
spring
Fig 7.2.4

The top and bottom of the spring is grounded as seen in the figure. Here, due to
grounding, one total coil is inactive.

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(c) Squared or closed ends

Total coils, NT

:N+2

Solid length, LS

: d ( NT + 1 )

Free length, L

LS + :max + allowance

Pitch, p

: ( L - 3d ) / N
Squared or closed end
spring
Fig 7.2.5

In the Fig 7.2.5 it is observed that both the top as well as the bottom spring is being
pressed to make it parallel to the ground instead of having a helix angle. Here, it is
seen that two full coils are inactive.

(d) Squared and ground ends

Total coils, NT
Solid length, LS
Free length, L

:N+2
: d ( NT )

LS + : max + allowance

Pitch, p

: ( L - 2d ) / N
Squared and ground end
spring
Fig 7.2.6

It is observed that both the top as well as the bottom spring, as earlier one, is being
pressed to make it parallel to the ground, further the faces are grounded to allow for
proper seat. Here also two full coils are inactive.

7.2.2.2 Extension springs

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Part of an extension spring with a hook is

shown in
Fig.7.2.7. The nomenclature for the extension
spring is given below.
Body length, LB
Free length, L
B

hook
D/2

: d(N+1)
: LB + 2 hook diameter.
B

here, N stands for the number of active coils. By

putting the hook certain amount of stress
concentration comes in the bent zone of the
hook and these are substantially weaker zones
than the other part of the spring. One should
take up steps so that stress concentration in this
region is reduced. For the reduction of stress
concentration at the hook some of the
modifications of spring are shown in Fig 7.2.8.

Extension spring
Fig 7.2.7

A complete loop is turned up

to a gradual sweeping curve

A gradual reduction
of end turns from D/2

D/2
Extension springs with improved ends
Fig 7.2.8

7.2.3 Buckling of compression spring

Buckling is an instability that is normally shown up when a long bar or a column is
applied with compressive type of load. Similar situation arise if a spring is too slender
and long then it sways sideways and the failure is known as buckling failure.
Buckling takes place for a compressive type of springs. Hence, the steps to be
followed in design to avoid buckling is given below.
Free length (L) should be less than 4 times the coil diameter (D) to avoid buckling for
most situations. For slender springs central guide rod is necessary.
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A guideline for free length (L) of a spring to avoid buckling is as follows,

L<

(7.2.8)

D 2(E G)
Ce
2G + E

below.

D
, for steel
Ce

Ce

end condition

2.0
1.0
0.707
0.5

fixed and free end

hinged at both ends
hinged and fixed end
fixed at both ends

L < 2.57

Where, Ce is the end condition and its values are given

If the spring is placed between two rigid plates, then end condition may be taken as
0.5. If after calculation it is found that the spring is likely to buckle then one has to
use a guide rod passing through the center of the spring axis along which the
compression action of the spring takes place.

7.2.4 Spring surge (critical frequency)

If a load F act on a spring there is a downward movement of the spring and due to
this movement a wave travels along the spring in downward direction and a to and
fro motion continues. This phenomenon can also be observed in closed water body
where a disturbance moves toward the wall and then again returns back to the
starting of the disturbance. This particular situation is called surge of spring. If the
frequency of surging becomes equal to the natural frequency of the spring the
resonant frequency will occur which may cause failure of the spring. Hence, one has
to calculate natural frequency, known as the fundamental frequency of the spring
and use a judgment to specify the operational frequency of the spring.

The fundamental frequency can be obtained from the relationship given below.

Fundamental frequency:f =

1 Kg
2 Ws
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Both ends within flat plates

(7.2.9)

One end free and other end on flat plate.

(7.2.10)

Where, K

: Spring rate

WS
weight =

: Spring

2.47 d 2 DN

(7.2.11)

and d is the wire diameter, D is the coil diameter, N is the number

of active coils and is the specific weight of spring material.
The operational frequency of the spring should be at least 15-20 times less than its
fundamental frequency. This will ensure that the spring surge will not occur and even
other higher modes of frequency can also be taken care of.
A problem on spring design

300 N

A helical spring is acted upon by a varying

load of 300 N to 900 N respectively as shown
in the figure. The spring deflection will be
around 15 mm and outside diameter of the
spring should be within 48-50 mm.

900 N 15 mm

48 - 50 mm

Solution

To design the spring for the given data, the most important parameter is the spring
index. The spring index decides the dimension of the spring with respect to chosen
wire diameter. Normally the spring index varies over a wide range from 3-12. For
higher value of the spring index the curvature effect will be less, but relatively size of
the spring and stress in the spring wire will increase. However, the effects will be
some what opposite if the value of spring index is lower. Hence, it is better to start
the iteration process with the spring index of 6-7.
Let us start the problem with spring index, C=6 and wire diameter, d=7 mm.
The above choice gives us a coil mean diameter, D =42 mm. Thereby, the outside
diameter of the coil is 49 mm, which is within the given limit.
Computation of stresses:
The mean load,Fm =

300 + 900
= 600N
2
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stress amplitude,Fa =

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900 300
= 300N
2

Shear stress concentration factor,

ks = 1 +
Wahl correction factor,k w =

1
= 1.083
12

4x6 1 0.615
+
= 1.253
4x6 4
6

m = 1.083
So the value of mean shear stress,

8 600 42
= 202.62MPa
(7 )3

and the value of stress amplitude,

a = 1.253

8 300 42
= 117.21MPa
(7 )3

Estimation of material properties:

As no specific use of the spring is mentioned in the problem, let us take Chrome
Vanadium as the spring material. This alloy spring steel is used for high stress
conditions and at high temperatures, it is also good for fatigue resistance and long
endurance for shock and impact loads.
Ultimate strength of the material,
ut =

1790
= 1324 MPa
(7)0.155

From the relationship of ult to y (yield point) and endurance limit, e we find that
for chrome

y = ult 0.51 = 675.2 MPa vanadium,

and

e = ult 0.2 = 264.8MPa

From Soderberg equation,

y
FS

a
m

e
2

y 2

1 m a 2 y
=
+ (
1)
FS y y e
1
202.62 117.21 2 675.2
=
+
1 = 1.01

FS 675.2
675.2 264.8

FS 1.00
Factor of safety, FS=1.0 implies that the design do not consider any unforeseen
effect that may cause extra stresses in the spring. Normally in design of springs it is
better to consider a factor of safety which should be in the vicinity of 1.3-1.5.

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In order to increase the value of FS, in the next iteration, natural choice for the spring
index, C is 5 and d = 8 mm. Because C=7 and d = 6 mm will lead to more stress on
the wire and the value of FS will not improve.
With C=5 and d=8 mm and following the similar procedure as in previous iteration we
have,

ks = 1.1, kw = 1.311
Therefore,

m =

1.1 8 600 40
= 131.3MPa
83

a =

1.311 8 300 40
= 78.24MPa
83

Material properties:

1790
(8)0.155
= 1297 MPa
y = 661.4 MPa

ut =

Finally,

e = 259.4 MPa

1 131.3 78.24 2 661.4

=
+
1 = 0.684

FS 661.4 661.4 259.4

FS = 1.46
The factor of safety obtained is acceptable. Therefore the value of spring index is 5
and corresponding wire diameter is 8mm.
Hence, mean spring diameter, D=40 mm.
Outer diameter of spring, Do=40+8=48 mm, This value is within the prescribed limit.
Inner diameter of spring, Di = 32 mm .

900 300
= 40N / mm = 40 10 3 N / m
15
Once the value of stiffness is known, then the value of number of active turns, N of
the spring is,
Spring rate,k =

k=

Gd 4
8D 3 N

N =

80 10 3 8 4
= 16
8 ( 40 )3 k

8 900 ( 40 )3 16
max =
= 22.5mm
80 10 3 8 4
In the above equation, G = 80000 MPa.

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Spring Nomenclature:
Let us select the type of spring as squared and ground ends. For this type of spring
the value of free length is,

L = LS + max + allowance
where, LS = dNT = 8.0 (16 + 2) = 144mm

allowance = 15% max

L = 18 8 + 22.5 + 15% max 170mm
Pitch, p =

L 2d 170 16
=
= 9.625mm
N
16

Check for buckling:

We know that for steel,

L < 2.57

D
= 206mm
Ce

Here, for the given spring seat configuration, Ce = 0.5

The free length of the spring, 170 mm is less than the critical length for buckling,
206mm. Therefore the design is safe.

Check for critical frequency:

In order to find the critical frequency of the spring, the weight of the spring is to be
first computed,

Ws =

d2
4

( DN )( )

Ws = 2.47 d 2 DN

WS = 2.47 ( 8X103 )2 ( 40X103 ) 16 7800 9.81

= 7.74N
Therefore,

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The fundamental frequency of the spring (for both ends within flat plates),

1 Kg 1 40 X 103 X 9.81
f =
=
112.6 Hz
2 Ws 2
7.74
Safe frequency for design should be at least 20 times less than the fundamental
frequency to take care of more number of harmonics. Therefore, the spring
frequency for should be around 6 Hz.

Questions and Answers

Q1. Do the helical spring experience reverse loading? What is the loading type
called when varying load acts on a helical spring?
A1. The helical spring experiences only repeated load. It cannot experience reverse
loading, because the spring will lose contact with the end supports.
Q2. What modification in Soderberg diagram is required when it is used for design
of helical springs?
A2. In the earlier Soderberg diagram, we have used in the design for varying loads
on the machine member, had only stress amplitude in the endurance limit
representation, since, endurance limit value was for complete reversed loading.
Here, in spring design, we use endurance limit value for repeated loads only.
Hence, we have both stress amplitude and mean stress value of equal

magnitude, e . Therefore, the endurance limit representation in Soderberg

2

diagram changes to e , e .
2 2
Q3. What should be the safe frequency of a helical spring?
A3. Safe frequency for design should be at least 20 times less than the fundamental
frequency of the spring to take care of more number of harmonics.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
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2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.

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Module
7
Design of Springs
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Lesson
3
Design of Leaf Springs
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Working of leaf spring

Types of leaf springs
Design theme of leaf springs
Laminated spring and its modifications

7.3.1 Leaf Springs

In order to have an idea of working principle of a leaf spring, let us think of the
diving board in a swimming pool. The diving board is a cantilever with a load, the
diver, at its free end. The diver initiates a to and fro swing of the board at the free
end and utilizes the spring action of the board for jumping. The diving board
basically is a leaf spring.
The leaf springs are widely used in suspension system of railway carriages and
automobiles. But the form in which it is normally seen is laminated leaf spring.
A simple cantilever type leaf spring is shown in the Fig. 7.3.1.

In the cantilever beam type leaf spring, for the

same leaf thickness, h, leaf of uniform width, b
(case 1) and, leaf of width, which is uniformly
reducing from b (case 2) is considered. From the
basic equations of bending stress and deflection,
the maximum stress, max and tip deflection,
max can be derived.
For case 1(uniform width)
6FL
max =
bh 2
4FL3
max =
Ebh 3

h
L
(1)

(2)
uniform
strength

Fig.7.3.1
(7.3.1)

Where, E is the Elastic modulus of the spring material.

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For case 2(non uniform width)

6FL
bh 2
6FL3
=
Ebh 3

max =
max

(7.3.2)

In the second case it is observed that instead of uniform width leaf, if a leaf of
varying width (triangular one as shown in the figure) is used, the bending stress
at any cross section is same and equal to max . This is called as leaf of a uniform
strength. Moreover, the tip deflection being more, comparatively, it has greater
resilience than its uniform width counterpart. Resilience, as we know, is the
capacity to absorb potential energy during deformation. However, one should
keep
b
in mind that in order to withstand the
shear force the tip has to have some
uniform
strength
width. This is shown as a red zone in the
figure. In one way non uniform width leaf
Fig. 7.3.2
is a better design than a uniform width
leaf.
Leaf spring of simply supported beam type is shown in the Fig. 7.3.3, for which
the stress and deflection equation are also given as in the case of cantilever.
For case 1(uniform width)

F
3FL
bh 2
2FL3
=
Ebh 3

max =
max

(7.3.3)

support
reaction

For case 2(non uniform width Lozenge-shape)

3FL
bh 2
3FL3
=
Ebh 3

(1)

(2)

b
uniform
strength

Fig. 7.3.3

max =
max

(7.3.4)

One of the applications of leaf spring of simply supported beam type is seen in
automobiles, where, the central location of the spring is fixed to the wheel axle.
Therefore, the wheel exerts the force F (opposite to the direction shown in the
figure), on the spring and support reactions at the two ends of the spring come

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from the carriage. The diamond shaped leaf, shown as case 2, is named as
Lozenge shape and it is again a beam of uniform strength.

7.3.2 Design theme of a leaf spring

Let us consider the simply supported leaf of Lozenge shape for which the
maximum stress and maximum deflection are known. From the stress and
deflection equations the thickness of the spring plate, h, can be obtained as,
max L2
des L2
h=
=
E max
E des

(7.3.5)

The max is replaced by design stress des. Similarly, max is replaced by des. E
is the material property and depends on the type of spring material chosen. L is
the characteristic length of the spring. Therefore, once the design parameters,
given on the left side of the above equation, are fixed the value of plate
thickness, h can be calculated.
Substitution of h in the stress equation above will yield the value of plate width b.

b=
(7.3.6)

3FL
desh 2

In the similar manner h and b can be calculated for leaf springs of different
support conditions and beam types.

7.3.3 Laminated Springs

One of the difficulties of the uniform strength beam, say Lozenge shape, is that
the value of width b sometimes is too large to accommodate in a machine
assembly. One practice is that instead of keeping this large width one can make
several slices and put the pieces together as a laminate. This is the concept of
laminated spring. The Fig.7.3.4 shows the concept of formation of a laminated
spring.

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4
3
2
1
2
3
4

Fig. 7.3.4

Laminated Spring

The Lozenge shaped plate is cut into several longitudinal strips, as indicated in
the figure. The central strip, marked 1 is the master leaf which is placed at the
top. Then two pieces, marked 2 are put together, side by side to form another
leaf and placed below the top leaf. In the similar manner other pairs of strips,
marked 3 and 4 respectively are placed in the decreasing order of strip length to
form a laminated spring. Here width of each strip, b N is given as,
(7.3.7)

bN =

b
N

Where

is

the

number

of

strips

In practice, strips of width, b N and lengths, say equal to strip1, strip2 etc., as
shown in the example, are cut and put in the laminated form. The stress and
deflection equations for a laminated spring is,

max

pFL
qFL3
=
and max =
Nb N h 2
ENb N h 3

(7.3.8)

Where, constants p and q are given as,

p
q
Simply supported beam : 3
3
Cantilever beam
: 6
6
It is to be noted that the ends of the leaves are not sharp and pointed, as shown
in figure. In fact they are made blunt or even made straight to increase the load
bearing capacity. This change from ideal situation does not have much effect on
the stress equation. However, small effect is there on the deflection equation.
In the following section we will discuss about few more constructional details of a
laminated leaf spring.

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7.3.4 Laminated semi-elliptic spring

span 2L
camber

eye
master leaf

central clamp

graduated leaves

rebound clip

Laminated semi-elliptic spring

Fig 7.3.5
The Fig 7.3.5 shows a laminated semi- elliptic spring. The top leaf is known as
the master leaf. The eye is provided for attaching the spring with another
machine member. The amount of bend that is given to the spring from the central
line, passing through the eyes, is known as camber. The camber is provided so
that even at the maximum load the deflected spring should not touch the
machine member to which it is attached. The camber shown in the figure is
known as positive camber. The central clamp is required to hold the leaves of the
spring. However, the bolt holes required to engage the bolts to clamp the leaves
weaken the spring to some extent. Rebound clips help to share the load from the
master leaf to the graduated leaf.

7.3.5 Materials for leaf spring

Materials for leaf spring are not as good as that for the helical spring.
Plain carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel, Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum
steel, Silicon- manganese steel, are the typical materials that are used in the
design of leaf springs.

7.3.6 Standard sizes of leaf spring

Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)

: 25-80 mm in steps of 5mm

: 2-8 mm in steps of 1mm, 10-16 mm in steps of 2mm

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In order to carry heavy load few more additional full length leaves are placed
below the master leaf for heavy loads. Such alteration from the standard
laminated leaf spring, what we have learnt above, does not change the stress
value, but deflection equation requires some correction.

max

c qFL3
=
ENb N h 3

(7.3.9)

Where, correction in deflection, c is given as,

c =

1.0 4m + 2m 2 {1.5 ln(m)}

(1.0 m)3

where,
Nf
N
N f = Number of full length leaves

m=

N = Total number of leaves in the spring

7.3.7 Stresses due to support hinges

The master leaf of a laminated spring is hinged to the supports. The support
forces induce, stresses due to longitudinal forces and stresses arising due to
possible twist. Hence, the master leaf is more stressed compared to other the
graduated leaves. Methods to reduce additional stresses could be,
1. Master leaf is made of stronger material than the other leaves.
2. Master leaf is made thinner than the other leaves. This will reduce the
bending stress as evident from stress equation.
3. Another common practice is to increase the radius of curvature of the master
leaf than the next leaf.
The last method is explained through Fig 7.3.6.
Initial bent created through
fixing bolt during assembly

Larger radius
of curvature

Nipping of leaf spring

U

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The master leaf has a larger radius of curvature compared to the additional leaf
that is placed below so obviously a gap will be created between the two leaves
as indicated in the figure. Now, an initial bent is created during assembly by
tightening the central bolt. Therefore, some amount of compressive stress will be
produced at the inside curvature of the master leaf. Similarly, at the outside
curvature of the master leaf tensile stress will be produced. Both these stresses
are initial stresses in the master leaf. However, by such operation of tightening
the central bolt, the additional leaf that is placed beneath the master leaf has a
tendency to flatten out and as a result the stress pattern of the additional leaf will
be reverse of that of the master leaf, tensile stress is produced at the inner
curvature and compressive stress is produced at the outer curvature. Hence,
when the spring is loaded, for both the master leaf and the additional leaf, tensile
stress will be produced at the inner curvature and compressive stress will be
produced at the outer curvature. Therefore, due to opposite nature of initial stress
and loading stress, the master leaf will experience lesser stress on both the
surfaces. However, due to same nature of initial stress and loading stress, the
additional leaf is stressed more compared to the master leaf. But, it is to be noted
that the higher stress on the additional leaf is actually shared between all other
leaves than the master leaf. This practice of stress relief in the master leaf is
known as Nipping of leaf spring. As a matter of fact, all the leaves of a laminated
leaf spring do have certain amount of nipping, so that there will be gaps between
the leaves, as a result the stresses will be uniformly distributed and accumulated
dusts can also be cleaned.
Sample problem
Design a leaf spring to carry a load of 3400N and placed over a span of 800 mm.
The spring can deflect by 50mm. Consider, allowable bending stress for the
spring material as 350 MPa and E=2 (10)5 MPa.
Let us consider the design to be based on uniform strength beam. Then from
section 7.3.2 we find that,

des L2 350 4002

=
= 5.6mm 6mm
Leaf thickness,h =
E des 2 105 50
Leaf width,b =

3FL
3 3400 400
=
324mm
2
350 502
des h

It is observed that the width is too large to accommodate as a machine member.

Hence, if we consider, say 6 springs, then width of each spring becomes 54mm.

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Questions and answers

Q1. What are the forms of leaf spring ?
A1. Leaf springs are of two forms: cantilever and simply supported type.
Q2. What does the term uniform strength in the context of leaf spring mean?
A2. If the leaf spring has a shape of uniformly varying width (say Lozenge shape)
then the bending stress at all section remains uniform. The situation is also
identical as before in case of varying thickness, the thickness should vary
non-uniformly with length to make a beam of uniform strength (L/h2 =
constant). These leaves require lesser material, have more resilience
compared to a constant width leaf. These types of springs are called leaf
springs of uniform strength.
Q3. What is nipping in a laminated spring?
A3. In general the differential curvature between the master leaf and the next
leaves is provided in a laminated spring, where, radius of curvature being
more for the master leaf. This construction reduces the stress in the master
leaf as compared to the other leaves of the spring in a laminated spring. This
type of constructional feature is termed as nipping.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited,
6th Edition, 1991.

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Module
8
Design of Shaft
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Lesson
1
Shaft and its design
based on strength
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:
Definition of shaft
Standard shaft sizes
Standard shaft materials
Design of shaft based on strength

8.1.1 Shaft
Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in
general,
has a circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be
hollow or solid. The shaft is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or
pulleys for the purpose of power transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon
by bending moment, torsion and axial force. Design of shaft primarily involves in
determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is arising due to
aforementioned loading. Other two similar forms of a shaft are axle and spindle.
Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do
not transmit any torque. Spindle is simply defined as a short shaft. However,
design method remains the same for axle and spindle as that for a shaft.

8.1.2 Standard sizes of Shafts

Typical sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are,
Up to 25 mm
25 to 50 mm
50 to 100 mm
100 to 200 mm

0.5 mm increments
1.0 mm increments
2.0 mm increments
5.0 mm increments

8.1.3 Material for Shafts

The ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non metals are used as shaft material
depending on the application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for
shaft are discussed below.
Hot-rolled plain carbon steel
These materials are least expensive. Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always
present on the surface and machining is required to make the surface smooth.

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Cold-drawn plain carbon/alloy composition

Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish.
Amount of machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained.
This is widely used for general purpose transmission shaft.
Alloy steels
Alloy steel as one can understand is a mixture of various elements with the
parent steel to improve certain physical properties. To retain the total advantage
of alloying materials one requires heat treatment of the machine components
after it has been manufactured. Nickel, chromium and vanadium are some of the
common alloying materials. However, alloy steel is expensive.
These materials are used for relatively severe service conditions. When the
situation demands great strength then alloy steels are used. They have fewer
tendencies to crack, warp or distort in heat treatment. Residual stresses are also
less compared to CS(Carbon Steel).
In certain cases the shaft needs to be wear resistant, and then more attention
has to be paid to make the surface of the shaft to be wear resistant. The common
types of surface hardening methods are,
Hardening of surface
Case hardening and carburizing
Cyaniding and nitriding

8.1.4 Design considerations for shaft

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted,
Design based on Strength
In this method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the shaft
should not exceed the material yield stress. However, no consideration for shaft
deflection and shaft twist is included.
Design based on Stiffness
Basic idea of design in such case depends on the allowable deflection and twist
of the shaft.

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8.1.5 Design based on Strength

The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it.
The stresses which may be present are as follows.
Basic stress equations :
Bending stress

b =

32M
d 30 (1 k 4 )

(8.1.1)
Where,
M : Bending moment at the point of interest
do : Outer diameter of the shaft
k : Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the
shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner diameter is zero )

Axial Stress

a =

4F
d (1 k 2 )
2
0

(8.1.2)
Where,
F:

Axial force (tensile or compressive)

Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)

The term has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action
factor. What is a column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of
buckling of long slender members which are acted upon by axial compressive
loads.
Here, is defined as,

1
for L/K < 115
1 0.0044(L / K)
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yc L 2

2 nE K

for L/K > 115

(8.1.3)

Where,
n
n
n
K
yc

= 1.0 for hinged end

= 2.25 for fixed end
= 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing
= least radius of gyration, L = shaft length
=
yield stress in compression

Stress due to torsion

xy =

16T
d 30 (1 k 4 )

(8.1.4)
Where,
T

xy

:
:

Torque on the shaft

Shear stress due to torsion

Combined Bending and Axial stress

Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal
stress is given by,

32M
4F

]
4
2
d (1 k )
d 0 (1 k 2 )
(8.1.5)
x = [

3
0

The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress
due to torsion is only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the
shaft is neglected.
Maximum shear stress theory

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Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a
machine member fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the
maximum allowable shear stress for the shaft material. Therefore,

= x + 2xy
2
2

max = allowable
(8.1.6)

Substituting the values of x and xy in the above equation, the final form is,

allowable

Fd 0 (1 + k 2 )
16
2
= 3
M
+
+T

d 0 (1 k 4 )
8

(8.1.7)
Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and
material properties. However, the above equation is further standarised for steel
shafting in terms of allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design
code for shaft.

8.1.6 ASME design Code

The shafts are normally acted upon by gradual and sudden loads. Hence, the
equation (8.1.7) is modified in ASME code by suitable load factors,

allowable

Fd 0 (1 + k 2 )
16
2
= 3
Cbm M +
+ (C t T)
4
8
d 0 (1 k )

(8.1.8)
where, Cbm and Ct are the bending and torsion factors. The values of these
factors are given below,

For stationary shaft:

Load gradually applied
Load suddenly applied
For rotating shaft:
Load gradually applied

Cbm

Ct

1.0
1.5 - 2.0

1.0
1.5 - 2.0

1.5

1.0
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Load suddenly applied

(minor shock)
Load suddenly applied
(heavy shock)

1.5 - 2.0

1.0 - 1.5

2.0 - 3.0

1.5 - 3.0

ASME code also suggests about the allowable design stress,

considered for steel shafting,

allowable

to be

ASME Code for commercial steel shafting

= 55 MPa for shaft without keyway
= 40 MPa for shaft with keyway
ASME Code for steel purchased under definite specifications
= 30% of the yield strength but not over 18% of the ultimate
strength in tension for shafts without keyways. These values are to be reduced
by 25% for the presence of keyways.
The equations, (8.1.7) and (8.1.8) are commonly used to determine shaft
diameter.

Sample problem
The problem is shown in the given figure. A pulley drive is transmitting power to a
pinion, which in turn is transmitting power to some other machine element. Pulley
and pinion diameters are 400mm and 200mm respectively. Shaft has to be
designed for minor to heavy shock.
Pulley

1000 N
Pinion

Bearing

2200 N

W=1000 N
200
m

400
m

200
m

4000 N

6000 N

Solution
From the given figure, the magnitude of torque,
T = (4000 1000) 200 N mm = 600 103 mm

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It is observed that the load on the shaft is acting both in horizontal and vertical
planes. The loading diagram, corresponding bearing reactions and bending
moment diagram is given below.

860 Nm

R AH

580Nm R BH
5000 N

Horizontal plane

2200N

C 1000N
R AV

- 150 Nm

R BV

6000N

- 850Nm

Vertical plane

Loading and Bending Moment Diagram

The bending moment at C:
For vertical plane, MV: -150 Nm
For horizontal plane, MH: 860 Nm
Resultant moment: 873 Nm
The bending moment at D:
For vertical plane, MV: -850 Nm
For horizontal plane, MH: 580 Nm
Resultant moment: 1029Nm
Therefore, section-D is critical and where bending moment and torsion is 1029
Nm and 600 Nm respectively.
ASME code for shaft design is suitable in this case as no other specifications are
provided. In absence of any data for material property, the allowable shear for
commercial steel shaft may be taken as 40 MPa, where keyway is present in the
shaft.
For the given codition of shock, let us consider Cbm = 2.0 and Ct = 1.5.

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From the ASME design code, we have,

(
16 10
=
(
40

do3 =

16 103
d

)
(2.0 1029) + (1.5 600) )

(Cbm 1029) 2 + (C t 600) 2

2

d o = 65.88 mm 66mm
From standard size available, the value of shaft diameter is also 66mm.

Questions and answers

Q1. What do you understand by shaft, axle and spindle?
A1. Shaft is a rotating member, in general, has a circular cross-section and is
used to transmit power. Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting
rotating wheels etc. and do not transmit any torque. Spindle is simply
defined as a short shaft.
Q2. What are the common ferrous materials for a shaft?
A2.

Common materials for shaft are, hot-rolled plain carbon steel, cold-drawn
plain carbon/alloy composition and alloy steels.

Q3.

How do the strength of a steel material for shafting is estimated in ASME

design code for shaft?

A3.

Material property for steel shaft for ASME code is as follows,

For commercial steel shafting
= 55 MPa for shaft without keyway
= 40 MPa for shaft with keyway
For steel purchased under definite specifications
= 30% of the yield strength but not over 18% of the ultimate
strength in tension for shafts without keyways. These values are to be reduced
by 25% for the presence of keyways in the shaft.

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References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.
3. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.

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Module
8
Design of Shaft
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Lesson
2
Design of shaft for
variable load and
based on stiffness
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:
Design method for variable load
Equivalent stress on shaft
Design based on stiffness and torsional rigidity
Critical speed of shaft

8.2.1 Design of Shaft for variable load

Design of shaft for strength involves certain changes when it is acted upon by
variable load. It is required to calculate the mean stress and stress amplitude for
all the loads, namely, axial, bending and torsion. Thereafter, any of the design
methods for variable load, that is, Soderberg, Goodman or Gerber criteria is
utilized. Once again, the familiar design diagram for variable load in terms of the
stress amplitude and the mean stress is reproduced below.

Gerber

Stress Amplitude

Goodman
Soderberg

a
A
(design point)

ut

Mean Stress
Fig. 8.2.1 Diagram for design under variable load

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A is the design point, for which, the stress amplitude is a and mean stress is m.
In the Soderberg criterion the mean stress material property is the yield point y ,
whereas in the Gerber and the Goodman criteria the material property is the
ultimate stress ut For the fatigue loading, material property is the endurance
limit, e in reverse bending. The corresponding equations for all the three above
criteria are given as,

a m
1
+
=
e ut FS
a m
1
+
=
e y FS

Goodman criterion:
Soderberg criterion:

Gerber

FS a FS m
+
=1
e
ut

criterion:

(8.2.1)
Where,
a = Stress amplitude; e = Endurance limit; m = Mean stress; y = Yield
point;
ut = Ultimate stress and FS= factor of safety.
Similar equation (8.2.1) also can be written for the shear stress.
For the design of shaft, it is most common to use the Soderberg criterion. Hence,
we shall limit our discussion only to Soderberg criterion.

Normal stress equation is given as,

K f a m
1
+
=
e
y FS
multiplying by y ,

y k f a
e

+ m =

y
FS

= eq

(8.2.2)
Similarly, shear stress equation is given as

K fs a m
1
+
=
e
y FS

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multiplying by y ,

y K fs a
e

+ m =

y
fs

= eq

(8.2.3)
In equations (8.2.2) and (8.2.3), to consider the effect of variable load, the normal
stress amplitude, a is multiplied by the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf and
the corresponding term, shear stress amplitude is multiplied by a fatigue stress
concentration factor in shear, Kfs.
The physical significance of equations (8.2.2) and (8.2.3) is that, the effect of
variable stress on the machine member (left hand side of the equations), has
been effectively defined as an equivalent static stress. Therefore, the problem is
treated as a design for static loads. Here, e or e are equivalent to allowable
y
y
stress,
or
. Hereafter, conventional failure theories can be used to
FS
FS
complete the design.

Maximum shear stress theory

It states that a machine member fails when the maximum shear stress at a point
exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for the shaft material. Therefore,
2

max = allowable

eq
2
=
+ eq
2

(8.2.4)
substitution of eq and eq from (8.2.3) will give the required shaft diameter.

8.2.2 Design based on Stiffness

In addition to the strength, design may be based on stiffness. In the context of
shaft, design for stiffness means that the lateral deflection of the shaft and/or
angle of twist of the shaft should be within some prescribed limit. Therefore,
design for stiffness is based on lateral stiffness and torsional rigidity.

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8.2.2.1 Lateral stiffness

Let us consider a beam loaded as
shown in Fig.8.2.2. The beam deflects
by due to the load P. So the
requirement for the design is that
where, one has to limit the deflection
. Hence, the design procedure is as
follows,
Determine the maximum shaft deflection,
using any of the following methods,

Fig. 8.2.2 Deflection of a beam

Integration method
Moment-area method, or
Energy method (Theorem of Castigliano)
Now, the deflection, = f (applied load, material property, moment of inertia and
given dimension of the beam).
From the expression of moment of inertia, and known design parameters,
including , shaft dimension is obtained.

8.2.2.2 Torsional rigidity

To design a shaft based on torsional rigidity, the limit of angle of twist should be
known. The angle of twist is given as follows,
rad =

TL
GI p

or,

deg =

584TL
Gd 04 (1 k 4 )

dO = 4

584L
G(1-k 4 )deg

(8.2.5)
Where,
= angle of twist
L = length of the shaft

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G = shear modulus of elasticity

Ip = Polar moment of inertia
The limiting value of varies from 0.3 deg/m to 3 deg/m for machine tool shaft to
line shaft respectively. With the knowledge of design parameters, the shaft
dimension can be obtained from (8.2.5).

8.2.3 A note on critical speed of rotating shaft

Critical speed of a rotating shaft is the speed where it becomes dynamically
unstable. It can be shown that the frequency of free vibration of a non-rotating
shaft is same as its critical speed.
The equation of fundamental or lowest critical speed of a shaft on two supports
is,

f critical =

1
2

g ( W11 + W2 2 + ......+ Wn n )
( W112 + W2 22 + ......+ W1 n2 )

(8.2.6)
Where,
W1, W2. : weights of the rotating bodies
1, 2 . : deflections of the respective bodies

This particular equation (8.2.6) has been derived using the following assumption.
Assumptions:
The shaft is weightless
The weights are concentrated and
Bearings/supports are not flexible
Where,
W1,W2

and

: Weights of the rotating bodies

: Deflections of the respective bodies

2

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The operating speed of the shaft should be well above or below a critical speed
value. There are number of critical speeds depending upon number of rotating
bodies.
Sample problem
Design a solid shaft of length 1m,
carrying a load of 5 kN at the center
and is simply supported as shown in
figure. The maximum shaft deflection
is 1mm. E=200GPa.

Solution

The maximum deflection of the shaft is given as,

max =

PL3
48EI

where, for a solid shaft, I =

d O 4
64

4 500010003
4PL3
4
dO =
=
3 200103 1
3Emax
4

= 57 mm
from standard shaft size, d O = 58 mm
This problem is not a complete one. The magnitude of torque on the shaft is not
specified. The design calculations should be first based on strength, where, both
bending moment and torsion are required. With the given limits of lateral
deflection and angular twist, the design should be checked.

Questions and answers

Q1. What is an equivalent stress?
A1. When a shaft is subjected to variable load, both the stress amplitude and
mean stress can be conveniently represented as equivalent stress. The
equivalent stress is conceptually an equivalent static stress.
Q2. What are the limiting values of the angle of twist of a shaft?

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A2. The limiting value of angle of twist of a shaft varies from 0.3 deg/m to 3
deg/m for machine tool shaft to line shaft respectively.
Q3.
What are the assumptions made to derive the equation for critical
frequency? Why critical frequency is important in shaft design?
A3.

The assumptions made to derive the equation for critical frequency are,
The shaft is weightless, the weights are concentrated and
bearings/supports are not flexible. The critical speed value helps a
designer to set the limit of shaft speed. To avoid resonance, the shaft
speed should be much higher or lower than the critical speed.

References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.
3. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.

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Module
10
Design of Permanent Joints
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Lesson
1
Riveted Joints : Types
and Uses
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to know:

Basic types of riveted joints.

Different important design parameters of a riveted joint.
Uses of riveted joints.

1. Rivets as permanent joints:

Often small machine components are joined together to form a larger
machine part. Design of joints is as important as that of machine
components because a weak joint may spoil the utility of a carefully
designed machine part.
Mechanical joints are broadly classified into two classes viz., nonpermanent joints and permanent joints.
Non-permanent joints can be assembled and dissembled without
damaging the components. Examples of such joints are threaded
fasteners (like screw-joints), keys and couplings etc.
Permanent joints cannot be dissembled without damaging the
components. These joints can be of two kinds depending upon the nature
of force that holds the two parts. The force can be of mechanical origin, for
example, riveted joints, joints formed by press or interference fit etc, where
two components are joined by applying mechanical force. The
components can also be joined by molecular force, for example, welded
joints, brazed joints, joints with adhesives etc.
Not until long ago riveted joints were very often used to join structural
members permanently. However, significant improvement in welding and
bolted joints has curtained the use of these joints. Even then, rivets are
used in structures, ship body, bridge, tanks and shells, where high joint
strength is required.

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2. Rivets and Riveting:

A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The
main body of the rivet is called shank (see figure 10.1.1). According to Indian
standard specifications rivet heads are of various types. Rivets heads for
general purposes are specified by Indian standards IS: 2155-1982 (below 12
mm diameter) and IS: 1929-1982 (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter). Rivet
heads used for boiler works are specified by IS: 1928-1978. To get
dimensions of the heads see any machine design handbook..

Head

Shank

Tail

Figure 10.1.2: Rivet and its parts

Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a
rivet. Adequate mechanical force is applied to make the joint strong and leak
proof. Smooth holes are drilled (or punched and reamed) in two plates to be
joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then, the head by means of a backing
up bar as shown in figure 10.1.2, necessary force is applied at the tail end
with a die until the tail deforms plastically to the required shape. Depending
upon whether the rivet is initially heated or not, the riveting operation can be
of two types: (a) cold riveting riveting is done at ambient temperature and
(b) hot riveting rivets are initially heated before applying force. After riveting
is done, the joint is heat-treated by quenching and tempering. In order to

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ensure leak-proofness of the joints, when it is required, additional operation

like caulking is done .
Die

Backing up bar

Figure 10.1.2: Riveting operation

3. Types of riveted joints and joint efficiency:

Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints
2. Butt joints

3.1 Lap Joints:

The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an
overlap exists, as shown in figure 10.1.3. Rivets are inserted on the
overlapping portion. Single or multiple rows of rivets are used to give strength
to the joint. Depending upon the number of rows the riveted joints may be
classified as single riveted lap joint, double or triple riveted lap joint etc. When
multiple joints are used, the arrangement of rivets between two neighbouring
rows may be of two kinds. In chain riveting the adjacent rows have rivets in
the same transverse line. In zig-zag riveting, on the other hand, the adjascent
rows of rivets are staggered. Different types of lap joints are sketched in
figure 10.1.4(a)-4(c).

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Rivet

Figure 10.1.3: Lap joint

Rivet location

Figure 10.1.4(a): Single

rivet lap joint

Rivets

Figure 10.1.4(b): Double riveted

lap joint, chain
arrangement.

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Rivets

Figure 10.1.4(c): Double riveted

lap joint, zig-zag
arrangement.

3.2 Butt Joints

In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming
any overlap. Riveted joints are formed between each of the plates and one or
two cover plates. Depending upon the number of cover plates the butt joints
may be single strap or double strap butt joints. A single strap butt joint is
shown in figure 10.1.5. Like lap joints, the arrangement of the rivets may be of
various kinds, namely, single row, double or triple chain or zigzag. A few
types of joints are shown in figure 10.1.6(a)-6(c).
The strength of a rivet joint is measured by its efficiency. The efficiency of a
joint is defined as the ratio between the strength of a riveted joint to the
strength of an unrivetted joints or a solid plate. Obviously, the efficiency of the
riveted joint not only depends upon the size and the strength of the individual
rivets but also on the overall arrangement and the type of joints. Usual range
of the efficiencies, expressed in percentiles of the commercial boiler joints are
given in table-10.1.1.

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Cover plate
Rivet

Figure 10.1.5: Butt joint with single strap.

Table 10.1.1: Efficiencies of riveted joints (in %)

Joints
Lap

Efficiencies (in %)

Single riveted

50-60

Double riveted

60-72

Triple riveted

72-80

Butt (double

Single riveted

55-60

strap)

Double riveted

76-84

Triple riveted

80-88

Figure 10.1.6(a): Single riveted butt joint with single and

double straps

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Figure 10.1.6(b): Double riveted butt joint with single and

double straps (chain arrangement)

Figure 10.1.6(c): Double riveted butt joint with single and

double straps (zig-zag arrangement)

4. Important terms used in riveted joints:

Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a
riveted joint are as follows:
a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive
rivets in a single row. (usual symbol p)
b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive
rows in a multiple riveted joint. (usual symbol pt or pb )

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c) Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in

adjacent rows of zigzag riveted joint. (usual symbol pd )
d) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of
the rivet hole to the nearest edge of the plate. (usual symbol
m)
These parameters are shown in figure 10.1.7.

Pb

Pd

Figure 10.17: Important design parameters of riveted joint

Review questions and answers:

Q.1.What should be essential qualities of a rivet and its material?

Ans: From the riveting procedure it is clear that a good rivet material must
be tough and ductile. Steel (low carbon), coppers, brass are good candidates
for rivets. According to Indian standard IS: 2998-1982 the material must have
tensile strength of 40 MPa and elongation not less that 20 %. Further, the
rivet shank must not be bent on itself through 1800 without cracking in cold
condition. The same test must be done for rivet elevated to 6500 C and
quenched.

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Q.2.What are the uses of snap headed, counter shank headed, conical
headed and pan headed rivets?

Ans: Snap heads are used mainly for structural work and machine riveting.
Counter shank heads are employed for ship building where flush surfaces
are necessary. Conical heads are used where riveting is done by hand
hammering. Pan heads are required where very high strength is needed
since they have the maximum strength, but they are very difficult to shape.

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Module
10
Design of Permanent
Joints
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Lesson
2
Design of Riveted Joints
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Basic failure mechanisms of riveted joints.

Concepts of design of a riveted joint.

1.Strength of riveted joint:

Strength of a riveted joint is evaluated taking all possible failure paths in
the joint into account. Since rivets are arranged in a periodic manner, the
strength of joint is usually calculated considering one pitch length of the plate.
There are four possible ways a single rivet joint may fail.
a) Tearing of the plate: If the force is too large, the plate may fail in
tension along the row (see figure 10.2.1). The maximum force allowed
in this case is
P1 = st ( p d )t
where st = allowable tensile stress of the plate material
p = pitch

d = diameter of the rivet hole

t = thickness of the plate

Failure path in
tension

Figure 10.2.1: Failure of plate in tension (tearing)

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b) Shearing of the rivet: The rivet may shear as shown in figure 10.2.2.
The maximum force withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is

P2 = ss ( d 2 )
4

= 2 ss ( d 2 )
4

for lap joint, single strap butt joint

for double strap butt joint

where ss =allowable shear stress of the rivet material.

P
P
Figure 10.2.2: Failure of a rivet by shearing

c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the
contact surface between the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see
figure 10.2.3). With a simple assumption of uniform contact stress the
maximum force allowed is
P3 = sc dt
where sc =allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate
material.

Figure 10.2.3: Failure of rivets by

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d) Tearing of the plate at edge: If the margin is too small, the plate may fail
as shown in figure 10.2.4. To prevent the failure a minimum margin of

m = 1.5d is usually provided.

Figure 10.2.4: Tearing of the plate at the edge

2. Efficiency:
Efficiency of the single riveted joint can be obtained as ratio between the
maximum of P1 , P2 and P3 and the load carried by a solid plate which is
st pt . Thus
efficiency ( )=

min{P1 , P2 , P3 }
st pt

In a double or triple riveted joint the failure mechanisms may be more

than those discussed above. The failure of plate along the outer row may
occur in the same way as above. However, in addition the inner rows may
fail. For example, in a double riveted joint, the plate may fail along the
second row. But in order to do that the rivets in the first row must fail either
by shear or by crushing. Thus the maximum allowable load such that the
plate does not tear in the second row is
P4 = st ( p d )t + min{P2 , P3 } .
Further, the joint may fail by
(i)

shearing of rivets in both rows

(ii) crushing of rivets in both rows

(iii) shearing of rivet in one row and crushing in the other row.

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The efficiency should be calculated taking all possible failure

mechanism into consideration.

3.Design of rivet joints:

The design parameters in a riveted joints are d , p and m
Diameter of the hole ( d ): When thickness of the plate ( t ) is more than 8
mm, Unwins formula is used,
d = 6 t mm.
Otherwise d is obtained by equating crushing strength to the shear strength
of the joint. In a double riveted zigzag joint, this implies
sc t =

d ss (valid for t < 8 mm)

4

However, d should not be less than t , in any case. The standard size of d
is tabulated in code IS: 1928-1961.
Pitch ( p ): Pitch is designed by equating the tearing strength of the plate to
the shear strength of the rivets. In a double riveted lap joint, this takes the
following form.

st ( p d )t = ss 2( d 2 )
4

But p 2d in order to accommodate heads of the rivets.

Margin ( m ): m = 1.5d .
In order to design boiler joints, a designer must also comply with Indian
Boiler Regulations (I.B.R.).
( pb : usually 0.33 p + 0.67 d mm)

Review questions and answers:

Q. 1. Two plates of 7 mm thickness are connected by a double riveted lap joint
of zigzag pattern. Calculate rivet diameter, rivet pitch and distance between
rows of rivets for the joint. Assume st = 90 MPa , ss = 60 MPa , sc = 120MPa .
Ans. Since t = 7 mm < 8 mm , the diameter of the rivet hole is selected equating
shear strength to the crushing strength, i.e.,

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2 d 2 s s = 2dt s c
4

yielding

d = 17.8 mm . According to IS code, the standard size is

d = 19 mm and the corresponding rivet diameter is 18 mm .

Pitch is obtained from the following

st ( p d )t = 2 ss ( d 2 ) , where d = 19 mm
4
p = 54 + 19 = 73 mm

[Note:

If

the

joint

is

to

comply

with

I.B.R.

specification,

then

pmax = c.t + 41.28 mm , where c is a constant depending upon the type of joint
and is tabulated in the code.]
The distance between the two rivet rows is
pd =

p 2
+ d = 37 mm .
3 3

Q.2. A triple riveted butt joint with two unequal cover plates joins two 25 mm
plates as shown in the figure below.

Figure: 10.2.5

The rivet arrangement is zigzag and the details are given below:
Pitch = 22 cm in outer row and 11 cm in inner rows,
Rivet diameter = 33 mm
Calculate the efficiency of the joint when the allowable stresses are 75
MPa, 60 MPa and 125 MPa in tension, shear and crushing, respectively.

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Ans. From code it may be seen that the corresponding rivet hole diameter is
34.5 mm.
To find strength of the joint all possible failure mechanisms are to be
considered separately.
(a) Tearing resistance of the plate in outer row:
P1 = ( p d hole ) t sT = (220-34.5) X 25 X 75 = 347.81
kN
(b) Shearing resistance of the rivet:
P2 = 2 4

d 2 sS +

d 2 s S = 461.86 kN

Note that within a pitch length of 22cm four rivets are in double
shear while one rivet in single shear.
(c) Crushing resistance of the rivets
P3 = 5 d ts C = 515.62 kN
(d) Shear failure of the outer row and tearing of the rivets in the second
row
P4 = ( p 2d hole )tsT +

d 2 s S = 334.44 kN

Note that in second row there are 2 rivets per pitch length and the
rivets in outer row undergoes single shear.
There are other mechanisms of failure of the joint e.g. tearing along the
innermost row and shearing or crushing of rivets in other two rows etc., but
all of them will have higher resistance than those considered above. Hence
the efficiency of the joint is

min{P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 }
= 0.8108
ptsT

or when expressed in percentile 81.08 %.

Q.3. How is a rivet joint of uniform strength designed?

Ans. The procedure by which uniform strength in a riveted joint is obtained is
known as diamond riveting, whereby the number of rivets is increased

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progressively from the outermost row to the innermost row (see figure
below). A common joint, where this type of riveting is
done, is Lozenge joint used for roof, bridge work etc.

Figure 10.2.6: Diamond riveting in structural joint

Q. 4. Two mild steel tie rods having width 200 mm and thickness 12.5 mm are
to be connected by means of a butt joint with double cover plates. Find the
number of rivets needed if the permissible stresses are 80 MPa in tension,
65 MPa in shear and 160 MPa in crushing.
Ans. As discussed earlier for a structural member Lozenge joint is used which
has one rivet in the outer row.
The number of rivets can be obtained equating the tearing strength to the
shear or crushing strength of the joint, i.e., from the equation

(b d )tsT = 2n1 ( d 2 ) ss
4

[Double shear]

or (b d )tsT = n2 (dt ) sc
where b and t are the width and thickness of the plates to be joined . In the
problem b = 200 mm , t = 12.5 mm , sT = 80 MPa , sc = 160 MPa , ss = 65 MPa
and d is obtained from Unwins formula d = 6 t mm = 21.2 mm . According to
IS code, the standard rivet hole diameter is 21.5 mm and corresponding
rivet diameter is 20 mm. The number of rivets required is the minimum of
the numbers calculated from the above two expressions. It may be checked
that n1 is found out to be 3.89 while n 2 is 4.216. Therefore, at least 5 rivets
are needed.

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Module
10
Design of Permanent
Joints
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Lesson
3
Welded Joints: Types
and Uses
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to know:

.Different types of welded joints.

Factors that affect strength of a welded joint.
Symbols and specifications of welded joints.

1. Welded joints and their advantages:

Welding is a very commonly used permanent joining process. Thanks to
great advancement in welding technology, it has secured a prominent place in
manufacturing machine components. A welded joint has following advantages:
(i) Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint has higher efficiency.
An efficiency > 95 % is easily possible.
(ii)Since the added material is minimum, the joint has lighter weight.
(iii) Welded joints have smooth appearances.
(iv) Due to flexibility in the welding procedure, alteration and addition are
possible.
(v) It is less expensive.
(vi) Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible through welding.
The advantages have made welding suitable for joining components in
various machines and structures. Some typically welded machine components
are listed below.
Pressure vessels, steel structures.
Flanges welded to shafts and axles.
Crank shafts
Heavy hydraulic turbine shafts
Large gears, pulleys, flywheels
Gear housing
Machine frames and bases
Housing and mill-stands.

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2. Basic types of welded processes:

Welding can be broadly classified in two groups
1) Liquid state (fusion) welding where heat is added to the base metals until
they melt. Added metal (filler material) may also be supplied. Upon cooling
strong joint is formed. Depending upon the method of heat addition this
process can be further subdivided, namely
Electrical heating: Arc welding
Resistance welding
Induction welding
Chemical welding: Gas welding
Thermit welding
Laser welding
Electron beam welding
2) Solid state welding: Here mechanical force is applied until materials
deform to plastic state. Bonds are then formed through molecular
interaction. Solid state welding may be of various kinds, namely,
Cold welding
Diffusion welding
Hot forging
Descriptions of the individual welding processes are to be found in any
standard textbook on welding.

3. Strength of welded joints:

Adequate care must be taken to enhance strength of the welded joint. It is
seen that strength of a welded joint gets affected mainly by the following
factors.
(i) Crack initiation: it is possible that cracks form while cooling a melted
metal.
(ii) Residual stresses: due to inhomogeneous heating of the base metals,
residual stresses may exist upon cooling.

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(iii) Metallurgical transformation: in heat affected zone (HAZ) metallurgical

properties may change leading to weakening of the joint.
(iv) Defects: of various kinds like incomplete penetration, porosity, slag
inclusion which affect the strength of a welded joint.
(v) Stress concentration: abrupt change in the geometry after welding may
introduce stress concentration in the structure.

3. Types of welded joints:

Welded joints are primarily of two kinds
a) Lap or fillet joint: obtained by overlapping the plates and welding their
edges. The fillet joints may be single transverse fillet, double
transverse fillet or parallel fillet joints (see figure 10.3.1).

Single transverse
lap joint

________________________________________________________________
_____

Double transverse
lap joint

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________________________________________________________________
_______

Parallel lap joint

Figure 10.3.1: Different types of lap joints

b) Butt joints: formed by placing the plates edge to edge and welding
them. Grooves are sometimes cut (for thick plates) on the edges
before welding. According to the shape of the grooves, the butt joints
may be of different types, e.g.,
Square butt joint
Single V-butt joint, double V-butt joint
Single U-butt joint, double U-butt joint
Single J-butt joint, double J-butt joint
Single bevel-butt joint, double bevel butt joint

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These are schematically shown in figure 10.3.2.

Weld metal
Square butt joint

Single V butt joint

Double V butt joint

Figure 10.3.2: Different types of butt joints

There are other types of welded joints, for example,

Corner joint (see figure 10.3.3a)
Edge or seal joint (see figure 10.3.3b)
T-joint (see figure 10.3.3c)

(a) Corner joint

(b) Edge joint

(c) T - joint

Figure 10.3.3: Other types of welded joints

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Each type of joint has its own symbol. The basic weld symbols are shown
in Table-10.3.1.
Table10.3.1: Basic weld types and their symbols

Sl. No

Type of weld

1.

Fillet joint

2.

Square butt joint

Single V- butt joint

Double V- butt joint

Single U butt joint

Symbol

Single bevel butt

joint

After welding is done the surface is properly finished. The contour of

the welded joint may be flush, concave or convex and the surface finish
may be grinding finish, machining finish or chipping finish. The symbols
of the contour and the surface finish are shown in Table-10.3.2.

Table 10.3.2: Supplementary Weld Symbols

Sl No.

Particulars

Weld Symbol

Flush contour

Convex contour

Concave contour

Grinding finish

Machining finish

Chipping finish

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4. Welding symbol:
A welding symbol has following basic elements:
1. Reference line
2. Arrow
3. Basic weld symbols (like fillet, butt joints etc.)
4. Dimensions
5. Supplementary symbols
6. Finish symbols
7. Tail
8. Specification processes.
These welding symbols are placed in standard locations (see figure below)
Finish symbol

Groove angle

Contour symbol

Length of weld

Root opening

Pitch (center to center spacing)

F
A
R

Size

Specification,
process or
other reference

Other side

Arrow connecting reference

line to arrow
Side of joint

L-P

Arrow side

Field weld symbol

(N)

Weld all around symbol

No of spots or projection weld
Basic weld symbol

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Example: If the desired weld is a fillet weld of size 10 mm to be done on each

side of Tee joint with convex contour, the weld symbol will be as following

10

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Module
10
Design of Permanent Joints
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Lesson
4
Design of Welded Joints
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Possible failure mechanisms in welded joints.

How to design various kinds of welding joints.

1.Design of a butt joint:

The main failure mechanism of welded butt joint is tensile failure.
Therefore the strength of a butt joint is

P = sT lt
where sT =allowable tensile strength of the weld material.
t =thickness of the weld

l =length of the weld.

For a square butt joint t is equal to the thickness of the plates. In general,
this need not be so (see figure 1).
t=t1+t2
t1
t2
l
Figure 10.4.1: Design of a butt joint

2.Design of transverse fillet joint:

Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure 10.4.2. The general
stress distribution in the weld metal is very complicated. In design, a simple
procedure is used assuming that entire load P acts as shear force on the
throat area, which is the smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld. If
the fillet weld has equal base and height, (h, say), then the cross section of

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the throat is easily seen to be

hl
. With the above consideration the
2

permissible load carried by a transverse fillet weld is

P = ss Athroat
where ss -allowable shear stress
Athroat =throat area.
For a double transverse fillet joint the allowable load is twice that of the
single fillet joint.
Throat
thickness

Figure 10.4.2: Design of a single transverse fillet

3.Design of parallel fillet joint:

Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 10.4.3. Each weld carries a
load P . It is easy to see from the strength of material approach that the
2
maximum shear occurs along the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable
load carried by each of the joint is ss At where the throat area At =

lh
. The
2

total allowable load is

P = 2 ss At .

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Shear plane

Figure 3: Design of a parallel fillet joint

In designing a weld joint the design variables are h and l . They can be
selected based on the above design criteria. When a combination of
transverse and parallel fillet joint is required (see figure-10.4.4) the allowable
load is
P = 2 ss At + ss At '
where At =throat area along the longitudinal direction.
At ' =throat area along the transverse direction.

Figure 10.4.4: Design of combined transverse and parallel fillet joint

4.Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion:

Consider a circular shaft connected to a plate by means of a fillet joint as
shown in figure-10.4.5. If the shaft is subjected to a torque, shear stress
develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that
the weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of the shaft, the

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maximum shear stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque
the maximum shear stress in the weld is

max

d
T ( + tthroat )
= 2
Ip

where T =torque applied.

d =outer diameter of the shaft

tthroat = throat thickness
I p =polar moment of area of the throat section.

32

[(d + 2tthroat ) 4 d 4 ]

When tthroat << d , max =

d
2

tthroat d 3

2T

tthroat d 2

The throat dimension and hence weld dimension can be selected from the
equation
2T

tthroat d 2

= ss

Figure 10.4.5: Design of a fillet weld for torsion

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5.Design stresses of welds:

Determination of stresses in a welded joint is difficult because of
inhomogeneity of the weld joint metals
thermal stresses in the welds
changes of physical properties due to high rate of cooling etc.
The stresses in welded joints for joining ferrous material with MS electrode
are tabulated below.
Table 1.
Type of load

Bare electrodes

Covered electrodes

(Static load)

(Static load)

Butt

Tension (MPa)

91.5

112.5

weld

Compression

105.4

126.5

Shear (MPa)

56.2

70.3

Shear (MPa)

79.5

98.5

(MPa)

Fillet
weld

Welded joints are also subjected to eccentric loading as well as variable

loading. These topics will be treated separately in later lessons.

Review questions and answers:

Q. 1. A plate 50 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is to be welded to another plate by
means of parallel fillet welds. The plates are subjected to a load of 50 kN. Find
the length of the weld. Assume allowable shear strength to be 56 MPa.
Ans. In a parallel fillet welding two lines of welding are to be provided. Each
line shares a load of P =
fillet weld is

50
kN = 25 kN . Maximum shear stress in the parallel
2

12.5
P
P
, where t =throat length=
mm . Since ss = 56 106 . Hence
lt
lt
2

the minimum length of the weld is

25 103 2
=50.5 mm. However some
56 12.5 103

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extra length of the weld is to be provided as allowance for starting or stopping

of the bead. An usual allowance of 12.5 mm is kept. (Note that the allowance
has no connection with the plate thickness)

Q. 2. Two plates 200 mm wide and 10 mm thick are to be welded by means of

transverse welds at the ends. If the plates are subjected to a load of 70 kN,
find the size of the weld assuming the allowable tensile stress 70 MPa.

Ans. According to the design principle of fillet (transverse) joint the weld is
designed assuming maximum shear stress occurs along the throat area. Since
tensile strength is specified the shear strength may be calculated as half of
tensile strength, i.e., ss = 35 MPa . Assuming there are two welds, each weld
carries a load of 35 kN and the size of the weld is calculated from

10 103
35 103 = l (
) 35 106
2
or l = 141.42 mm.
Adding an allowance of 12.5 mm for stopping and starting of the bead, the
length of the weld should be 154 mm.

Q. 3. A 50 mm diameter solid shaft is to be welded to a flat plate and is required

to carry a torque of 1500 Nm. If fillet joint is used foe welding what will be the
minimum size of the weld when working shear stress is 56 MPa.

Ans. According to the procedure for calculating strength in the weld joint,
2T

tthroat d 2

= ss ,

where the symbols have usual significance. For given data, the throat thickness
is 6.8 mm. Assuming equal base and height of the fillet the minimum size is 9.6
mm. Therefore a fillet weld of size 10 mm will have to be used.

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Module
10
Design of Permanent
Joints
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Lesson
5
Design of Adhesive
Joints
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Instructional Objectives:
After reading this lesson the students should learn:

Different types of adhesives

Stress distribution in adhesive joints

Design procedure of adhesive joints

1.

Adhesive joints and their advantages

If the load is not very large adhesive joints become very useful in joining
metallic or nonmetallic dissimilar materials. No special device is needed. But
the disadvantage of this joint is that the joint gets weakened by moisture or
heat and some adhesive needs meticulous surface preparation. In an
adhesive joint, adhesive are applied between two plates known as adherend.
The strength of the bond between the adhesive and adherend arise become
of various reasons given below.

The adhesive materials may penetrate into the adherend material and
locks the two bodies.

Long polymeric chain from the adhesive diffuse into the adherend body to
form a strong bond.

Electrostatic force may cause bonding of two surfaces.

The advantages of the adhesive joints are given below:

The mechanism of adhesion helps to reduce stress concentration found in

bolted, riveted and welded joints.

Shock and impact characteristics of the joints are improved

Dissimilar materials, such as metals, plastics, wood, ceramics can be

joined.

Adhesive joints allow sufficient mechanical compliance in parts subjected

to thermal distortion.

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2.

Adhesives can be contoured and formed in various fabrication processes.

Types of Adhesive Joints :

Common types of adhesive joints are shown in figure 10.5.1(a) 1(d)

(a) Single lap (unsupported) joint.

(b) Balanced double lap adhesive joint

(c) Unbalanced double lap joint

(d) Scarf Joint

Figure 10.5.1. Different types of adhesive joints

3.

Stresses within adhesive :

Experimental evidence clearly indicates that the stress and strain in adhesive
layer are nonlinear in nature. Consider a single lap joint pulled by a force such
that the joint does not bend. If the force is too large the joint bends and the
adherend gets separated from adhesive by a mechanism known as peeling.
However, when bending does not take place, the adhesive deforms by shear
(see figure 10.5.2). Consider a small section of adhesive after deformation. The
following relation is at once obvious from the geometry (figure 10.5.3)

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F
F
Figure 10.5.2: Shear deformation of adhesive joint.
1

ta

Figure 10.5.3: Deformation of an element of length x. (In the figure:

1 = (1 + x1 )x , 2 = (1 + x 2 )x , ' = +

2 + t a = 1 + t a '

d
x )
dx

or

1+ t d = 1+ or

x2 a dx
x1

x 2 x1 =
Where

x1

x2

ta d
G dx

= longitudinal strain of the top fiber

= longitudinal strain of bottom fiber.

= shear stress

= Rigidity Modulus of adhesive = E a / 2(1 + a ) .

ta

= thickness of adhesive

Assuming no slip (perfect bonding) between the adhered and adhesive xi s are
then the longitudinal strains of the i-th plate i.e.

x =
2

F ( x)
F ( x)
, x1 =
E2 t 2
E1 t1

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Where, A = bti

ti = thickness of the i-th plate

b = width assumed as unity

In general F is a function of x, distance from the angle of the plate. Considering a

small section of upper plate the following relation is obtained from equilibrium
condition.
dF
=
dx

Since = (continuity of stress), one gets ultimately

1
1 ta d 2 F
F
+
=0

2
E2 t2 E1 t1 G d x
d 2
k2 = 0
2
dx

or

where

k2 =

1
Ea
1

which has
+
2t a (1 + ) E1t1 E 2 t 2

solution = A Cosh kx + B Sinh kx . Noting that the shear stress is symmetric about
the mid-section, = A Cosh kx , which attains minimum value at x= 0,
Further

max
k
= Cosh .
min
2

If the force F is increased the stresses within adhesive go to plastic region and
the joint fails as soon as entire adhesive becomes plastic.
The analysis done above is very crude. The adhesive joint may fail by peeling.
The design procedure for this case is very complicated and not yet finalized. In
the following a simple design procedure for a very common type of adhesive
joint, namely, scarf joint is outlined.
Design of a scarf joint: As explained earlier an adhesive joint fails by shear,
though a complicated peeling phenomenon may sometimes appear. The design
of a scarf joint is very simple. The joint is based on shear failure theory assuming
the shear to have uniform value along the adhesive-adherend interface. The
effect of non-uniformity in the stress distribution is taken care by introducing a
stress concentration factor. The shear stress experienced within the adhesive is
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very easily found out for a joint subjected to axial load (see figure 10.5.4a) and
bending moment (Figure 10.5.4b) as shown below.

Figure 10.5.4a: A scarf joint with axial load

Figure 10.5.4b: A scarf joint with bending moment

A simple analysis shows that the shear stress in the adhesive is

F
sin cos
A

where A = area of cross section of the bars

= angle of inclination of the adhesive with horizontal.
The joint is safe when

allow
K

, where K is the stress concentration factor,

usually 1.5 2. If the joint is subjected to bending moment M the maximum shear
stress developed within adhesive is given by

max = max sin cos =

6M
sin cos
Ah

where h = depth of the adherend bar. Again, for a safe design this shear stress
should not exceed a limiting value
4.

allow
K

Adhesive materials

In order to increase the joint efficiency the rheological properties of adhesive

material should be quite similar to that of the adherends. When the adherends
are dissimilar the elastic modulus of the adhesive should be equal to arithmetic
average of the elastic moduli of the adherends. Common types of adhesives are
epoxies, polyester resins, nitric rubber phenolics. Epoxies are extensively used

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for mechanical purposes because of their high internal strength in cohesion, low
shrinkage stresses, low temperature cure and creep, insensitivity to moisture etc.
Often fillers like aluminum oxides, boron fibers are used to improve mechanical
strength. Polyester resins are widely used in commercial fields for various
structural applications involving plastics operating at moderate temperature.

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Module
11
Design of Joints for
Special Loading
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Lesson
1
Design of Eccentrically
Loaded Bolted/Riveted
Joints
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Meaning of eccentricity in loading.

Procedure for designing a screw/bolted joint in eccentric loading.
Procedure for designing riveted joint under eccentric loading.

In many applications, a machine member is subjected to load such that a

bending moment is developed in addition to direct normal or shear loading. Such
type of loading is commonly known as eccentric loading. In this lesson design
methodology will be discussed for three different types of joints subjected to
eccentric loading
(i)

Screw joint

(ii) Riveted joint

(iii) Welded joint

1. Eccentrically loaded screwed joint:

Consider a bracket fixed to the wall by means of three rows of screws having
two in each row as shown in figure 11.1.1. An eccentric load F is applied to the
extreme end of the bracket. The horizontal component, Fh , causes direct tension
in the screws but the vertical component, Fv , is responsible for turning the
bracket about the lowermost point in left (say point O), which in an indirect way
introduces tension in the screws.

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Fv
FH

L
Figure 11.1.1: Eccentrically loaded bolted joint
It is easy to note that the tension in the screws cannot be obtained by
equations of statics alone. Hence, additional equations must be formed to solve
for the unknowns for this statically indeterminate problem. Since there is a
tendency for the bracket to rotate about point O then, assuming the bracket to be
rigid, the following equations are easily obtained.

tan =

y1 y 2 y 3
=
=
l1
l2
l3

where yi =elongation of the i-th bolt

li =distance of the axis of the i-th bolt from point O.
If the bolts are made of same material and have same dimension, then
f i = kyi
where fi =force in the i-th bolt

k =stiffness of the bolts

Thus fi li or f i = li ( =proportionality constant)

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Fv
FH
L2

fi

li
yi
L1
Figure 11.1.2: Determination of forces in bolts

Using the moment balance equations about O, the lowermost point in the left
side, the following equation is obtained.
2 fi li = Fh L1 + Fv L2
i.e., =

Fh L1 + Fv L2
. The factor 2 appears because there are two bolts
2
2 li

in a row.
Thus the force in the i-th screw is
F L + F L
F
f i = h 1 2v 2 l i + h , where n = total number of bolts.
n
2 l i

For safe design of the joint it is therefore required that

f
A

= max i st
where st =allowable tensile stress of the bolt.
Note that Fv causes also direct shear in the bolt. Its effect may be ignored for
a preliminary design calculation.

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2. Eccentrically loaded riveted joint:

Consider, now, a bracket, which carries a vertical load F . The bracket, in this
case, is connected to the wall by four rivets as shown in figure 11.1.2. The force,

Rivet

Centroid
L
Figure 11.1.3: Eccentrically loaded rivet joint

in addition to inducing direct shear of magnitude

F
in each rivet, causes the
4

whole assembly to rotate. Hence additional shear forces appear in the rivets.

Once again, the problem is a statically indeterminate one and additional

assumptions are required. These are as following:
(i) magnitude of additional shear force is proportional to the distance
between the rivet center and the centroid of the rivet assembly, whose coordinates are defined as
x=

Ai xi
Ai yi
, y=
Ai
Ai

( Ai =area of the cross-section of the i-th rivet)

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(ii) directions of the force is perpendicular to the line joining centroid of the
rivet group and the rivet center and the sense is governed by the rotation
of the bracket.
Noting that for identical rivets the centroid is the geometric center of the
rectangle, the force in the i-th rivet is
f i = li
where =proportional constant
li =distance of the i-th rivet from centroid.
Taking moment about the centroid

fl

i i

= FL

or =

FL
2
li
i

Thus, the additional force is f i =

FL
li .
li2

FL
Direct
Indirect
F
Figure 11.1.4: Forces on rivets due to
The net force in the i-th rivet is obtained by parallelogram law of vector
addition as
2

fi '=

F
F
f i 2 + + 2 f i cos i
4
4

where i =angle between the lines of action of the forces shown in the figure.

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For safe designing we must have

fi '
ss
A

= max

where ss =allowable shear stress of the rivet.

Model questions and answers:

Q. 1. The base of a pillar crane is fastened to the foundation by n bolts equally
placed on a bolt circle of diameter d. The diameter of the pillar is D. Determine
the maximum load carried by any bolt when the crane carries a load W at a
distance L from the center of the base.

L
d
D

Ans. In this case the pillar have a tendency to topple about the point on the
outer diameter lying closest to the point of application of the load.
Choose the line joining the center of the base and the point of application
of the load as the reference line. In this case
yi =distance of the i-th bolt from the tilting point
D d
= cos i
2 2

where i =angular position of the i-th bolt. Since there are n equally spaced
bolts so

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i +1 i =

2
n

Using the same considerations as done in section-1, the force in the i-th bolt
is
fi =

W ( L D / 2) D d

cos i
2
yi
2 2

n D d
It is easy to see that yi = 2 +
2 2 2
2

Hence the maximum load occurs when i = whereby

f max

D D d

W L +
2 2 2
.
=
2
2
n D d
2 +
2 2 2

Q. 2. A bracket is supported by means of 4 rivets of same size as shown in

figure 6. Determine the diameter of the rivet if the maximum shear stress is
140 MPa.
Ans. F1 = The direct shear force =5 kN per rivet. The maximum indirect shear
force occurs in the topmost or bottommost rivet and its magnitude is
F2 =

20 80
45 kN and the direction is horizontal.
2 15 2 + 2 45 2

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Therefore the maximum shear force on the rivet assembly is F = F1 + F2 .

2

Hence

d 2 ss = F

which yields d 16 mm.

80 mm

20 kN

30 mm
30 mm
30 mm

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Module
11
Design of Joints for
Special Loading
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Lesson
2
Design of Eccentrically
Loaded Welded Joints
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Ways in which eccentric loads appear in a welded joint.

General procedure of designing a welded joint for eccentric loading.
How to avoid eccentric loading in simple cases..
There are many possible ways in which an eccentric loading can be imposed

on a welded joint. A few cases are discussed below.

1.

Eccentrically loaded transverse fillet joint:

Consider a cantilever beam fixed to a wall by two transverse fillet joints as shown
in figure 11.2.1. The beam is subjected to a transverse load of magnitude F.

L
Figure 11.2.1: Eccentrically loaded welded joint
Like any welded joint, the design is based upon the strength of the joint against
failure due to shear force along the throat section. In this case any small section
of the throat is subjected to
(a) direct shear stress of magnitude

F
,
2bt

where b = length of the weld,

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t = thickness at the throat

and the factor 2 appears in the denominator for double weld.
(b) Indirect shear stress due to bending of the beam, whose magnitude is
calculated in the following manner and whose direction is perpendicular to
that of the direct shear stress. Consider a small area dA in throat section lying
at a distance y from the centerline, which is also the centroidal axis of the
weld. An important assumption is made regarding the magnitude of the shear
stress at a point within the area dA. It is assumed that the shear stress is
proportional to the distance from the centroidal axis, that is y in this case, and
directed along the horizontal. The proportionality constant is calculated using
the moment equilibrium equation about centroid of the throat section. This
gives,

( y) y dA = FL
Hence, c =

FL

dA

where ( y ) = cy .

. Therefore the magnitude of the shear stress is

FLy
Iy

where the second moment of area of the throat section I p = y 2 dA =

tb 3
. So,
12

for an eccentrically loaded joint shown in figure 11.2.2 the maximum shear
stress occurs at the extreme end and its magnitude is
2

F 3FL
+ 2 .
2bt tb

max =

In order to design a safe welded joint

max S S ,
where S S is the allowable shear stress of the weld material.

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dF
y
Small area dA

Throat thickness

Figure 11.2.2: Forces on weld in bending

2. Eccentrically loaded parallel fillet joint:

Consider a cantilever beam connected to a wall by means of two parallel joints
as shown in figure 11.2.3. The beam is required to carry a load F in transverse
direction.

L
Figure 11.2.3: Eccentrically loaded parallel fillet joint

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In order to select the size of the weld it is once again considered that the joint
fails in shear along the throat section. For the given loading, the throat area is
subjected to two shear stresses.
(a) Direct shear of magnitude

F
2lt

where l = length of the weld

t = thickness of the throat.
(b) Indirect shear stress owing to eccentricity of the loading. The magnitude
and direction of the shear stresses are calculated using the similar
assumption as in the last section. The magnitude of shear stress at any point
is assumed to be proportional to its distance from the centroid of the throat
area and the direction is perpendicular to the line joining the point and the
centroid. The sense is the same as that of the rotation of the welded jont as a
whole (if permitted). With this assumption the shear stress at a point at a
distance r from the centroid is given by

( r ) = cr
where the proportionality constant c is to calculated using the moment
equilibrium equation. Taking moment about the centroid one finds

(r)r dA = FL ,
where L = distance of the line of action of F from centroid.
Thus,
c=

FL
,
J

where J = r 2 dA is the polar moment of the throat section about its centroid.
The net shear stress at a point is calculated by vector addition of the two
kinds of shear stresses discussed above. (Note that the vector addition of
stresses is in general not defined. In this case the resultant force at a point within
an infinitesimal area is obtained using vector addition of forces calculated from
the individual stress values. The resultant stress is the force divided by area.
Since everywhere the same value of area is involved in calculation, the net stress
is therefore the vector sum of the component stresses.) The weld size is
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designed such that the maximum shear stress does not exceed its allowable
limiting value.

dF
Centroid

Figure 11..2.4: Forces on throat section due to torsion

3. Asymmetric Welded Section:

It is observed from section 1 and 2 that an eccentricity in loading causes extra
shear stress in a welded joint. Thus it may be useful to reduce the eccentricity in
loading. In some applications this is achieved by making the weld section
asymmetric. Consider a plate subjected to an axial load F as shown in figure
11.2.5. The plate is connected to the wall by means of parallel fillet joint. Assume
that the axial load is along the centroidal axis if the beam which is shown by
dotted lines. If the welds are made of equal lengths in both sides, then the
centroid of the welded section, being along the centerline of the beam will not lie
on the cetroidal axis of the beam. Thus an eccentricity in loading is introduced.
This situation may be avoided by making the two weld lengths unequal in such
proportion that the eccentricity is removed. The relationship between l1 and l2
will be as following:

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l1 h2
= ,
l2 h1

where l1 = length of the upper weld

l2 = length of the lower weld,

h1 = distance of the upper weld from centroidal axis,
h2 = distance of the lower weld from centroidal axis.

centroid
l1

h1

h2
l2
Figure 11.2.5: Parallel weld for asymmetric
section
The net length of the weld l = l1 + l2 can be calculated from the strength
consideration that is
F
SS ,
lt

where t = thickness of the throat. Thus the individual lengths of the weld are as
following:
h
l1 = 2 l
b

and

h
l2 = 1 l ,
b

where b= width of the plate.

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Review questions and answers:

Q.1. A rectangular steel plate is welded as a cantilever to a vertical column and
supports a single concentrated load of 60 kN as shown in figure below.
Determine the weld size if the allowable shear stress in the weld material is 140
MPa.

100

150
200

Ans. The weld is subjected to two shear stresses

(1) Direct shear of magnitude 60,000/Area of the weld. The area of the
throat section is easily found out to be 200 t where t=0.707 h. Thus
direct shear stress is 424/h MPa.
(2) The indirect shear stress as a point r distance away from the
centroid of the throat section has magnitude

FLr
,
J

where J is the polar moment of area of the throat section and L is the
eccentricity of the load. From the geometry of the throat section it may
be calculated that the distance of centroid from left end =
x=

l2
= 12.5 mm (see figure below) and the polar moment about G
2l + b

is

J=

h (b + 2l )3 l 2 (b + l ) 2
4

= 272530 h mm .
b + 2l
2 12

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x
Thus the indirect shear stress has magnitude

41.28
r MPa. The
h

maximum resultant shear stress depends on both the magnitude and

direction of the indirect shear stress. It should be clear that the maximum
shear stress appears at the extreme corner of the weld section which is at a
distance

b
( ) 2 + (l x) 2 = 62.5 mm away from the centroid. Noticing that the
2

l x
53.130 , the
included angle between the two shear forces as cos 1
rmax
maximum value of the resultant shear stress is found out to be
f max =

2854.62
MPa. Since this value should not exceed 140 MPa the
h

minimum weld size must be h= 20.39 mm.

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Module
11
Design of Joints with
Special Loading
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Lesson
3
Design of Joints with
Variable Loading
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Instructional Objectives :
After reading this lesson the students should learn:

Design of a bolted joint with fluctuating loading

Design of welded joints with variable loading

1. Variable loading in mechanical joints:

Machine parts are often subjected to variable loading. In many cases
pulsating or intermittent loads are applied from outside, for example, in
punching press forces of very large magnitude is applied for a short while
(impulsive force), in crank shafts variable loads act due to nature of force
arising from combustion cycle in cylinders. Often dynamic forces appear in
the moving parts, e.g., inertia forces in machines and mechanisms, forces
due to unbalance of the rotating components etc. Since these forces are to be
withstood by the joints, care should be taken while designing a joint capable
of resisting adequate load of variable magnitude. Design of two important
mechanical joints is discussed below, namely, bolted and welded joints.

2. Bolted joints with variable loading:

Consider design of bolts to fasten a flat cover to a cylinder as shown in figure
11.3.1. In order to ensure leak proofness necessary pretension (usually 2840
d , in Newton while the nominal bolt diameter d is measured in millimeter) is
applied. Depending upon operating condition the pressure inside the closed
cylinder is likely to vary in somewhat periodic manner. Let the minimum and
maximum value of the pressure be pmin and pmax , respectively.

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Bolt
location

Figure 11.3.1: Bolted cover plate

The pressure causes external force of magnitude F =

pAc
, where
n

n= number of equally spaced bolts on the bolt circle

Ac = area of cross section of the cylinder
p = fluid pressure inside the cylinder.
It is known that only a fraction of external load is responsible for tensile stress
within bolts, that is
Fb = Fi + CF
where

Fi = initial tension in the bolt

C = factor that depends on the nature of joints. Some

representative values of Cs are tabulated in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Values of C for various types of joints
Type of joint

Value of C

Metal to metal joint with through bolt

0.00 0.10

Soft copper gasket with long bolts

0.5 0.7

Hard copper gasket with long bolt

0.25 0.5

Soft packing with through bolt

0.75 1.00

Soft packing with stud

1.0

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Due to fluctuating external force the tensile load within each bolt takes
minimum and maximum value of
Fb ,min = Fi + CFmin

and Fb ,max = Fi + CFmax

respectively. The average and the fluctuating component of the normal stress
are given by

m =

max + min

amp =

max min
2

Fi
F + Fmin
+ C max
2 Ab
Ab
=C

Fmax Fmin
2 Ab

respectively, where Ab is the root area of each bolt. The advantage of initial
pretension is at once visible from the above expressions. The ratio

amp
gets
m

drastically reduced, The safe size of the bolt can be calculated now from wellknown Soderberg equation given below

av k f amp 1
+
=
Y
SE
N
where

Y = Yield stress of the bolt material,

S E = Corrected endurance limit taking load-, size-, surface finish-

factors
N = Factor of safety
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor.

Alternatively, Goodmans equation or Gerbers line may be used to calculate

the root area and hence the size of the bolts. The fatigue stress concentration
factor plays an important role in the design. These are found by doing
extensive experimentation. A few figures are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Metric Grade

Fatigue

stress

Conc.

factor
3.6 - 5.8

2.1 2.8

6.6 -10.9

2.3 3.8

3. Welded joints with variable loading:

Because of many intricacies involved in design of a welded joint, codes are
extensively used to design such joint when it experiences variable loading.
The value of the maximum fluctuating load is not allowed to exceed a limit
specified in the code. This value depends on
a. type of the joint
b. type of stress experienced by the joint
c. a load factor K defined as the ratio of the minimum stress to the
maximum stress. When the load is a steady one the factor takes
unit value. For a complete reversal of stress the value of K = -1.
The design stress for completely reversing load is calculated using the
formula

1,d =
where

1,a
k1

1,d = design stress for complete reversal of stress

1,a = allowable fatigue stress

k1 = fatigue stress concentration factor tabulated below

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Table 3: Fatigue stress concentration factor ( k1 )

Type of weld

k1

Reinforced butt weld

1.2

T- butt joint with sharp corner

2.0

Toe of transverse fillet or normal fillet

1.5

Parallel fillet weld or longitudinal weld

2.7

The values of the allowable fatigue stress ( 1,a ) are also tabulated in the
design code for various weld geometries. For example, the allowable fatigue
stress for fillet weld is given (assuming the weld to be a line) as

1, a =

358w
, (in kgf/cm)
1 K / 2

where w denotes the leg size of the fillet weld measured in centimeter. The
design is found to be safe if the maximum value of the fluctuating stress is
found to be lesser than the design stress.

Review questions and answers:

Q.1. A strap of mild steel is welded to a plate as shown in the following
figure. Check whether the weld size is safe or not when the joint is subjected
to completely reversed load of 5 kN.

5kN

50

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Ans. As shown in the figure the joint is a parallel fillet joint with leg size as 9
mm and the welding is done on both sides of the strap. Hence the total weld
length is 2(50) = 100 mm.
In order to calculate the design stress the following data are used
k1

= 2.7 (parallel fillet joint, refer table 3)

w = 0.9 cm
K = -1 for completely reversed loading
The value of the allowable fatigue stress (assuming the weld to be a line) is
then 1 =

358 0.9
= 214.8 kgf/cm = 214800 N/m (approx). The design stress
1.5

is therefore 1,d =

214800
= 79556 N/m. Since the total length of the weld is
2.7

0.1 m, the maximum fluctuating load allowable for the joint is 7955.6 N. The
joint is therefore safe.

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Module
12
Design of brakes
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Lesson
1
Design of shoe brakes
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Instructional Objectives:
After reading the lesson the students should learn:

1.

Different types of shoe brakes and their operating principles

Design procedure of different shoe brakes

Types of brakes

Brakes are devices that dissipate kinetic energy of the moving parts of a
machine. In mechanical brakes the dissipation is achieved through sliding
friction between a stationary object and a rotating part. Depending upon the
direction of application of braking force, the mechanical brakes are primarily of
three types

Shoe or block brakes braking force applied radially

Band brakes braking force applied tangentially.

Disc brake braking force applied axially.

2. Shoe or block brake

In a shoe brake the rotating drum is brought in contact with the shoe by suitable
force. The contacting surface of the shoe is coated with friction material.
Different types of shoe brakes are used, viz., single shoe brake, double shoe
brake, internal expanding

brake, external expanding brake. These are

sketched in figure 12.1.1.

lever
shoe
Figure 1(a) Single shoe brake
drum

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lever
shoe

Figure 1(b) Double shoe brake

drum

shoe

drum

Figure 1(c): Internal expanding shoe brake

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shoe

drum

Figure 1(d): External expanding shoe brake

Figure 12.1.1: Different shoe brakes

Single Shoe brake

The force needed to secure contact is supplied by a lever. When a force F is
applied to the shoe (see figure 12.1.2a ) frictional force proportional to the
applied force F fr = ' F develops, where ' depends of friction material and the
geometry of the shoe. A simplified analysis is done as discussed below.

O
Ffr

Figure 12.1.2a: Free body diagram of a brake shoe

Though the exact nature of the contact pressure distribution is unknown, an

approximation (based on wear considerations) is made as
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p ( ) = p0 cos
Where the angle is measured from the centerline of the shoe. If Coulombs law
of friction is assumed to hold good, then
f fr ( ) = p 0 cos

Since the net normal force of the drum is F, one has

0

Rb p ( ) cos d = F ,
0

Where R and b are the radius of the brake drum and width of the shoe
respectively.
The total frictional torque is
0

T = b f fr ( ) R 2 d
0

If the total frictional force is assumed to be a concentrated one, then the

T
equivalent force becomes Ffr = . A simple calculation yields,
R

4 sin 0
2 0 + sin 2 0

Figure 12.1.2(b): Pressure distribution on brake

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It may be seen that for very small value of 0 , = '. Even when 0 = 300 ,

' = 1.0453 . Usually if the contact angle is below 600 , the two values of friction
coefficient are taken to be equal.
Consider, now single shoe brakes as shown in figures 12.1.3(a) and 3(b).
Suppose a force P is applied at the end of a lever arm with length l. The shoe
placed at a distance x from the hinge experiences a normal force N and a
friction force F, whose direction depends upon the sense of rotation of the
drum. Drawing free body diagram of the lever and taking moment about the
hinge one gets
(a) for clockwise rotation of the brake wheel,
Nx + Fa = Pl
(b) for anticlockwise rotation of the brake wheel,
Nx Fa = Pl.
Where a is the distance between the hinge and the line of action of F and is
measured positive when F acts below point O as shown in the figure. Using
Coulombs law of friction the following results are obtained,
(a) for clockwise rotation

F=

(b) for anticlockwise rotation

Pl
,
x + a

F=

Pl
,
x a

It may be noted that for anticlockwise rotating brake, if >

x
, then the force P
a

has negative value implying that a force is to applied in the opposite direction to
bring the lever to equilibrium. Without any force the shoe will, in this case, draw
the lever closer to the drum by itself. This kind of brake is known as selflocking, brake. Two points deserve attention.
(1) If a < 0, the drum brake with clockwise rotation becomes self-energizing and
if friction is large, may be self locking.
(2) If the brake is self locking for one direction, it is never self locking for the
opposite direction. This makes the self locking brakes useful for back stops
of the rotors.
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P
x

a
F
N
Figure 12.1.3(a): FBD of shoe (CW drum rotation)
P
x

a
F
N
Figure 12.1.3(b): FBD of shoe (CCW drum rotation)

Double shoe brake

Since in a single shoe brake normal force introduces transverse loading on the
shaft on which the brake drum is mounted two shoes are often used to provide
braking torque. The opposite forces on two shoes minimize the transverse
loading. The analysis of the double shoe brake is very similar to the single shoe
brake.

External expanding shoe brake

An external expanding shoe brake consists of two symmetrically placed shoes
having inner surfaces coated with frictional lining. Each shoe can rotate about
respective fulcrum (say, O1 and O2 ). A schematic diagram with only one shoe is
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presented (figure 12.1.4) When the shoes are engaged, non-uniform pressure
develops between the friction lining and the drum. The pressure is assumed to
be proportional to wear which is in turn proportional to the perpendicular
distance from pivoting point (O1N in figure 12.1.4). A simple geometrical
consideration reveals that this distance is proportional to sine of the angle
between the line joining the pivot and the center of the drum and the line joining
the center and the chosen point. This means
p ( ) = p0 sin ,
where the angle is measured from line OO1 and is limited as 1 2 .
Drawing the free body diagram of one of the shoes (left shoe, for example) and
writing the moment equilibrium equation about O1 (say) the following equation is
resulted for clockwise rotation of the drum :
F1l = M p M f ,

Where F1 is the force applied at the end of the shoe, and

Mp =
Mf =

1
p0bR
2

1
0bR
2

(
)

+
( sin 21 sin 2 2 ) ,
2
1

R (cos 1 2 ) 4 ( cos 21 cos 2 2 ) ,

where is the distance between the center and the pivot (OO1 in figure 12.1.4)
and A is the distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force F1 (O1C in
the figure). In a similar manner the force to be applied at the other shoe can be
obtained from the equation
F2l = M p + M f .

The net braking torque in this case is

T = p0bR 2 (cos 1 cos 2 ).

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F
B
N

A
O1

Figure 12.1.4: Force distribution in externally expanding brake.

Internal expanding shoe brake

Here the brake shoes are engaged with the internal surface of the drum.
The analysis runs in the similar fashion as that of an external shoe brake.
The forces required are
F1 = ( M p + M f ) l

and

F2 = ( M p M f )

respectively.
One of the important member of the expanding shoe brakes is the anchor
pin. The size of the pin is to be properly selected depending upon the face
acting on it during brake engagement.

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Module
12
Design of Brakes
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Lesson
2
Design of Band and
Disc Brakes
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Instructional Objectives:
After reading this lesson the students should learn:

Different types of band brakes

Design of band brakes

Design of disc brakes

Properties of friction materials

1. Band brakes:
The operating principle of this type of brake is the following. A flexible band of
leather or rope or steel with friction lining is wound round a drum. Frictional
torque is generated when tension is applied to the band. It is known (see any
text book on engineering mechanics) that the tensions in the two ends of the
band are unequal because of friction and bear the following relationship:
T1
= e ,
T2

where T1 = tension in the taut side,

T2 = tension in the slack side,

= coefficient of kinetic friction and

= angle of wrap.
If the band is wound around a drum of radius R, then the braking torque is
Tbr = (T1 T2 ) R = T1 (1 e ) R

Depending upon the connection of the band to the lever arm, the member
responsible for application of the tensions, the band brakes are of two types,
(a) Simple band brake:
In simple band brake one end of the band is attached to the fulcrum of the
lever arm (see figures 12.2.1(a) and 1(b) ). The required force to be applied to
the lever is
P = T1

b
for clockwise rotation of the brake drum and
l

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P = T2

b
for anticlockwise rotation of the brake drum,
l

where l = length of the lever arm and

b = perpendicular distance from the fulcrum to the point of attachment of
other end of the band.

b
T2

T1

T1

T2

1(a): Band brake with CW rotating drum

1(b): Band brake with CCW rotating drum

Figure 12.2.1: Band brakes

(b) Differential band brake:

In this type of band brake, two ends of the band are attached to two points on
the lever arm other than fulcrum (see figures 12.2.2(a) and 12.2.2(b)). Drawing
the free body diagram of the lever arm and taking moment about the fulcrum it
is found that

P = T2

a
b
T1 , for clockwise rotation of the brake drum and
l
l

P = T1

a
b
T2 , for anticlockwise rotation of the brake drum.
l
l

Hence, P is negative if

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and

e =

T1 a
> for clockwise rotation of the brake drum
T2 b

e =

T1 a
< for counterclockwise rotation of the brake drum. In
T2 b

these cases the force is to be applied on the lever arm in opposite direction to
maintain equilibrium. The brakes are then self locking.
The important design variables of a band brake are the thickness
and width of the band. Since the band is likely to fail in tension, the following
relationship is to be satisfied for safe operation.
T1 = wtsT
where

w = width of the band,

t = thickness of the band and
sT = allowable tensile stress of the band material. The steel bands of the

following dimensions are normally used

w

25-40 mm

40-60 mm

80 mm

100 mm

140-200
mm

3 mm

3-4 mm

4-6 mm

4-7 mm

6-10 mm

T2
T1
P
a

T1
T2
P
Fig.12.2.2(a): Differential Band brake with CW rotation

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Fig 12.2.2(b): Differential
Band brake with CCW rotation
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2. Band and block brakes:

Sometimes instead of applying continuous friction lining along the band, blocks
of wood or other frictional materials are inserted between the band and the
drum. In this case the tensions within the band at both sides of a block bear
the relation
T1 1 + tan
=
,
T1 1 tan
where T1 = tension at the taut side of any block
T1 = tension at the slack side of the same block

= angle subtended by each block at center.

If n number of blocks are used then the ratio between the tensions at taut
side to slack side becomes
n

T1 1 + tan
=
.
T2 1 tan

The braking torque is Tbr = (T1 T2 ) R

3. Disc brake:
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In this type of brake two friction pads are pressed axially against a rotating
disc to dissipate kinetic energy. The working principle is very similar to friction
clutch. When the pads are new the pressure distribution at pad-disc interface
is uniform, i.e.
p = constant .
If F is the total axial force applied then p =

F
, where A is the area of the pad.
A

The frictional torque is given by

Tbraking =

F
A

v r dA
A

where = coefficient of kinetic friction and r is the radial distance of an

infinitesimal

element of pad. After some time the pad gradually wears

away. The wear becomes uniforms after sufficiently long time, when
pr = constant = c (say)

where

F = v p dA = c v

dA
. The braking torque is
r

Tbraking ' = v pr dA = Ac =

AF

dA
r

It is clear that the total braking torque depends on the geometry of the pad. If
the annular pad is used then

Tbr =

R3 R 3
2
F 12 2 2
3
R1 R2

R + R2
Tbr = F 1

2
where R1 and R2 are the inner and outer radius of the pad.

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4. Friction materials and their properties.

The most important member in a mechanical brake is the friction material. A
good friction material is required to possess the following properties:

High and reproducible coefficient of friction.

Imperviousness to environmental conditions.

Ability to withstand high temperature (thermal stability)

High wear resistance.

Flexibility and conformability to any surface.

Some common friction materials are woven cotton lining, woven asbestos
lining, molded asbestos lining, molded asbestos pad, Sintered metal pads etc.

Review questions and answers:

Q.1. A double shoe brake has diameter of brake drum 300mm and contact
angle of each shoe 90 degrees, as shown in figure below. If the coefficient of
friction for the brake lining and the drum is 0.4, find the spring force necessary
to transmit a torque of 30 Nm. Also determine the width of the brake shoe if the
braking pressure on the lining material is not to exceed 0.28 MPa.

S
250

225

Figure 12.2.3

Ans.

The friction force required to produce the given torque is

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F1 + F2 =

The

'=

normal

forces

on

the

30
= 200 ( N )
0.150

shoes

are

N1 =

F1
F
, N 2 = 2 , where
'
'

4 sin 0

( 0 = ) = 0.44. Writing the moment equilibrium equations about

2 0 + sin 2 0
4

the pivot points of individual shoes (draw correct FBDs and verify)

Sl + N1 x + F1a = 0 F1 =

Sl N 2 x + F2 a = 0 F2 =

Sl
x

a+

'

Sl
x

'

= 0.718 S , and

= 1.1314 S

This yields S = 98.4(N).

Width of the friction lining :
According to the pressure distribution assumed for a shoe brake, the maximum
bearing pressure occurs at the centerline of the shoe. The width of the brake
lining must be selected from the higher values of the normal forces, in this
case N 2 . Noting that
/4

N 2 = Rbpmax

cos 2 d ,

/4

Where R = 0.150, pmax = 0.28 X 106 , N 2 = 1.314 98.4 / 0.44, the value of b is
calculated to be 5.4 mm or 6 mm (approx.).
Q2. A differential band brake has brake drum of diameter 500mm and the
maximum torque on the drum is 1000 N-m. The brake embraces 2/3rd of the
circumference. If

the band brake is lined with asbestos fabric having a

coefficient of friction 0.3, then design the steel band. The permissible stress is
70 MPa in tesnion. The bearing pressure for the brake lining should not
exceed 0.2 MPa.

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Ans.

The design of belt is to be carried out when the braking torque is

maximum i.e.

Tbr = 1000 N-m. According to the principle of band brake

4
0.3

3
Tbr = T1 (1 e ) R = T1 1 e

0.25

Which yield T1 = 5587 N , T2 = e T1 = 1587 N . In order to find the pressure on

the band, consider an infinitesimal element. The force balance along the radial
direction yields

N = T
Since N = p b R

so p =

T
.
bR

The maximum pressure is pmax =

Hence

b=

T1
.
bR

T+T

5587
= 0.112 m (approx.)
0.25 0.2 106

The thickness t of the band is calculated from the relation

St bt = T1
Which yields t =

5587
= 0.0007145 m or 1 mm (approx.).
70 106 0.1117

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Module
13
Belt drives
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Lesson
1
Introduction to Belt
drives
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Uses and advantages of belt drives

Types of belt drives and their nomenclature
Relationship between belt tensions
Some commonly used design parameters

13.1.1 Flexible Machine Elements

Belt drives are called flexible machine elements. Flexible machine elements are
used for a large number of industrial applications, some of them are as follows.
1. Used in conveying systems
Transportation of coal, mineral ores etc. over a long distance
2. Used for transmission of power.
Mainly used for running of various industrial appliances using prime movers
like electric motors, I.C. Engine etc.
3. Replacement of rigid type power transmission system.
A gear drive may be replaced by a belt transmission system
Flexible machine elements has got an inherent advantage that, it can absorb a
good amount of shock and vibration. It can take care of some degree of
misalignment between the driven and the driver machines and long distance
power transmission, in comparison to other transmission systems, is possible.
For all the above reasons flexible machine elements are widely used in industrial
application.
Although we have some other flexible drives like rope drive, roller chain drives
etc. we will only discuss about belt drives.

13.1.2 Typical belt drives

Two types of belt drives, an open belt drive, (Fig. 13.1.1) and a crossed belt drive
(Fig. 13.1.2) are shown. In both the drives, a belt is wrapped around the pulleys.
Let us consider the smaller pulley to be the driving pulley. This pulley will transmit
motion to the belt and the motion of the belt in turn will give a rotation to the
larger driven pulley. In open belt drive system the rotation of both the pulleys is in
the same direction, whereas, for crossed belt drive system, opposite direction of
rotation is observed.
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13.1.3 Nomenclature of Open Belt Drive

dL

dL - Diameter of the larger pulley

dS Diameter of the smaller pulley

L- Angle of wrap of the larger pulley

ds

S Angle of wrap of the smaller pulley

C- Center distance between the two pulleys

Fig.13.1.1 Open belt drive

Basic Formulae
L = 180 + 2
S = 180 - 2
Where angle is,
d dS
= sin 1 L

2C

L0 = Length of open belt

Lo =

1
2
d L + dS ) + 2C +
dL dS )
(
(
2
4C

This formulae may be verified by simple geometry.

13.1.4 Nomenclature of Cross Belt Drive
dL - Diameter of the larger pulley

dL

dS Diameter of the smaller pulley

L- Angle of wrap of the larger pulley

S
ds

S Angle of wrap of the smaller pulley

C- Center distance between the two pulleys

C
Fig. 13.1.2 Cross belt drive
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Basic Formulae
L = S = 180 + 2
Where angle is,
d dS
= sin 1 L

2C

Length of cross belt

Lc =

1
2
d L + dS ) + 2C +
d L + dS )
(
(
2
4C

13.1.5 Belt tensions

The belt drives primarily operate on the friction principle. i.e. the friction between
the belt and the pulley is responsible for transmitting power from one pulley to the
other. In other words the driving pulley will give a motion to the belt and the
motion of the belt will be transmitted to the driven pulley. Due to the presence of
friction between the pulley and the belt surfaces, tensions on both the sides of
the belt are not equal. So it is important that one has to identify the higher tension
side and the lower tension side, which is shown in Fig. 13.1.3.
Belt motion
T2

Friction
on belt

T2

T1>T2
T1

T1

Driven pulley

Friction
on pulley
Driving pulley

Fig.13.1.3 Belt tensions

When the driving pulley rotates (in this case, anti-clock wise), from the
fundamental concept of friction, we know that the belt will oppose the motion of
the pulley. Thereby, the friction, f on the belt will be opposite to the motion of the
pulley. Friction in the belt acts in the direction, as shown in Fig. 13.1.3, and will
impart a motion on the belt in the same direction. The friction f acts in the same

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direction as T2. Equilibrium of the belt segment suggests that T1 is higher than
T2. Here, we will refer T1 as the tight side and T2 as the slack side, ie, T1 is higher
tension side and T2 is lower tension side.
Continuing the discussion on belt tension, the figures though they are
continuous, are represented as two figures for the purpose of explanation. The
driven pulley in the initial stages is not rotating. The basic nature of friction again
suggests that the driven pulley opposes the motion of the belt. The directions of
friction on the belt and the driven pulley are shown the figure. The frictional force
on the driven pulley will create a motion in the direction shown in the figure.
Equilibrium of the belt segment for driven pulley again suggests that T1 is higher
than T2.
It is observed that the slack side of the belt is in the upper side and the tight side
of the belt is in the lower side. The slack side of the belt, due to self weight, will
not be in a straight line but will sag and the angle of contact will increase.
However, the tight side will not sag to that extent. Hence, the net effect will be an
increase of the angle of contact or angle of wrap. It will be shown later that due to
the increase in angle of contact, the power transmission capacity of the drive
system will increase. On the other hand, if it is other way round, that is, if the
slack side is on the lower side and the tight side is on the upper side, for the
same reason as above, the angle of wrap will decrease and the power
transmission capacity will also decrease. Hence, in case of horizontal drive
system the tight side is on the lower side and the slack side is always on the
upper side.

13.1.6 Derivation of relationship between belt tensions

The Fig.13.1.4 shows the free body diagram of a belt segment.

d
2

T2

dN

CF

dN
d

v2
centrifugal force(CF) = m(rd)
r
2
= mv d
where, m = bt,

d
2

T+dT

T1
Fig.13.1.4
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The belt segment subtends an angle d at the center. Hence, the length of the
belt segment,
dl = r d
(13.1.1)
At the impending condition, ie., when the belt is in just in motion with respect to
the pulley, the forces acting on the belt segment are shown in Fig.13.1.4. This
belt segment is subjected to a normal force acting from the pulley on the belt
segment and due to the impending motion the frictional force will be acting in the
direction as shown in the figure.
f = dl
(13.1.2)
where is the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley.
The centrifugal force due to the motion of the belt acting on the belt segment is
denoted as CF and its magnitude is,
CF = [m(rd)x v2]/r = mv2d
(13.1.3)
Where, v is the peripheral velocity of the pulley m is the mass of the belt of unit
length,
m = bt
(13.1.4)
where, b is the width, t is the thickness and is the density of the belt material.
From the equation of equilibrium in the tangential and normal direction,
Ft = 0

T cos

d
d
( T + dT ) cos
+ dN = 0
2
2

(13.1.5)

Fn = 0

mv 2d + dN + T sin

d
d

( T + dT ) sin
=0
2
2

(13.1.6)
For small angle, d,

cos

d
d d
1 and sin

2
2
2
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Therefore, simplified form of (13.1.5) is,

dN =

dT

(13.1.7)
From (13.1.6) and using (13.1.7),

mv 2d +
or,

dT
Td = 0

dT
= d
T mv 2

(13.1.8)
Considering entire angle of wrap,

T2
T1

dT
=
d
T mv 2 0

(13.1.9)
The final equation for determination of relationship between belt tensions is,

T1 mv 2
= e
2
T2 mv
(13.1.10)
It is important to realize that the pulley, driven or driver, for which the product,
of (13.1.10) is the least, should be considered to determine the tension ratio.
Here, should be expressed in radians.

13.1.7 Elastic Creep and Initial Tension

Presence of friction between pulley and belt causes differential tension in the
belt. This differential tension causes the belt to elongate or contract and create a
relative motion between the belt and the pulley surface. This relative motion
between the belt and the pulley surface is created due to the phenomena known
as elastic creep.
The belt always has an initial tension when installed over the pulleys. This initial
tension is same throughout the belt length when there is no motion. During
rotation of the drive, tight side tension is higher than the initial tension and slack
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side tension is lower than the initial tension. When the belt enters the driving
pulley it is elongated and while it leaves the pulley it contracts. Hence, the driving
pulley receives a larger length of belt than it delivers. The average belt velocity
on the driving pulley is slightly lower than the speed of the pulley surface. On the
other hand, driven pulley receives a shorter belt length than it delivers. The
average belt velocity on the driven pulley is slightly higher than the speed of the
pulley surface.
Let us determine the magnitude of the initial tension in the belt.
Tight side elongation (T1 T i )
Slack side contraction (T i T 2 )
Where, Ti is the initial belt tension .
Since, belt length remains the same, ie, the elongation is same as the
contraction,

Ti =

T1 + T2
2

(13.1.11)
It is to be noted that with the increase in initial tension power transmission can be
increased. If initial tension is gradually increased then T1 will also increase and at
the same time T 2 will decrease. Thus, if it happens that T 2 is equal to zero, then
T1 = 2Ti and one can achieve maximum power transmission.

13.1.8 Velocity ratio of belt drive

Velocity ratio of belt drive is defined as,
N L dS + t
=
(1 s )
NS dL + t

(13.1.12)
where,
NL and NS are the rotational speeds of the large and the small pulley
respectively, s is the belt slip and t is the belt thickness.

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13.1.9 Power transmission of belt drive

Power transmission of a belt drive is expressed as,
P = ( T1 T2 )v

(13.1.13)
where,

P is the power transmission in Watt and v is the belt velocity in m/s.

Sample problem
A pump is driven by an electric motor through a open type flat belt drive.
Determine the belt specifications for the following data.
Motor pulley diameter(dS) = 300 mm, Pump pulley diameter(dL) = 600 mm
Coefficient of friction (S) for motor pulley = 0.25
Coefficient of friction (L) for pump pulley = 0.20
Center distance between the pulleys=1000 mm; Rotational speed of the
motor=1440 rpm;
Power transmission = 20kW; density of belt material ()= 1000 kg/m3 ; allowable
stress for the belt material () = 2 MPa; thickness of the belt = 5mm.
Solution

D e te r m in a tio n o f a n g le o f w r a p
d ds
= s in 1 ( L
) = 8 .6 3 0
2C
L = 1 8 0 + 2 = 1 9 7 .2 5 0 = 3 .4 4 r a d

= 1 8 0 2 = 1 6 2 .7 5 0 = 2 .8 4 r a d

L e n g th o f o p e n b e lt
Lo =
=

(d L

+ d

(6 0 0

)+

+ 300

2C +

)+

1
4C

2000 +

(d L

1
4000

(6 0 0

300

= 3436m m

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300 1440

= 22.62 m / s
60 1000
b
5
m = bt = 3 3 10 3 = 0.005kg / m
10 10
2
mv = 2.56 b N
Now,
s s = 0.25 2.84 = 0.71

L L = 0.20 3.44 = 0.688

l arg er pulley governs the design
T1 2.56b
= e0.688 = 1.99.........................( 1 )
T2 2.56b
power equation
P = ( T1 T2 ) v

putting data,
( T1 T2 ) = 884.17 N

................................( 2 )

again,T1 = 2 b 5N

= 10bN ( from permissible stress )................( 3 )

From ( 1 ),( 2 ) and ( 3 ), solving for b,
b 240 mm
Hence,the required belt dim ensions are,
Length = 3436mm; breadth = 240mm and thickness = 5mm

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Questions and answers

Q1. What are the advantages of a belt drive?
A1. The advantages of a belt drive are that, it can absorb a good amount of
shock and vibration. It can take care of some degree of misalignment
between the driven and the driver machines and long distance power
transmission, in comparison to other transmission systems, is possible.
Q2. Why the slack side of the belt of a horizontal belt drive is preferable to place
on the top side?
A2. The slack side of the belt is preferably placed on the top side because, the
slack side of the belt, due to its self weight, will sag. For this reason the
angle of contact between the belt and the pulleys will increase. However,
the tight side will not sag to that extent. Hence, the net effect will be an
increase in the angle of contact or angle of wrap. Thus, due to the increase
in angle of contact, the power transmission capacity of the drive system will
increase.
Q3. Which one should be the governing pulley to calculate tension ratio?
A3.

The pulley, driven or driver, for which the product, of equation for belt
tension is the least, should be considered to determine the tension ratio.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited,
6th Edition, 1991.
4. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
5. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.

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Module
13
Belt drives
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Lesson
2
Design of Flat Belt
drives
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Features of flat belt drives

Flat belt materials
Flat belt stresses and its specifications
Types of design factors
A sample design procedure.

13.2.1 Flat belt drives

Flat belts drives can be used for large amount of power transmission and there is
no upper limit of distance between the two pulleys. Belt conveyer system is one
such example. These drives are efficient at high speeds and they offer quite
running. A typical flat belt drive with idler pulley is shown in Fig. 13.2.1. Idler
pulleys are used to guide a flat belt in various manners, but do not contribute to
power transmission. A view of the flat belt cross section is also shown in the
figure.
Idler pulley
b
t
Flat belt cross-section

C
Fig.13.2.1 Belt drive with idler
The flat belts are marketed in the form of coils. Flat belts are available for a wide
range of width, thickness, weight and material. Depending upon the requirement
one has to cut the required belt length from the coil and join the ends together.
The fixing of the joint must be done properly because the belt normally gets
snapped from the improper joints. The best way is to use a cemented belt from
the factory itself or with care one can join these belts with various types of clips
that are available in the market.

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13.2.2 Belt Material

Leather
Oak tanned or chrome tanned.
Rubber
Canvas or cotton duck impregnated with rubber. For greater tensile strength, the
rubber belts are reinforced with steel cords or nylon cords.
Plastics
Thin plastic sheets with rubber layers
Fabric
Canvas or woven cotton ducks
The belt thickness can be built up with a number of layers. The number of layers
is known as ply.
The belt material is chosen depending on the use and application. Leather oak
tanned belts and rubber belts are the most commonly used but the plastic belts
have a very good strength almost twice the strength of leather belt. Fabric belts
are used for temporary or short period operations.

13.2.3 Typical Belt drive specifications

Belts are specified on the following parameters
Material
The decision of the material to be used depends on the type of service.
No. of ply and Thickness
Ply is the number of layers as indicated earlier. Therefore, the number of ply is
decided depending upon the belt tensile strength required for a given power
transmission.
Maximum belt stress per unit width
The belts are subjected to tensile load only. Therefore, the allowable tensile load
depends on the allowable stress on the belt and its cross sectional area. It is
customary to provide the belt stress value for a given belt thickness and per unit
belt width. Hence, a designer has to select a belt thickness and then calculate
the required belt width. Otherwise, one can calculate the belt cross sectional area
and then adjust the belt thickness and the width from the standards.

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The maximum belt stress is also dependent on the belt speed. Hence, the
maximum belt stress (for a given belt thickness and per unit belt width) is
provided either for different belt speeds or for a specified speed.
Density of Belt material
Density of Belt material is provided as, per unit length per unit cross section.
Density of Belt material is required to calculate the centrifugal force on the belt.
Coefficient of friction of the belt material
Coefficient of friction for a pair of belt material and pulley material is provided in
design data book.

13.2.4 Modification of Belt stress

When Maximum belt stress/ unit width is given for a specified speed, a speed
correction factor ( CSPD ) is required to modify the belt stress when the drive is
operating at a speed other than the specified one.
When angle of wrap is less than 1800 :
The maximum stress values are given for an angle of wrap is 180 for both the
pulleys, ie, pulleys are of same diameter. Reduction of belt stress is to be
considered for angle of wrap less than 180. . The belt stress is to be reduced by
3% for each ten degree lesser angle of wrap or as specified in a handbook. For
e.g., if the angle of wrap is 160 , then the belt stress is to be reduced by 6%.
This factor is given as CW.

13.2.5 Design considerations for flat belt drives

Transmission ratio of flat belt drives is normally limited to 1:5
Centre distance is dependent on the available space. In the case of flat belt
drives there is not much limitation of centre distance. Generally the centre
distance is taken as more than twice the sum of the pulley diameters. If the
centre distance is too small then rapid flexing of the belt takes place and some
amount of belt life will be lost.
Depending on the driving and driven shaft speeds, pulley diameters are to be
calculated and selected from available standard sizes.
Belt speed is recommended to be within 15-25 m/s.
A belt drive is designed based on the design power, which is the modified
required power. The modification factor is called the service factor. The service

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factor depends on hours of running, type of shock load expected and nature of
duty.
Hence,
Design Power (P
(13.2.1)

dcs)

= service factor (C

sev

)* Required Power (P)

Csev = 1.1 to 1.8 for light to heavy shock.

From the basic equations for belt drive, it can be shown that,

Pdes = bt ' v 2 1
e

(13.2.2)
where,

= max CSPD CW

Finally, the calculated belt length is normally kept 1% short to account for correct
initial tension.

Sample Problem
Design a flat belt drive for the following data:
Drive: AC motor, operating speed is 1440 rpm and operates for over 10 hours. The
equipment driven is a compressor, which runs at 900 rpm and the required power
transmission is 20 kW.
Solution
Let us consider the belt speed to be 20 m/s, which is within the recommended range.
The given speed ratio = 1440/900 =1.6
Let the belt material be leather, which is quite common.

Now,

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d s 1440
60 1000
dS = 265.3 mm
20 =

d L = 1.6 265.3 = 424.5mm

From the standard sizes available, dS=280 mm and dL= 450 mm.
Recalculated speed ratio.

d L 450
=
= 1.607 1.61
dS 280
Therefore, the choice of both the pulley diameters is acceptable.

Center dis tan ce, C > 2(d L + d L )

C > 1460mm
Hence, let C 1500 mm ( it is assumed that space is available )
Considering an open belt drive, the belt length,

=
2
=

(d L

+ dS

(4 5 0

)+

+ 280

2C +

)+

1
4C

3000 +

(d L

dS

1
6000

(4 5 0

280

4151m m

As a guideline, to take into consideration the initial tension, the belt length is
shortened by 1%. Hence, the required belt length,
LO = 4110 mm.

D e te r m in a tio n o f a n g le o f w ra p
d ds
= s in 1 ( L
) = 3 .2 5 0
2C
L = 1 8 0 + 2 = 1 8 6 .5 0 = 3 .2 6 ra d

= 1 8 0 2 = 1 7 3 .5 0 = 3 .0 3 r a d

For the leather belt, the co-efficient of friction, may be taken as 0.4.
In this design, both the pulley materials are assumed to be the same, hence,
angle of wrap for the smaller pulley being lower, smaller pulley governs the
design and the angle of wrap is 3.03 radian.

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Design power, Pdes = service factor (Csev ) required power (P)

= 1.3 20 kW = 26 kW
The value 1.3 is selected from design data book for the given service condition.
For the design stress in the belt, = max CSPD CW
However, design stress, , for leather belt may be considered as 2 MPa.
Similarly, density of leather belt is 1000 kg/m3.

Pdes = bt ' v 2 1 v
e
103 202
1
26103 = bt(2
)(1
) 20
6
10
3.36
bt = 1156.78 mm 2

Let us choose standard belt thickness, t =6.5 mm

Therefore standard belt width, b = 180mm
A leather belt of 6.5 mm thickness, 180 mm width and 4110 mm length will
satisfy the design conditions.

Questions and answers

Q1. Name some of the common flat belt materials.
A1. Leather, rubber, plastics and fabrics are some of the common flat belt
materials.
Q2. What is the correction factors used to modify belt maximum stress?
A2.

Correction factor for speed and angle of wrap are used to modify the belt
maximum stress. This correction is required because stress value is given
for a specified drive speed and angle of wrap of 1800. Therefore, when a
drive has different speed than the specified and angle of wrap is also
different from 1800 , then above mentioned corrections are required.

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Q3. What is the recommended center distance and belt speed for a flat belt
drive?
A3. The recommendations are; the center distance should be greater than twice
the sum of pulley diameters and the belt speed range should be within 1525 m/s.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited,
6th Edition, 1991.
4. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
5. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.

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Module
13
Belt drives
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Lesson
3
Design of V- Belt drives
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Features of V-belt drives

Nomenclature of V-belt, types of V-belt section and its power rating
Selection procedure of V-belt

13.3.1 V - Belt Drives

Among flexible machine elements, perhaps V-belt drives have widest industrial
application. These belts have trapezoidal cross section and do not have any
joints. Therefore, these belts are manufactured only for certain standard lengths.
To accommodate these belts the pulleys have V shaped grooves which makes
them relatively costlier. Multiple groove pulleys are available to accommodate
number of belts, when large power transmission is required. V-belt drives are
most recommended for shorter center distances. In comparison to flat belt drives,
these drives are slightly less efficient. V belt can have transmission ratio up to
1:15 and belt slip is very small. As the belts are endless type, V-belt drives do not
suffer from any joint failure and are quiet in operation. V-belts constitute fabric
and cords of cotton, nylon etc. and impregnated with rubber.

13.3.2 Nomenclature of V-belt

A typical V-belt section is
shown in Fig.13.3.1. The
geometrical features of the belt
section are indicated in the
figure. The pitch line, which is
also marked as N-A, is the
neutral axis of the belt section.
The design calculations for Vbelt drives are based on the
pitch line or the neutral axis.
These belts are available in
various sections depending
upon power rating.

width

A
wedge angle ()

thickness

pitch line

inside line
Fig. 13.3.1

13.3.3 Standard V-belt sections

The standard V-belt sections are A, B, C, D and E. The table below contains
design parameters for all the sections of V-belt. The kW rating given for a

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particular section indicates that, belt section selection depends solely on the
power transmission required, irrespective of number of belts. If the required
power transmission falls in the overlapping zone, then one has to justify the
selection from the economic view point also.
Section

kW range

A
B
C
D
E

0.4 - 4
1.5 -15
10 -70
35-150
70-260

Minimum pulley pitch

diameter (mm)
125
200
300
500
630

Width
(mm)
13
17
22
32
38

Thickness
(mm)
8
11
14
19
23

As for example, a single belt of B section may be sufficient to transmit the power,
instead of two belts of A section. This may increase the cost as well as weight of
the pulley, as two- grooved pulley is required. In general, it is better to choose
that section for which the required power transmission falls in the lower side of
the given range.
Another restriction of choice of belt section arises from the view point of minimum
pulley diameter. If a belt of higher thickness (higher section) is used with a
relatively smaller pulley, then the bending stress on the belt will increase, thereby
shortening the belt life.

13.3.4 Designation of V belt

It has been mentioned that, the calculations for V-belt drives are based on pitch
diameter. However, V-belts are designated with nominal inside length (this is
easily measurable compared to pitch length). Therefore, to arrive at the inside
length, the following relationship is useful.
Inside

length

X=Pitch

Length

(13.3.1)

X (mm)

Value Of X
A
B
C
36
43
56

D
79

For example, a B- section belt with nominal inside length of 1016 mm or 40

inches (nearest value obtained from belt catalogue) is required for a V-belt drive.
Then this belt is designated as,
B 1016/40
(mm)

(inches)
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13.3.5 V- belt Equation

V-belts have additional friction grip due to the presence of wedge. Therefore,
modification is needed in the equation for belt tension. The equation is modified
as,

/ sin
T1 mv 2
2
=e
T2 mv 2

(13.3.2)
Where is the belt wedge angle

13.3.6 V-belt power rating

Each type of belt section has a power rating. The power rating is given for
different pitch diameter of the pulley and different pulley speeds for an angle of
wrap of 180. A typical nature of the chart is shown below. Here, for example, for
pitch diameter of D1 , power rating of the A section belt is kW1, kW2 , kW3 , kW4
for belt speeds of N1 ,N2 ,N3 ,N4 respectively. Similar tables are available for the
belts of other sections.
Belt
Section
A

kW rating of V-belts for different belt speeds ( =180)

Pitch Diameter N1
N2
N3
N4
D1
D2
D3

kW1

kW2

kW3

kW4

13.3.7 V belt design factors

Service Factor
A belt drive is designed based on the design power, which is the modified
required power. The modification factor is called the service factor. The service
factor depends on hours of running, type of shock load expected and nature of
duty.

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Hence,
Design Power (P
(13.3.3)

dcs)

= service factor (C

sev

)* Required Power (P)

Csev = 1.1 to 1.8 for light to heavy shock.

Modification of kW rating
Power rating of a typical V-belt section requires modification, since, the ratings
are given for the conditions other than operating conditions. The factors are as
follows,
Equivalent smaller pulley diameter
In a belt drive, both the pulleys are not identical, hence to consider severity of
flexing, equivalent smaller pulley diameter is calculated based on speed ratio.
The power rating of V-belt is then estimated based on the equivalent smaller
pulley diameter ( dES ).

d ES = CSR dS
(13.3.4)
where, CSR is a factor dependent on the speed ratio.

Angle of wrap correction factor

The power rating of V-belts are based on angle of wrap, =1800 . Hence, Angle
of wrap correction factor ( Cvw ) is incorporated when is not equal to 180 .
Belt length correction factor
There is an optimum belt length for which the power rating of a V-belt is given.
Let, the belt length be small then, in a given time it is stressed more than that for
the optimum belt length. Depending upon the amount of flexing in the belt in a
given time a belt length correction factor (CvL) is used in modifying power rating.
Therefore, incorporating the correction factors,
Modified power rating of a belt (kW )
=

Power

rating

of

belt

(13.3.5)

kW)

Cvw

Cvl

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13.3.8 Selection of V- belt

The transmission ratio of V belt drive is chosen within a range of 1:15
Depending on the power to be transmitted a convenient V-belt section is
selected.
The belt speed of a V-belt drive should be around 20m/s to 25 m/s, but should
not exceed 30 m/s.
From the speed ratio, and chosen belt speed, pulley diameters are to be selected
from the standard sizes available.
Depending on available space the center distance is selected, however, as a
guideline,
dL < C < 3(dL + dS )
(13.3.5)
The belt pitch length can be calculated if C, dL and dS are known. Corresponding
inside length then can be obtained from the given belt geometry. Nearest
standard length, selected from the design table, is the required belt length.
From section (13.3.7) above, the design power and modified power rating of a
belt can be obtained. Therefore,

Number of belts =

Design Power
Modified power rating of the belt

(13.3.6)
Sample Problem
Design a flat belt drive for the following data:
Drive: AC motor, operating speed is 1440 rpm and operates for over 10 hours. The
equipment driven is a compressor, which runs at 900 rpm and the required power
transmission is 20 kW.

Solution
Since it is a V belt drive, let us consider belt speed, v = 25 m/sec.

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Design power, Pdes = service factor (Csev ) required power (P)

= 1.3 20 kW = 26 kW
The value 1.3 is selected from design data book for the given service condition.
Hence, obvious choice for belt section is C
Now,
d s 1440
60 1000
dS = 331.6 mm
25 =

d L = 1.6 331.6 = 530.6mm

standard sizes are,

dS=315 mm and dL=530 mm
dS=355 mm and dL = 560 mm.
First combination gives the speed ratio to be 1.68
Second combination gives the speed ratio to be 1.58.
So, it is better to choose the second combination because it is very near to the
given speed ratio.
Therefore, selected pulley diameters are dS=355 mm and dL= 560 mm.
Center distance, C should be such that,

dL < C < 3(dL + dS )

Let us consider, C = 1500 mm, this value satisfies the above condition.
Considering an open belt drive, the belt length,

1
2
Lo =
(d L + d S ) + 2 C +
(d L d S )
2
4C

1
2
=
(5 6 0 + 3 5 5 ) + 3 0 0 0 +
(5 6 0 3 5 5 ) 4 4 4 4 m m
2
6000
Inside length of belt = 4444 56 = 4388 mm

from (13.3.1)

The nearest value of belt length for C-section is 4394 mm

book)

(from design data

Therefore, the belt designation is C: 4394/173

Power rating (kW) of one C-section belt
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Equivalent small pulley diameter is,

d ES = CSR d S = 355 1.12 = 398 mm

CSR = 1.12 is obtained from the hand book
For the belt speed of 25 m/sec, the given power rating (kW) = 12.1 kW
For the obtained belt length, the length correction factor Cvl=1.04
D e te r m in a tio n o f a n g le o f w ra p

d s
) = 3 .9 2 0
2C
= 1 8 0 + 2 = 1 8 7 .8 4 0 = 3 .2 8 ra d

= 1 8 0 2 = 1 7 2 .1 6

= s in

= 3 .0 0 r a d

For the angle of wrap of 3.00 radian (smaller pulley), the angle of wrap factor, Cvw
is found to 0.98.for a C section belt.
Therefore, incorporating the correction factors,
Modified power rating of a belt (kW ) = Power rating of a belt (kW) x Cvw x Cvl
= 12.1 x 0.98 x 1.04 = 12.33 kW

Number of belts =

26
= 2.1 2
12.33

2 numbers of C 4394/173 belts are required for the transmission of 20 kW .

Questions and answers

Q1. How a V-belt section is selected?
A1. From the given table, depending upon the required power transmission, a
belt section is chosen. However, the smaller pulley diameter should be less
than the pulley diameter as mentioned for the chosen belt section.
Q2. Why angle of wrap correction factor and belt length correction factor
is required to modify power rating of a belt?
0
A2. The power rating of V-belts are based on angle of wrap, =180 . Hence, for
any angle of wrap, other than 180 , a correction factor is required. Similarly,
if the belt length is different from optimum belt length for which the power
rating is given, then belt length correction factor is used, because, amount
of flexing in the belt in a given time is different from that in optimum belt
length.

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Q3. How a V-belt is designated?

A3. Let a V-belt of section A has inside length of 3012 mm. Then its designation
will be A 3012/118. Where, 118 is the corresponding length in inches.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.
2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited,
6th Edition, 1991.
4. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
5. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.

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Module
14
Brief overview of
bearings
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Lesson
1
Fluid Film bearings
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:
Types of bearings
Comparison of bearing friction characteristics
Basics of hydrodynamic theory of lubrication
Design methods for journal bearings

14.1.1 Brief overview of bearings

Bearings are broadly categorized into two types, fluid film and rolling contact
type.
Fluid Film bearings
In fluid film bearing the entire load of the shaft is carried by a thin film of fluid
present between the rotating and non-rotating elements. The types of fluid film
bearings are as follows,
Sliding contact type
Journal bearing
Thrust bearing
Slider bearing
Rolling contact bearings
In rolling contact bearings, the rotating shaft load is carried by a series of balls or
rollers placed between rotating and non-rotating elements. The rolling contact
type bearings are of two types, namely,
Ball bearing
Roller bearing

14.1.2 Comparison of bearing frictions

The Fig. 14.1.1 shows a plot of Friction vs. Shaft speed for three bearings. It is
observed that for the lower shaft speeds the journal bearing have more friction
than roller and ball bearing and ball bearing friction being the lowest. For this
reason, the ball bearings and roller bearings are also called as anti friction
bearings. However, with the increase of shaft speed the friction in the ball and
roller bearing phenomenally increases but the journal bearing friction is relatively
lower than both of them. Hence, it is advantageous to use ball bearing and roller

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Friction

bearing at low speeds. Journal bearings are mostly suited for high speeds and
high loads.

Journal bearing

Roller bearing
Ball bearing
Shaft speed
Fig. 14.1.1 Comparison of friction for different bearings
The ball and roller bearings require less axial space but more diametrical space
during installation and low maintenance cost compared to journal bearings. Ball
bearings and roller bearing are relatively costly compared to a journal bearing.
The reliability of journal bearing is more compared to that of ball and roller
bearings.
Here, we will discuss only about journal, ball and roller bearings, being most
commonly used in design.

14.1.3 Journal Bearing

Rest

Low speed

High speed

Pressure profile

Fig. 14.1.2 Operation of Journal Bearing

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Fig. 14.1.2 describes the operation of a journal bearing. The black annulus
represents the bush and grey circle represents the shaft placed within an oil film
shown by the shaded region. The shaft, called journal, carries a load P on it. The
journal being smaller in diameter than the bush, it will always rotate with an
eccentricity.
When the journal is at rest, it is seen from the figure that due to bearing load P,
the journal is in contact with the bush at the lower most position and there is no
oil film between the bush and the journal. Now when the journal starts rotating,
then at low speed condition, with the load P acting, it has a tendency to shift to its
sides as shown in the figure. At this equilibrium position, the frictional force will
balance the component of bearing load. In order to achieve the equilibrium, the
journal orients itself with respect to the bush as shown in figure. The angle ,
shown for low speed condition, is the angle of friction. Normally at this condition
either a metal to metal contact or an almost negligible oil film thickness will
prevail. At the higher speed, the equilibrium position shifts and a continuous oil
film will be created as indicated in the third figure above. This continuous fluid
film has a converging zone, which is shown in the magnified view. It has been
established that due to presence of the converging zone or wedge, the fluid film
is capable of carrying huge load. If a wedge is taken in isolation, the pressure
profile generated due to wedge action will be as shown in the magnified view.
Hence, to build-up a positive pressure in a continuous fluid film, to support a
load, a converging zone is necessary. Moreover, simultaneous presence of the
converging and diverging zones ensures a fluid film continuity and flow of fluid.
The journal bearings operate as per the above stated principle.

The background of hydrodynamic theory of lubrication

Petroff (1883) carried out extensive experimental investigation and showed the
dependence of friction on viscosity of lubricant, load and dimensions of the
journal bearing. Tower (1883 and later) also conducted experimental
investigation on bearing friction and bearing film pressure.
The experimental investigations by Petroff and Tower form the background of the
hydrodynamic theory. Later on Osborne Reynolds conducted experiments and
published the findings in the form of present day hydrodynamic theory of
lubrication and the corresponding mathematical equation is known as Reynolds
equation.

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14.1.4 The Reynolds equation (simplified form)

h 3 p h 3 p U h

+
=
x 12 x z 12 z 2 x
(14.1.1)
where,
U : surface speed of the wedge, in x-direction
p : pressure at any point(x,z) in the film
: Absolute viscosity of the lubricant
h : film thickness, measured in y-direction
The left hand side of the equation represents
flow under the pressure gradient. The
corresponding right hand side represents a
pressure generation mechanism.
In this
equation it has been assumed that the lubricant
is incompressible and Newtonian. The wedge
shape, that was discussed earlier, is assumed
to be a straight profile as shown in Fig.14.1.3.
The bearing is very long in the Z direction and
the variation of pressure is in the X and Z
direction.

X
Z

Fig.14.1.3 The wedge

Let us have a look at the right hand term in details.

Y(w)
X(u)
Z(w)

u1 + u 2

x
2

1
2

v + v2
h + 1
2
y

h+ + h
t
t

squeeze film

compression

U h 1 U 1

+ h
+ Uh
2 x 2
x 2
x

Physical
wedge

(14.1.2)

(14.1.3)

stretch

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There are two moving surfaces 1 and 2 as indicated in Fig. 14.1.4. For 1 the
velocities are u1, v1 and w1 along the three coordinate axes X, Y and Z
respectively. For 2, similarly the velocities are u2, v2 and w2 respectively.
Equation (14.1.2) represents the full form of the right hand side of Reynolds
equation. For the purpose of explanation, partial derivative of only the first term of
equation (14.1.2) is written in equation (14.1.3). Here u1+ u2 have been replaced
by U.
The first term of (14.1.3),

U h
, represents a physical wedge. The second
2 x

1
U
is known as the stretch. All the three terms of (14.1.3) contribute
( h )
2
x
in pressure generation mechanism.

term

h
in equation (14.1.2) is called squeeze film; with respect to time
t
how the film thickness is changing is given by this term.

The term,

The last term, h

is the compressibility of the fluid with time and it is termed as

t

compression.
The simplified form of the Reynoldss equation, (14.1.1), has only the physical
U h
wedge term,
.
2 x

14.1.5 Design parameters of journal bearing

The first step for journal bearing design is determination of bearing pressure for
the given design parameters,
Operating conditions (temperature, speed and load)
Geometrical parameters ( length and diameter)
Type of lubricant ( viscosity)
The design parameters, mentioned above, are to be selected for initiation of the
design. The bearing pressure is known from the given load capacity and
preliminary choice of bearing dimensions. After the bearing pressure is
determined, a check for proper selection of design zone is required. The
selection of design zone is explained below.

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Selection of design zone

Coefficient of friction, f

Boundary lubrication
D

Hydrodynamic
lubrication

Design lower limit

B
Bearing characteristic number, N
p

Fig. 14.1.5 Results of test of friction ( McKee brothers )

The Fig. 14.1.5 shows the results of test of friction by McKee brothers. Figure
shows a plot of variation of coefficient of friction with bearing characteristic
number. Bearing characteristic number is defined as,
N
Bearing characteristic number =
p
It is a non-dimensional number, where is the viscosity, N is the speed of the
P
bearing and p is the pressure given by p = , d and l being diameter and length
dl
of the journal respectively.
The plot shows that from B with the increase in bearing characteristic number the
friction increases and from B to A with reduction in bearing characteristic number
the friction again increases. So B is the limit and the zone between A to B is
known as boundary lubrication or sometimes termed as imperfect lubrication.
Imperfect lubrication means that metal metal contact is possible or some form
of oiliness will be present. The portion from B to D is known as the hydrodynamic
lubrication .The calculated value of bearing characteristic number should be
somewhere in the zone of C to D. This zone is characterized as design zone.
For any operating point between C and D due to fluid friction certain amount of
temperature generation takes place. Due to the rise in temperature the viscosity
of the lubricant will decrease, thereby, the bearing characteristic number also
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decreases. Hence, the operating point will shift towards C, resulting in lowering of
the friction and the temperature. As a consequence, the viscosity will again
increase and will pull the bearing characteristic number towards the initial
operating point. Thus a self control phenomenon always exists. For this reason
the design zone is considered between C and D. The lower limit of design zone
is roughly five times the value at B. On the contrary, if the bearing characteristic
number decreases beyond B then friction goes on increasing and temperature
also increases and the operation becomes unstable.
Therefore, it is observed that, bearing characteristic number controls the design
of journal bearing and it is dependent of design parameters like, operating
conditions (temperature, speed and load), geometrical parameters ( length and
diameter) and viscosity of the lubricant.

14.1.6 Methods for journal bearing design

Broadly there are two methods for journal bearing design, they are,
First Method: developed by M. D. Hersey
Second Method: developed by A. A. Raimondi and J. Boyd
Method developed by M. D. Hersey
This method is based on dimensional analysis, applied to an infinitely long
bearing. Analysis incorporates a side-flow correction factor obtained from the
experiment of S. A. McKee and T. R. McKee (McKee Brothers).
McKee equation for coefficient of friction, for full bearing is given by,
Coefficient of friction, f = K1

N d
+ K2
p c

(14.1.4)
Where,
p:
L:
d:
N:
:
c :
K2 :

pressure on bearing (projected area) = Ld

length of bearing
diameter of journal
speed of the journal
absolute viscosity of the lubricant
difference bush and journal diameter
side-flow factor = 0.002 for (L/d) 0.75-2.8

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The constant K1 is dependent on the system of units. For example, K1 =

473
,
1010

when is in centipoise, p is in psi , N is in rpm and d and c in inches.

The steps to be followed are,
Basic design parameters are provided by the designer from the operating
conditions. These are,
Bearing load (P)
Journal diameter (d)
Journal speed (N)
Depending upon type of application, selected design parameters are obtained
from a design handbook, these are,
L/d ratio
Bearing pressure(p)
c/d ratio
Proper lubricant and an operating temperature
The heat generation in the bearing is given by,
H g = fPv where, v is the rubbing velocity

The heat dissipation is given by,

H d = KA(t b t a )
where,
A = projected bearing area
= heat dissipation coefficient
t b = bearing surface temperature
t a = temperature of the surrounding
Next steps are as follows,
N
should be within the design zone
p
Equation (14.1.7) is used to compute f
Heat generation and heat dissipation are computed to check for thermal
equilibrium.
Iteration with selected parameters is required if thermal equilibrium is not
established.
Value of

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Provision for external cooling is required if it is difficult to achieve thermal

equilibrium.
The method described here is relatively old. The second method is more popular
and is described below.
Method developed by A. A. Raimondi and J. Boyd
This method is based on hydrodynamic theory. The Reynolds equation (14.1.1)
does not have any general solution. Assuming no side flow, Sommerfeld (1904)
proposed a solution and defined a parameter, known as Sommerfeld number,
given as,
r 2 N
r
f =

c
c p
(14.1.5)
where,
= A functional relationship, for different types of bearings
r 2 N

c p

= Sommerfeld number, S (dimensionless)

The Sommerfeld number is helpful to the designers, because it includes design

parameters; bearing dimensions r and c , friction f , viscosity , speed of rotation
N and bearing pressure p. But it does not include the bearing arc. Therefore the
functional relationship can be obtained for bearings with different arcs, say 360
, 60 etc.
Raimondi and Boyd (1958) gave a methodology for computeraided solution of
Reynolds equation using an iterative technique. For L/d ratios of 1, 1:2 and 1:4
and for bearing angles of 3600 to 600 extensive design data are available.
Charts have been prepared by Raimondi and Boyd for various design
parameters, in dimensionless form, are plotted with respect to Sommerfeld
number.
All these charts are fo36
r 00 600
bearings.
The detailed work is given in A solution of finite journal bearing and its application
to analysis and design Part I, II and III, Trans ASLE, Vol. 1 No.1, Lubrication
Science and Technology, Pergamon, New York 1958, pp 159-202.
The design parameters which are given by Raimondi and Boyd are as follows,

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Design parameters

h0 c

:Minimumfilm thickness

: Coefficient of friction
(r c)f
Q (rcNL) :Flow
QS Q

:Flow ratio

p pmax

:Maximumfilmpressure ratio

p0 ,deg

:Ter minating position of film

h0 ,deg

:Minimumfilm thickness position

The above design parameters are

defined in the Fig. 14.1.6. The
pressure profile shown is only for the
positive part of the bearing where the
converging zone is present. Negative
part has not been shown because it is
not of use.

Fig.14.1.6 Nomenclature of a journal bearing

14.1.7 Materials for bearing

The common materials used for bearings are listed below.
Lead based babbits : around 85 % Lead; rest are tin, antimony and copper
(pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
Tin based babbits : around 90% tin; rest are copper, antimony and lead
(pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
Phosphor bronze : major composition copper; rest is tin, lead, phosphorus
(pressure rating not exceeding 14MPa)
Gun metal
: major composition copper; rest is tin and zinc
(pressure rating not exceeding 10MPa)

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Cast iron

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: pressure rating not exceeding 3.5 MPa

Other materials commonly used are, silver, carbon-graphite, teflon etc.

Questions and answers

Q1. Broadly, what are the types of bearings?
A1. Broadly bearings are of two types; Fluid Film bearings, where the entire
load of the shaft is carried by a thin film of fluid present between the rotating and
non-rotating elements and Rolling contact bearings, where the rotating shaft load
is carried by a series of balls or rollers placed between rotating and non-rotating
elements.
Q2. Highlight friction characteristics of bearings.
A2. For the lower shaft speeds the journal bearing have more friction than roller
and ball bearing and ball bearing friction being the lowest. However, with the
increase of shaft speed the friction in the ball and roller bearing phenomenally
increases but the journal bearing friction is relatively lower than both of them.
Q3. Can a block moving over a constant height fluid film carry load?
A3.
In this case the block can not carry any load. It can be shown
mathematically that a wedge shaped fluid film can only generate pressure,
thereby can withstand load.
Q4. What is Sommerfeld number? What importance it has in context of journal
bearing design?
r N
with usual notations. This
A4. Sommerfeld number is given by, S =
c p
number includes design parameters; bearing dimensions r and c , friction f ,
viscosity , speed of rotation N and bearing pressure p. Only it does not include
the bearing arc. Therefore for a given bearing arc, the Sommerfeld number
indicates the operational state of a fluid film bearing.
2

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References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.
3. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
5. Black P.H and Adams O.E, Machine design, McGraw Hill Publication, 3rd
Edition. 1982.

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Module
14
Brief overview of
bearings
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Lesson
2
Rolling contact bearings
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

About rolling contact bearings

Ball bearing and roller bearing
Basics definitions of design parameters of rolling contact bearings
Selection method for rolling contact bearings

14.2.1 Rolling contact bearing

Rolling contact bearings are also called anti-friction bearing due to its low friction
characteristics. These bearings are used for radial load, thrust load and
combination of thrust and radial load. These bearings are extensively used due
to its relatively lower price, being almost maintenance free and for its operational
ease. However, friction increases at high speeds for rolling contact bearings and
it may be noisy while running. These bearings are of two types,
Ball bearing and Roller bearing

14.2.2 Ball bearing

A typical ball bearing is shown the Fig.14.2.1. The figure shown on the right side,
with nomenclature, is the schematic representation of the actual bearing.

Steel
balls
Inner
diameter (d)
Outer
diameter (D)
Retainer

Fig.14.2.1 A typical ball bearing

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The bearing shown in the figure is called Single row deep groove ball bearing. It
is used to carry radial load but it can also take up considerable amount of axial
load. The retainer keeps the steel balls in position and the groove below the steel
balls is the inner ring and over it is the outer ring. The outer ring, called outer
race, is normally placed inside a bearing housing which is fixed, while the inner
race holds the rotating shaft. Therefore, a seat of diameter d and width B is
provided on the shaft to press fit the bearing. The arrangement for housing a
bearing is shown through a schematic diagram, Fig.14.2.2.

Bearing housing
Outer race
Inner race

Bearing seat

Rotating shaft

Bearing holder plate

Fixing bolts

Fig. 14.2.2 A typical arrangement for housing a bearing

Single row Angular Contact Ball

Bearing
The figure Fig.14.2.3 is a Single row
Angular Contact Ball Bearing. It is
mostly used for radial loads and
heavy axial loads.

Fig. 14.2.3

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Double Row Angular Contact Bearing

Double Row Angular Contact Bearing, shown

in
Fig.14.2.4, has two rows of balls.
Axial displacement of the shaft can be kept very
small even for axial loads of varying magnitude.

Fig. 14.2.4
Single thrust ball bearing
This Fig.14.2.5 shows a Single thrust ball
bearing. It is mostly used for unidirectional
axial load.

Fig. 14.2.5
Taper Roller Bearing

Fig. 14.2.6
A taper roller bearing and its nomenclature are shown in Fig.14.2.6 above. It is
generally used for simultaneous heavy radial load and heavy axial load. Roller
Fig. 14.2.3

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bearings has more contact area than a ball bearing, therefore, they are generally
used for heavier loads than the ball bearings.

Spherical Roller Bearing

A spherical roller bearing, shown in the
Fig.14.2.7, has self aligning property. It is
mainly used for heavy axial loads. However,
considerable amount of loads in either
direction can also be applied.

Fig. 14.2.7
Cylindrical Roller Bearing
For heavy radial load and high speed use,
cylindrical roller bearings, shown in the
Fig.14.2.8, are used. Within certain limit,
relative axial displacement of the shaft and
the bearing housing is permitted for this type
of bearings.

Fig. 14.2.8

14.2.3 Rolling contact bearing selection

Some of the important terminologies which are required for selection of rolling
contact bearing are given below.
Rating life:
Rating life is defined as the life of a group of apparently identical ball or roller
bearings, in number of revolutions or hours, rotating at a given speed, so that
90% of the bearings will complete or exceed before any indication of failure
occur.
Suppose we consider 100 apparently identical bearings. All the 100 bearings are
put onto a shaft rotating at a given speed while it is also acted upon by a load.
After some time, one after another, failure of bearings will be observed. When in
this process, the tenth bearing fails, then the number of revolutions or hours

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% of bearings in operation

lapsed is recorded. These figures recorded give the rating life of the bearings or
simply L10 life (10 % failure). Similarly, L50 means, 50 % of the bearings are
operational. It is known as median life. Fig.14.2.3
defines the life of rolling
contact bearings.

100
L10

L50 , Median life

50

Life of bearing

Fig. 14.2.9 Definition of life of rolling contact bearing

Bearing load
If two groups of identical bearings are tested under loads P1 and P2 for respective
lives of L1 and L2 , then,

(14.2.1)

L1 P2
=
L 2 P1

Where,
L : life in millions of revolution or life in hours
a : constant which is 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller bearings
Basic load rating
It is that load which a group of apparently identical bearings can withstand for a
rating life of one million revolutions.
Hence, in (15.3.66), if say, L1 is taken as one million then the corresponding load
is,

C = P(L)

1
a

(14.2.2)
Where, C is the basic or dynamic load rating

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Therefore, for a given load and a given life the value of C represents the load
carrying capacity of the bearing for one million revolutions. This value of C, for
the purpose of bearing selection, should be lower than that given in the
manufacturers catalogue. Normally the basic or the dynamic load rating as
prescribed in the manufacturers catalogue is a conservative value, therefore the
chances of failure of bearing is very less.
Equivalent radial load
The load rating of a bearing is given for radial loads only. Therefore, if a bearing
is subjected to both axial and radial load, then an equivalent radial load is
estimated as,

Pe = VPr

or

Pe = XVPr + YPa
(14.2.3)
Where,
Pe : Equivalent radial load
Pr :
Given radial load
Pa : Given axial load
V : Rotation factor (1.0, inner race rotating; 1.2, outer race rotating)
X : A radial factor
Y : An axial factor
The values of X and Y are found from the chart whose typical format and few
representative values are given below.

Pa
Co

0.021

0.21

0.110

0.30

0.560

0.44

Pa
e
Pr
X

The factor, Co is
the
bearing

Pa
e
Pr
Y

1.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.0

Y
0.56
2.15
0.56
1.45
0.56
1.00

obtained
catalogue.

from

14.2.4 The selection procedure

Depending on the shaft diameter and magnitude of radial and axial load a
suitable type of bearing is to be chosen from the manufacturers catalogue, either
a ball bearing or a roller bearing. The equivalent radial load is to be determined
from equation (14.2.3). If it is a tapered bearing then manufacturers catalogue is
to be consulted for the equation given for equivalent radial load. The value of

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dynamic load rating C is calculated for the given bearing life and equivalent radial
load. From the known value of C, a suitable bearing of size that conforms to the
shaft is to be chosen. However, some augmentation in the shaft size may be
required after a proper bearing is chosen.

Sample problem
A simply supported shaft, diameter 50mm, on bearing supports carries a load of
10kN at its center. The axial load on the bearings is 3kN. The shaft speed is
1440 rpm. Select a bearing for 1000 hours of operation.
Solution
The radial load Pr = 5 kN and axial load Pr = 3 kN. Hence, a single row deep
groove ball bearing may be chosen as radial load is predominant. This choice
has wide scope, considering need, cost, future changes etc.
Millions of revolution for the bearing, L10 =

60 1440 1000
= 86.4
106

For the selection of bearing, a manufacturers catalogue has been consulted.

The equivalent radial load on the bearing is given by,

Pe = XVPr + YPa
Here, V=1.0 (assuming inner race rotating)
From the catalogue, Co = 19.6 kN for 50mm inner diameter.

Pa
3.0
=
= 0.153 ,
CO 19.6

Therefore, value of e from the table (sample table is given in the text above) and
by linear interpolation = 0.327.
Pa 3
= = 0.6 > e . Hence, X and Y values are taken from fourth column of the
Pr 5
sample table. Here, X= 0.56 and Y= 1.356

Here,

Therefore, Pe = XVPr + YPa = 0.56 1.0 5.0 +1.356 3.0 = 6.867 kN

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1
3

1
3

basic load rating, C = P (L) = 6.867 (86.4) = 30.36 kN

Now, the table for single row deep groove ball bearing of series- 02 shows that
for a 50mm inner diameter, the value of C = 35.1 kN. Therefore, this bearing may
be selected safely for the given requirement without augmenting the shaft size. A
possible bearing could be SKF 6210.

Questions and answers

Q1. What is rating life of a rolling contact bearing?
A1. Rating life is defined as the life of a group of apparently identical ball or roller
bearings, in number of revolutions or hours, rotating at a given speed, so
that 90% of the bearings will complete or exceed before any indication of
failure occur.
Q2. What is basic load rating of a rolling contact bearing?
A2. It is that load which a group of apparently identical bearings can withstand
for a rating life of one million revolutions.
1

C = P(L) a

Where, C is the basic load rating and P and L are bearing operating load
and life respectively and a is a constant which is 3 for ball bearings and 10/3
for roller bearings.
Q3. Why determination of equivalent radial load is necessary?
A3.

The load rating of a bearing is given for radial loads only. Therefore, if a
bearing is subjected to both axial and radial loads, then equivalent radial
load estimation is required.

References
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw
Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited,
6th Edition, 1991.
3. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Sharma, C.S. and Purohit Kamalesh, Design of Machine Elements,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003.
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5. Black P.H and Adams O.E, Machine design, McGraw Hill Publication, 3rd
Edition. 1982.
6. SKF bearing design catalogue.

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Module
1
Fundamentals of
machine design
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Lesson
1
Design philosophy
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Basic concept of design in general.

Concept of machine design and their types.
Factors to be considered in machine design.

1.1.1Introduction
Design is essentially a decision-making process. If we have a problem, we need
to design a solution. In other words, to design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a
particular need and to create something with a physical reality. Consider for an
example, design of a chair. A number of factors need be considered first:
(a) The purpose for which the chair is to be designed such as whether it is to
be used as an easy chair, an office chair or to accompany a dining table.
(b) Whether the chair is to be designed for a grown up person or a child.
(c) Material for the chair, its strength and cost need to be determined.
(d) Finally, the aesthetics of the designed chair.
Almost everyone is involved in design, in one way or the other, in our daily lives
because problems are posed and they need to be solved.

1.1.2

Basic concept of machine design

Decision making comes in every stage of design. Consider two cars of different
makes. They may both be reasonable cars and serve the same purpose but the
designs are different. The designers consider different factors and come to
certain conclusions leading to an optimum design. Market survey gives an
indication of what people want. Existing norms play an important role. Once a
critical decision is made, the rest of the design features follow. For example,

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once we decide the engine capacity, the shape and size, then the subsequent
course of the design would follow. A bad decision leads to a bad design and a
bad product.
Design may be for different products and with the present specialization and
knowledge bank, we have a long list of design disciplines e.g. ship design,
building design, process design, bridge design, clothing or fashion design and so
on.
Here we are concerned with machine design. We now define a machine as a
combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions
which is used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. If it converts heat
into mechanical energy we then call it a heat engine. This is illustrated in figure1.1.2.1.

Q1
W = pdv

ANIMATE

Q2
1.1.2.1A- Conversion of heat to mechanical energy in a piston cylinder
arrangement.

In many cases however, the machines receive mechanical energy and modify it
so that a specific task is carried out, for example a hoist, a bicycle or a handwinch.
This modification or transformation of energy requires a number of machine
elements, some small and some large. Machine design involves primarily
designing these elements so that they may transmit the forces safely and
perform their task successfully. Consider the following simple mechanisms:
(a) Hand winch (b) Small press operated by a power screw..

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In each one of these mechanisms some useful work is being obtained with
certain combinations of a number of machine parts. Designing these
mechanisms would involve firstly designing these elements and then assembling
them in order.

CLIPPING
1.1.2.1V Introduction to machine design

1.1.3 Types of design

There may be several types of design such as
Adaptive design
This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or systems
adopted for a new application. Conveyor belts, control system of machines and
mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the examples where existing
design systems are adapted for a particular use.
Developmental design
Here we start with an existing design but finally a modified design is obtained. A
new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental design .
New design
This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing scientific
principles. No scientific invention is involved but requires creative thinking to
solve a problem. Examples of this type of design may include designing a small
vehicle for transportation of men and material on board a ship or in a desert.
Some research activity may be necessary.

1.1.4 Types of design based on methods

Rational design
This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and
thereby deciding their dimensions.

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Empirical design
This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and
experiments. For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or
the stresses induced cannot be determined exactly but experience shows that
the tightening force may be given by P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm
and P is the applied force in kg. There is no mathematical backing of this
equation but it is based on observations and experience.
Industrial design
These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey,
external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.

1.1.5 Factors to be considered in machine design

There are many factors to be considered while attacking a design problem. In
many cases these are a common sense approach to solving a problem. Some of
these factors are as follows:
(a) What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative
arrangement of the constituent elements.
(b) Material
(c) Forces on the elements
(d) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also
a major concern.
(e) The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly.
(f)

How will it operate?

(g) Reliability and safety aspects

(h) Inspectibility
(i)

Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.

What device or mechanism to be used- This is best judged by understanding

the problem thoroughly. Sometimes a particular function can be achieved by a
number of means or by using different mechanisms and the designer has to
decide which one is most effective under the circumstances. A rough design or

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layout diagram may be made to crystallize the thoughts regarding the relative
arrangement of the elements.
Material- This is a very important aspect of any design. A wrong choice of
material may lead to failure, over or undersized product or expensive items. The
choice of materials is thus dependent on suitable properties of the material for
each component, their suitability of fabrication or manufacture and the cost.
Load- The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and these
stresses must be determined accurately since these will be used in determining
the component size. Loading may be due to:
i) Energy transmission by a machine member.
ii) Dead weight.
iii) Inertial forces.
iv) Thermal effects.
v) Frictional forces.

In other ways loads may be classified as:

i) Static load- Does not change in magnitude and direction and normally
increases gradually to a steady value.
ii) Dynamic load- a) changes in magnitude- for e.g. traffic of varying weight
passing a bridge.
b) changes in direction- for e.g. load on piston rod of a
double acting cylinder.
The nature of these loads are shown in figure-1.1.5.1.

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Load

Time

Static load

Load

Load

Load

Time

Time

Time

Dynamic Loading
1.1.5.1F The nature of static and dynamic load
Vibration and shock loading are types of dynamic loading.
Size, shape, space requirements and weight- Preliminary analysis would give
an approximate size but if a standard element is to be chosen, the next larger
size must be taken. Shapes of standard elements are known but for nonstandard element, shapes and space requirements must depend on available
space in a particular machine assembly. A scale layout drawing is often useful to
arrive

at

an

initial

shape

and

size.

Weight is important depending on application. For example, an aircraft must

always be made light. This means that the material chosen must have the
required strength yet it must be light. Similar arguments apply to choice of
material for ships and there too light materials are to be chosen. Portable
equipment must be made light.

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Manufacture
Care must always be taken to ensure that the designed elements may be
manufactured with ease, within the available facilities and at low cost.
How will it operate
In the final stage of the design a designer must ensure that the machine may be
operated with ease. In many power operated machines it is simply a matter of
pressing a knob or switch to start the machine. However in many other cases, a
sequence of operations is to be specified. This sequence must not be
complicated and the operations should not require excessive force. Consider the
starting, accelerating and stopping a scooter or a car. With time tested design
considerations, the sequences have been made user-friendly and as in any other
product, these products too go through continuous innovation and development.

Reliability and safety

Reliability is an important factor in any design. A designed machine should work
effectively and reliably. The probability that an element or a machine will not fail
in use is called reliability. Reliability lies between 0 R< 1. To ensure this, every
detail should be examined. Possible overloading, wear of elements, excessive
heat generation and other such detrimental factors must be avoided. There is no
single answer for this but an overall safe design approach and care at every
stage of design would result in a reliable machine.
Safety has become a matter of paramount importance these days in
design. Machines must be designed to serve mankind, not to harm it. Industrial
regulations ensure that the manufacturer is liable for any damage or harm arising
out of a defective product. Use of a factor of safety only in design does not
ensure its overall reliability.

Maintenance, cost and aesthetics

Maintenance and safety are often interlinked. Good maintenance ensures good
running condition of machinery. Often a regular maintenance schedule is
maintained and a thorough check up of moving and loaded parts is carried out to

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avoid catastrophic failures. Low friction and wear is maintained by proper

lubrication. This is a major aspect of design since wherever there are moving
parts, friction and wear are inevitable. High friction leads to increased loss of
energy. Wear of machine parts leads to loss of material and premature failure.

Cost and aesthetics are essential considerations for product design. Cost is
essentially related to the choice of materials which in turn depends on the
stresses developed in a given condition. Although in many cases aesthetic
considerations are not essential aspects of machine design, ergonomic aspects
must be taken into considerations.

1.1.6Problems with Answers

Q.1: Define machine design.
A.1: A machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged to
work together as a whole to accomplish specific purposes. Machine design
involves designing the elements and arranging them optimally to obtain some
useful work.

Q.2: What is an adaptive design?

A.2: Adaptive design is based on an existing design adapted for a new system
or application, for example, design of a new model of passenger car.

Q.3: Suggest briefly the steps to be followed by a designer.

A.3: Machine design requires a thorough knowledge of engineering science in
its totality along with a clear decision making capability. Every designer follows
his own methodology based on experience and analysis. However, the main
steps to
be followed in general are :

Define the problem.

Make preliminary design decisions.

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Make design sketches.

Carry out design analysis and optimization.

Design the elements for strength and durability.

Prepare documentations to be followed for manufacture.

Q.4: Discuss factor of safety in view of the reliability in machine design.

A.4: Reliability of a designed machine is concerned with the proper functioning
of the elements and the machine as a whole so that the machine does not fail in
use within its designed life. There is no single answer to this and an
overall safe design approach at every stage of the design is needed. Use of
factor of safety in designing the elements is to optimize the design to avoid overdesign for reliability.

1.1.7Summary of this Lesson

The lesson essentially discusses the basic concept of design in general
leading to the concept of machine design which involves primarily
designing the elements. Different types of design and the factors to be
considered have been discussed in detail.

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Module

1
Fundamentals of
machine design
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Lesson
2
Engineering Materials
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should know

Properties and applications of common engineering materials.

Types and uses of ferrous metals such as cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
Types and uses of some common non-ferrous metals.
Types and uses of some non-metals.
Important mechanical properties of materials.

1.2.1 Introduction
Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its properties,
cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to have some
idea of the common engineering materials and their properties before learning
the details of design procedure. This topic is in the domain of material science or
metallurgy but some relevant discussions are necessary at this stage.
Common engineering materials are normally classified as metals and nonmetals. Metals may conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Important ferrous metals for the present purpose are:
(i) cast iron (ii) wrought iron (iii) steel.
Some of the important non-ferrous metals used in engineering design are:
(a) Light metal group such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and
manganese alloys.
(b) Copper based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn).
(c) White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals eg.
SnSb7Cu3, Sn60Sb11Pb, zinc etc.
Cast iron, wrought iron and steel will now be discussed under separate headings.

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1.2.2 Ferrous materials

Cast iron- It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle.
Carbon content may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present as free
carbon or iron carbide Fe3C. In general the types of cast iron are (a) grey cast
iron and (b) white cast iron (c) malleable cast iron (d) spheroidal or nodular cast
iron (e) austenitic cast iron (f) abrasion resistant cast iron.
(a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This type of
cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive strength. Graphite is an
excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily machinable but brittle. Some
examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15. The
numbers indicate ultimate tensile strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15%
silicon.
(b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron
carbide (Fe3C) which is hard and brittle. The presence of iron carbide
increases hardness and makes it difficult to machine. Consequently these
cast irons are abrasion resistant.
(c) Malleable cast iron- These are white cast irons rendered malleable by
annealing. These are tougher than grey cast iron and they can be twisted or
bent without fracture. They have excellent machining properties and are
inexpensive. Malleable cast iron are used for making parts where forging is
expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake supports. Depending on the
method of processing they may be designated as black heart BM32, BM30 or
white heart WM42, WM35 etc.
(d) Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron- In these cast irons graphite is
present in the form of spheres or nodules. They have high tensile strength
and good elongation properties. They are designated as, for example,
SG50/7, SG80/2 etc where the first number gives the tensile strength in MPa
and the second number indicates percentage elongation.
(e) Austenitic cast iron- Depending on the form of graphite present these cast
iron can be classified broadly under two headings:
Austenitic flake graphite iron designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2

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Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example,

ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages
of silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus etc. They may be produced by
adding alloying elements viz. nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and
manganese in sufficient quantities. These elements give more strength and
improved properties. They are used for making automobile parts such as
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, brake drums etc.
(f) Abrasion resistant cast iron- These are alloy cast iron and the alloying
elements render abrasion resistance. A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2
which indicates a tensile strength in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2%
chromium.

Wrought iron- This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of
99.5%. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small amount of silicon,
sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is tough, malleable and ductile and
can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however take sudden shock. Chains,
crane hooks, railway couplings and such other components may be made of this
iron.
Steel- This is by far the most important engineering material and there is an
enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of engineering requirements.
The present note is an introductory discussion of a vast topic.
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can be
less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart
hardness and strength. Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel
and (b) alloy steel.
(a)

Plain carbon steel- The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on
the carbon percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present
in more than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large
variety of plane carbon steel and they are designated as C01, C14, C45,
C70 and so on where the number indicates the carbon percentage.

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Following categorization of these steels is sometimes made for

convenience:
Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C
Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C
Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C
Detailed properties of these steels may be found in any standard handbook
but in general higher carbon percentage indicates higher strength.
(b)

Alloy steel- these are steels in which elements other than carbon are
added in sufficient quantities to impart desired properties, such as wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or magnetic properties. Chief
alloying elements added are usually nickel for strength and toughness,
chromium for hardness and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated
temperature, vanadium for tensile strength, manganese for high strength in
hot rolled and heat treated condition, silicon for high elastic limit, cobalt for
hardness and molybdenum for extra tensile strength. Some examples of
alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60, 30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 37Mn2. Stainless steel
is one such alloy steel that gives good corrosion resistance. One important
type of stainless steel is often described as 18/8 steel where chromium and
nickel percentages are 18 and 8 respectively. A typical designation of a
stainless steel is 15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon percentage is 0.15.

1.2.3 Specifications
A number of systems for grading steel exist in different countries.
The American system is usually termed as SAE ( Society of Automobile
Engineers) or AISI ( American Iron and Steel Industries) systems. For an
example, a steel denoted as SAE 1020 indicates 0.2% carbon and 13%
tungsten. In this system the first digit indicates the chief alloying material. Digits
1,2,3,4 and 7 refer to carbon, nickel, nickel/chromium, molybdenum and tungsten
respectively. More details may be seen in the standards. The second digit or
second and third digits give the percentage of the main alloying element and the
last two digits indicate the carbon percentage. This therefore explains that SAE

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71360 indicates an alloy steel with 0.6% carbon and the percentage of main
alloying material tungsten is 13.
In British system steels are designated by the letters En followed by a number
such as 1,216, 20 etc. Corresponding constituent elements can be seen from
the standards but in general En4 is equivalent to C25 steel, En6 is equivalent to
C30 steel and so on.

1.2.4 Non-ferrous metals

Metals containing elements other than iron as their chief constituents are usually
referred to as non-ferrous metals. There is a wide variety of non-metals in
practice. However, only a few exemplary ones are discussed below:
Aluminium- This is the white metal produced from Alumina. In its pure state it is
weak and soft but addition of small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si and Magnesium
makes it hard and strong. It is also corrosion resistant, low weight and non-toxic.
Duralumin- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% Mg and aluminium. It is
widely used in automobile and aircraft components.
Y-alloy- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni, 6% Si, Mg, Fe and the rest
is Al. It gives large strength at high temperature. It is used for aircraft engine
parts such as cylinder heads, piston etc.
Magnalium- This is an aluminium alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It also
contains 1.75% Cu. Due to its light weight and good strength it is used for
aircraft and automobile components.
Copper alloys
Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is soft,
malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The
following two important copper alloys are widely used in practice:
Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)- It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn upto 50% . As Zn
percentage increases, ductility increases upto ~37% of Zn beyond which the
ductility falls. This is shown in figure-1.2.4.1. Small amount of other elements viz.
lead or tin imparts other properties to brass. Lead gives good machining quality

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and tin imparts strength. Brass is highly corrosion resistant, easily machinable
and therefore a good bearing material.

ductility

37

Zn (%)

1.2.4.1F- Variation of ductility of brass with percentage of zinc.

Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-This is mainly a copper-tin alloy where tin percentage may
vary between 5 to 25. It provides hardness but tin content also oxidizes resulting
in brittleness. Deoxidizers such as Zn may be added. Gun metal is one such
alloy where 2% Zn is added as deoxidizing agent and typical compositions are
88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn. This is suitable for working in cold state. It was
originally made for casting guns but used now for boiler fittings, bushes, glands
and other such uses.

1.2.5 Non-metals
Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due to principally
their low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat and electricity. Though there are
many suitable non-metals, the following are important few from design point of
view:
Timber- This is a relatively low cost material and a bad conductor of heat and
electricity. It has also good elastic and frictional properties and is widely used in
foundry patterns and as water lubricated bearings.
Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and wear resistance.
It is widely used for belt drives, washers and such other applications.

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Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements, sealing,
vibration isolation and similar applications.
Plastics
These are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired shapes under
pressure with or without application of heat. These are now extensively used in
various industrial applications for their corrosion resistance, dimensional stability
and relatively low cost.
There are two main types of plastics:
(a) Thermosetting plastics- Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat
and pressure. It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure,
polymerisation takes place. This results in hardening of the material.
These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded again under heat and
pressure.

Some

examples

of

thermosetting

plastics

are

phenol

formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic

resins etc.
(b) Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application
of heat and pressure and no chemical change takes place. They remain
soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These
can be re-melted and remoulded by application of heat and pressure.
Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate (celluloid),
polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride

1.2.6

Mechanical

properties

of

( PVC) etc.

common

engineering

materials
The important properties from design point of view are:
(a) Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. All materials are
plastic to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild steel
and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic than rubber.

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(b) Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of material

when the stress level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic conditions
materials ideally deform without any increase in stress. A typical stressstrain diagram for an elastic-perfectly plastic material is shown in the
figure-1.2.6.1. Mises-Henky criterion gives a good starting point for
plasticity

analysis.

The

criterion

is

given

as ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = 2 2y , where 1, 2, 3 and y are the

2

three principal stresses at a point for any given loading and the stress at
the tensile yield point respectively. A typical example of plastic flow is the
indentation test where a spherical ball is pressed in a semi-infinite body
where 2a is the indentation diameter. In a simplified model we may write
that if

P
> p m plastic flow occurs where, pm is the flow pressure. This is
a 2

also shown in figure 1.2.6.1.

2a

1.2.6.1F- Stress-strain diagram of an elastic-perfectly plastic material and the

plastic indentation.

(c) Hardness- Property of the material that enables it to resist permanent

deformation, penetration, indentation etc. Size of indentations by various
types of indenters are the measure of hardness e.g. Brinnel hardness
test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness (diamond pyramid) test.
These tests give hardness numbers which are related to yield pressure
(MPa).

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(d) Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be drawn
out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs. The
percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area before rupture of
a test specimen is the measure of ductility. Normally if percentage
elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and if it is less than 5%
the material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminium, mild steel are typical
ductile materials.
(e) Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled into
thin sheets but it is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel,
wrought iron, copper and aluminium are some materials in order of
diminishing malleability.
(f)

Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little

deformation before fracture and failure occur suddenly without any
warning. Normally if the elongation is less than 5% the material is
considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics are typical brittle
materials.

(g) Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to resist
shock and impact by storing energy. The measure of resilience is the
strain energy absorbed per unit volume. For a rod of length L subjected
to tensile load P, a linear load-deflection plot is shown in figure-1.2.6.2.
Strain energy ( energy stored) =
Strain energy/unit volume =

1
1 P L
1
PL =
AL = V
2
2A L
2

1.2.6.2F- A linear load-deflection plot.

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(h) Toughness- This is the property which enables a material to be twisted,

bent or stretched under impact load or high stress before rupture. It may
be considered to be the ability of the material to absorb energy in the
plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount of energy
absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture.
(i)

Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long

period of time it undergoes a slow permanent deformation and this is
termed as creep. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at
elevated temperatures creep is high.

1.2.7Questions with Answers

Q.1: Classify common engineering materials.
A.1: Common engineering materials can be broadly classified into metals and
non-metals. Metals include ferrous and non-ferrous metal and the nonmetals include timber, leather, rubber and a large variety of polymers.
Among the ferrous metals different varieties of cast iron, wrought iron and
alloy steels are extensively used in industry. There are also a large variety of
timber, leather and polymers that are used in industry.
Q.2: What are the advantages of malleable cast iron over white or grey cast
iron?
A.2: Malleable cast iron are tougher than grey or white cast iron and can be
twisted or bent without fracture. They also have excellent machining
properties and are relatively inexpensive.
Q.3: A standard alloy steel used for making engineering components is 20Cr18
Ni2. State
the composition of the steel.
A.3: The composition of the steel is 0.2% carbon, 18% chromium and 2% nickel.
Q.4: How are plain carbon steel designated?

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A.4 Properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon percentage
and they are designated as C01, C45, C70 where carbon percentage is
represented in terms of the digits, for example C01 steel contains 0.01%
carbon.
Q.5: Name two important copper alloys and give their typical compositions.
A.5: Two most important copper alloys are bronze and brass. Bronze is a Cu-Sn
alloy with the typical composition of 88% Cu, 10% Sn and 2% Zn. Brass is a
Cu-Zn alloy with the typical composition of red brass of 85% Cu , 15% Zn.
Q.6: List at least five important non-metals commonly used in machine design.
A.6: Some important non-metals for industrial uses are:
Timber, leather, rubber, bakelite, nylon, polythene, polytetraflutoethylene
(PTFE).
Q.7: State atleast 5 important mechanical properties of materials to be
considered in machine design.
A.7: Some important properties of materials to be considered in design are:
Elastic limit, yield and ultimate strength, hardness and toughness.

Q.8: Define resilience and discuss its implication in the choice of materials in
machine design.
A.8: Resilience is defined as the property of a material that enables it to resist
shock and impact. The property is important in choosing materials for
machine parts subjected to shock loading, such as, fasteners, springs etc.

1.2.8 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson the properties and uses of different types of metals and nonmetals, generally used in machine design, are discussed. Primarily ferrous and
non-ferrous metals and some non-metals are discussed. Mechanical properties
of some common engineering materials are also discussed briefly.

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1.2.8 Reference for Module-1

1) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India,
1991.
2) Machine design-an integrated approach by Robert L. Norton,
Pearson Education Ltd.
3) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,
S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
4) A text book of machine design by R. S. Khurmi and J.K.Gupta,
S.Chand and company ltd., 1997.

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Module

2
Stresses in machine
elements
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Lesson

1
Simple stresses
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should have adequate knowledge of

Simple stresses in machine elements; tensile, compressive, bearing and

shear stresses.
Flexture formula and their limitations.
Torsion formula and its limitations.
Design of members subjected to combined bending, torsion and axial loading.
Buckling of beams.

2.1.1 Introduction
Stresses are developed in machine elements due to applied load and
machine design involves ensuring that the elements can sustain the induced
stresses without yielding. Consider a simple lever as shown in figure-2.1.1.1:
Hinge Pin

A
B

Spring
Stiffness

2.1.1.1F- A simple lever subjected to forces at the ends.

A proper design of the spring would ensure the necessary force P at the lever
end B. The stresses developed in sections AB and AC would decide the optimum
cross-section of the lever provided that the material has been chosen correctly.
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The design of the hinge depends on the stresses developed due to the reaction
forces at A. A closer look at the arrangement would reveal that the following
types of stresses are developed in different elements:
Lever arms AB and AC

Bending stresses

Hinge pin

Shear and bearing stresses.

Spring

Shear stress.

It is therefore important to understand the implications of these and other simple

stresses. Although it is more fundamental to consider the state of stress at a
point and stress distribution, in elementary design analysis simple average
stresses at critical cross-sections are considered to be sufficient. More
fundamental issues of stress distribution in design analysis will be discussed later
in this lecture.

2.1.2 Some basic issues of simple stresses

Tensile stress
The stress developed in the bar ( figure-2.1.2.1) subjected to tensile loading is
P
given by t =
A

2.1.2.1F- A prismatic bar subjected to tensile loading.

Compressive stress
The stress developed in the bar ( figure-2.1.2.2) subjected to compressive
loading is given by

c =

P
A
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P
2.1.2.2F- A prismatic bar subjected to compressive loading.

Here the force P is the resultant force acting normal to the cross-section A.
However, if we consider the stresses on an inclined cross-section B ( figure2.1.2.3) then the normal stress perpendicular to the section is

P cos
A / cos

and shear stress parallel to the section

P sin
A / cos

2.1.2.3F- Stresses developed at an inclined section of a bar subjected to tensile

loading.

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Bearing stress
When a body is pressed against another, the compressive stress developed is
termed bearing stress. For example, bearing stress developed at the contact
P
br =
between a pillar and ground (figure- 2.1.2.4a) is
, at the contact
A
surface between a pin and a member with a circular hole (figure- 2.1.2.4b)
is = P
and at the faces of a rectangular key fixing a gear hub on a shaft
br
Ld
4T
(figure- 2.1.2.4c) is br =
.
aLd
L

P
Gear

Pillar
a
a

Area of
cross-section

Key
d

Diameter, D

(a)

Shaft

(b)

(c)

2.1.2.4F- The bearing stresses developed in pillar and machine parts.

The pressure developed may be irregular in the above examples but the
expressions give the average values of the stresses.

Shear stress
When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stresses ( figure2.1.2.5) and the average values of the shear stresses are given by

P
A
P
=
2A

in single shear
in double shear

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Shear area A
P

2P

P P

2.1.2.5F- Stresses developed in single and double shear modes

In design problems, critical sections must be considered to find normal or shear

stresses. We consider a plate with holes under a tensile load (figure-2.1.2.6) to
explain the concept of critical sections.

H2

H2

H2
D

H1
A

2.1.2.6F- The concept of critical sections explained with the help of a loaded
plate with holes at selected locations.

Let the cross-sectional area of the plate, the larger hole H1 and the smaller holes
H2 be A, a1, a2 respectively. If 2a2 > a1 the critical section in the above example is
CC and the average normal stress at the critical section is
P
=
A 2a 2

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2.1.3 Bending of beams

2.1.3.1 Bending stresses
Consider two sections ab and cd in a beam subjected to a pure bending. Due to
bending the top layer is under compression and the bottom layer is under
tension. This is shown in figure-2.1.3.1.1. This means that in between the two
extreme layers there must be a layer which remains un-stretched and this layer is
known as neutral layer. Let this be denoted by NN.

a'

N'
c'

b'

d'

2.1.3.1.1F- Pure bending of beams

We consider that a plane section remains plane after bending- a basic

assumption in pure bending theory.
If the rotation of cd with respect to ab is d the contraction of a layer y distance
away from the neutral axis is given by ds=y d and original length of the layer is
x=R d, R being the radius of curvature of the beam. This gives the strain in the
layer as

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y
R

We also consider that the material obeys Hookes law = E. This is another
basic assumption in pure bending theory and substituting the expression for we
E
=
have
y R

Consider now a small element dA y distance away from the neutral axis. This is
shown in the figure 2.1.3.1.2
M

M
A
d
d

x N

N'
A'

dA

A'

Section AA'

max
2.1.3.1.2F- Bending stress developed at any cross-section
and considering the linearity in stress
Axial force on the element dFxx=dA
x yy
y we have where and
=
variation across the section
x
max are the
max d = d
max
stresses at distances y and
d respectively from the neutral axis.

max y
dA .
d
max
For static equilibrium total force at any cross-section F= d ydA = 0
A

The axial force on the element is thus given by dFx =

This gives ydA = yA = 0 and since A 0,y = 0 .This means that the neutral axis
A

passes through the centroid.

Again for static equilibrium total moment about NA must the applied moment M.
This is given by
y
Md
ydA = M and this givesmax =
max
d
I
A
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For any fibre at a distance of y from the centre line we may therefore write
My
=
I
We therefore have the general equation for pure bending as

M E
=
=
y
I R
2.1.3.2 Shear stress in bending
In an idealized situation of pure bending of beams, no shear stress occurs across
the section. However, in most realistic conditions shear stresses do occur in
beams under bending. This can be visualized if we consider the arguments
depicted in figure-2.1.3.2.1 and 2.1.3.2.2.

M1

No change in bending moment

along the length.

M2
A

Bending moment changes along

the length of the beam

ANIMATE
2.1.3.2.1F- Bending of beams with a steady and varying moment along its length.

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M+dM

dx
A

M+dM
A

1
3

2
4

F1
B

A beam element
ACDB of length dx

Stress distribution in the

section ACDB.

F2
1

Forces on the layer AC12

2.1.3.2.2F- Shear stress developed in a beam subjected to a moment varying

along the length
When bending moment changes along the beam length, layer AC12 for example,
would tend to slide against section 1243 and this is repeated in subsequent
layers. This would cause interplanar shear forces F1 and F2 at the faces A1 and
C2 and since the F = x dA force at any cross-section is given by , we may
A

write

F1 =

M
Q and F = ( M + dM ) Q
2
I
I

Here M and dM are the bending moment and its increment over the length dx
Q is the 1st moment of area about the neutral axis. Since
shear stress across the layers can be given by dM and = VQ shear force
dx
It
dF
is given by V = =
we may write
tdx

and

2.1.4 Torsion of circular members

A torque applied to a member causes shear stress. In order to establish a
relation between the torque and shear stress developed in a circular member, the
following assumptions are needed:

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1. Material is homogeneous and isotropic

2.

A plane section perpendicular to the axis of the circular member remains

plane even after twisting i.e. no warping.

3. Materials obey Hookes law.

Consider now a circular member subjected to a torque T as shown in figure

2.1.4.1

B
l

C
A

2.1.4.1F- A circular member of radius r and length L subjected to torque T.

The assumption of plane section remaining plane assumes no warping in a

circular member as shown in figure- 2.1.4.2

2.1.4.2F- Plane section remains plane- No warping.

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However, it has been observed experimentally that for non-circular members

warping occurs and the assumption of plane sections remaining plane does not
apply there. This is shown in figure-2.1.4.3.

2.1.4.3F-Warping during torsion of a non-circular member.

Let the point B on the circumference of the member move to point C during
twisting and let the angle of twist be . We may also assume that strain varies
linearly from the central axis. This gives

l = r and from Hooke 's law =

where is the shear stress developed and G is the modulus of rigidity. This gives

G
=
r
l
Consider now, an element of area dA at a radius r as shown in figure-2.1.4.4.
The torque on the element is given by T = rdA

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max

2.1.4.4F- Shear stress variation in a circular cross-section during torsion.

For linear variation of shear stress we have

max

r
R

Combining this with the torque equation we may write

T=
Now

r dA
2

max
R

r dA
2

may be identified as the polar moment of inertia J .

And this gives T =

max
J.
R

T
Therefore for any radius r we may write in general =
J r
We have thus the general torsion equation for circular shafts as
T G
= =
J r
l

2.1.5 Buckling
The compressive stress of P/A is applicable only to short members but for long
compression members there may be buckling, which is due to elastic instability.
The critical load for buckling of a column with different end fixing conditions is
given by Eulers formula ( figure-2.1.5.1)

Pcr = n

2 EI
l2

where E is the elastic modulus, I the second moment of area, l the column length
and n is a constant that depends on the end condition. For columns with both

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ends hinged n=1, columns with one end free and other end fixed n=0.25,
columns with one end fixed and other end hinged n=2, and for columns with both
ends fixed n=4.
P

Hinge

2.1.5.1F- Buckling of a beam hinged at both ends

2.1.6 Stress at a pointits implication in design

The state of stress at a point is given by nine stress components as shown in
figure 2.1.6.1 and this is represented by the general matrix as shown below.

yx
zx

xy
y
zy

xz

yz
z

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y
z

yx
yz

xy

xz
x

yz

yx
z

xz

xy

2.1.6.1F- Three dimensional stress field on an infinitesimal element.

Consider now a two dimensional stress element subjected only to shear

stresses. For equilibrium of a 2-D element we take moment of all the forces
about point A ( figure-2.1.6.2) and equate to zero as follows:

( xyyz ) x ( yx xz ) y = 0
yx
y

xy
A

xy

yx

2.1.6.2F- Complimentary shear stresses on a 2-D element.

This gives xy=yx indicating that xy and yx are complimentary. On similar
arguments we may write yz=zy and zx=xz . This means that the state of stress
at a point can be given by six stress components only. It is important to
understand the implication of this state of stress at a point in the design of
machine elements where all or some of the stresses discussed above may act.

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For an example, let us consider a cantilever beam of circular cross-section

subjected to a vertical loading P at the free end and an axial loading F in addition
to a torque T as shown in figure 2.1.6.3. Let the diameter of cross-section and
the length of the beam be d and L respectively.

L
A

T
B

2.1.6.3F- A cantilever beam subjected to bending, torsion and an axial loading.

The maximum stresses developed in the beam are :

Bending stress,B =
Axial stress,

A =

32PL
d 3
4F
d 2

Torsional shear stress, =

16T
d 3

It is now necessary to consider the most vulnerable section and element. Since
the axial and torsional shear stresses are constant through out the length, the
most vulnerable section is the built-up end. We now consider the three elements
A, B and C. There is no bending stress on the element B and the bending and
axial stresses on the element C act in the opposite direction. Therefore, for the
safe design of the beam we consider the stresses on the element A which is
shown in figure 2.1.6.4.

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B
A

2.1.6.4F- Stresses developed on element A in figure-2.1.6.3

Principal stresses and maximum shear stresses can now be obtained and using
a suitable failure theory a suitable diameter of the bar may be obtained.

2.1.7Problems with Answers

Q.1: What stresses are developed in the pin A for the bell crank mechanism
shown in the figure-2.1.7.1? Find the safe diameter of the pin if the
allowable tensile and shear stresses for the pin material are 350 MPa and
170 MPa respectively.

5 KN
100 mm
B
A

P
A

150 mm

2.1.7.1F

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A.1:
Force at B =

5x0.1
= 3.33KN
0.15

Resultant force at A=

52 + 3.332 kN = 6 kN.

Stresses developed in pin A:

(a) shear stress

Considering double shear at A, pin diameter d =

(b) bearing stress

2x6x103
m = 4.7 mm
x170x106

6x103
Considering bearing stress at A, pin diameter d =
m = 8mm
0.01x7.5x106

A safe pin diameter is 10 mm.

Q.2: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the bending equation?
A.2:
The basic assumptions in deriving bending equation are:
a) The beam is straight with a constant area of cross-section and is
symmetrical about the plane of bending.
b) Material is homogeneous and isotropic.
c) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane even after
bending.
d) Material obeys Hookes law
Q.3: Two cast iron machine parts of cross-sections shown in figure-2.1.7.2 are
subjected to bending moments. Which of the two sections can carry a
higher moment and determine the magnitude of the applied moments?

10

10

b=100 mm

h=100 mm
(a)

(b)

2.1.7.2F
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A.3:
Assuming that bending takes place about the horizontal axis, the 2nd
moment of areas of the two sections are:
3

b.b
Ia =
12

Ib = 2

b
2b

2 +2
36

b
2
2b

4
2 b 2 = b

2
3 12

Ia = Ib

Considering that the bending stress B is same for both the beams and
moments applied Ma and Mb, we have

B =

M a ya M b y b
=
Ia
Ib

Here, ya = 0.5b, yb = b/ 2 . Then M a = 2M b

Q.4: Under what condition transverse shear stresses are developed in a beam
subjected to a bending moment?
A.4:
Pure bending of beams is an idealized condition and in the most realistic
situation,bending moment would vary along the bending axis ( figure-2.1.7.3).

M2

M1

M1M2

2.1.7.3F
Under this condition transverse shear stresses would be developed in a
beam.

Q.5: Show how the transverse shear stress is distributed in a beam of solid
rectangular cross-section transmitting a vertical shear force.

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A.5:
Consider a beam with a rectangular cross-section (figure-2.1.7.4).
Consider now a
longitudinal cut through the beam at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis
isolating an area ABCD. An infinitesimal area within the isolated area at a
distance y from the neutral axis is then considered to find the first moment of
area Q.
t=b

A
h y1

Shear
stress
distribution

A simply supported beam with a

Enlarged view of the rectangular cross-section

Concentrated load at the centre.

2.1.7.4F

Horizontal shear stress at y, =

VQ V
= bydy
It
It y
1

This gives

V h2
2
y1 indicating a parabolic distribution of shear
2I 4

stress across the cross-section. Here, V is shear force, I is the second

moment of area of the beam cross-section, t is the beam width which is b
in this case.

Q.6: A 3m long cantilever beam of solid rectangular cross-section of 100mm

width and 150mm depth is subjected to an end loading P as shown in the
figure-2.1.7.5. If the allowable shear stress in the beam is 150 MPa, find
the safe value of P based on shear alone.

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100 mm

P
3m

150 mm

2.1.7.5F
A.6:
Maximum shear stress in a rectangular cross-section is max =

3V
2A

where, A is the cross-section area of the beam.

Substituting values we have max= 100P and for an allowable shear stress
of 150 MPa the safe value of P works out to be 1.5 MN.

Q.7: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the torsion equation for a
circular member?
A.7:
Basic assumptions in deriving the torsion formula are:
a) Material is homogenous and isotropic.
b) A plane section perpendicular to the axis remains plane even after the
torque is applied. This means there is no warpage.
c) In a circular member subjected to a torque, shear strain varies linearly
from the central axis.
d) Material obeys Hookes law.

Q.8: In a design problem it is necessary to replace a 2m long aluminium shaft of

100mm diameter by a tubular steel shaft of the same outside diameter
transmitting the same torque and having the same angle of twist. Find the
inner radius of the steel bar if GAl = 28GPa and GSt = 84GPa.

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A.8:
Since the torque transmitted and angle of twist are the same for both the
solid and hollow shafts, we may write from torsion formula

Al J Al = St JSt

and

Al G Al
=
St G St

where , J and G are shear stress, polar moment of inertia and modulus of
rigidity respectively. This gives
d 04 d i4 28
=
84
d 04

and with d 0 = 100 mm d i = 90.36 mm

Q.9: An axially loaded brass strut hinged at both ends is 1m long and is of a
square cross-section of sides 20mm. What should be the dimension of a
steel strut of the same length and subjected to the same axial loads?
A.9:
Considering that both the steel and brass strut would just avoid buckling,
we may write
2 E br I br 2 Est Ist
=
l2br
lst2

where the suffixes br and st represent brass and steel respectively.

Substituting values we have,

I br 200
=
Ist
90
and this gives sides of the square cross-section of beam strut to be 16.38 mm.

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Q.10: Show the stresses on the element at A in figure-2.1.7.6.

300 KN
4
3
25 mm
25mm

300 mm

500mm

20mm
A

50mm

50mm

2.1.7.6F
A.10:
The element A is subjected to a compressive stress due to the vertical
component 240 KN and a bending stress due to a moment caused by the
horizontalcomponent 180 KN.
Compressive stress, c =

240
= 48 MPa
0.05x0.1

Bending (tensile) stress, B =

(180x0.3) x0.03 = 388.8 MPa

Shear stress due to bending =

0.05x0.13

12

VQ
= 8.64 MPa
It

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48 MPa
8.64 MPa

388.8 MPa

2.1.8 Summary of this Lesson

It is important to analyse the stresses developed in machine parts and
design the components accordingly. In this lesson simple stresses such as
tensile, compressive, bearing, shear, bending and torsional shear stress
and buckling of beams have been discussed along with necessary
formulations. Methods of combining normal and shear stresses are also
discussed.

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Module

2
Stresses in machine
elements
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Lesson

2
Compound stresses in
machine parts
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to understand

Elements of force system at a beam section.

Superposition of axial and bending stresses.
Transformation of plane stresses; principal stresses
Combining normal and shear stresses.

2.2.1 Introduction
The elements of a force system acting at a section of a member are axial force,
shear force and bending moment and the formulae for these force systems were
derived based on the assumption that only a single force element is acting at the
section. Figure-2.2.1.1 shows a simply supported beam while figure-2.2.1.2
shows the forces and the moment acting at any cross-section X-X of the beam.
The force system can be given as:
Axial force

: =

P
A

Bending moment : =
Shearforce
Torque

My
I

: = VQ
It

T=

J
:
r

where, is the normal stress, the shear stress, P the normal load, A the crosssectional area, M the moment acting at section X-X, V the shear stress acting at
section X-X, Q the first moment of area, I the moment of inertia, t the width at
which transverse shear is calculated, J the polar moment of inertia and r the
radius of the circular cross-section.

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P1

P2

P3
X

2.2.1.1F- A simply supported beam with concentrated loads

2.2.1.2F- Force systems on section XX of figure-2.2.1.1

Combined effect of these elements at a section may be obtained by the method
of superposition provided that the following limitations are tolerated:
(a) Deformation is small (figure-2.2.1.3)

P
ANIMATE

2.2.1.3A- Small deflection of a simply supported beam with a concentrated

load
If the deflection is large, another additional moment of P would be
developed.
(b) Superposition of strains are more fundamental than stress superposition
and the principle applies to both elastic and inelastic cases.

2.2.2 Strain superposition due to combined effect of axial

force P and bending moment M.
Figure-2.2.2.1 shows the combined action of a tensile axial force and bending
moment on a beam with a circular cross-section. At any cross-section of the
beam, the axial force produces an axial strain a while the moment M causes a
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bending strain. If the applied moment causes upward bending such that the
strain at the upper most layer is compressive (-2) and that at the lower most
layer is tensile (+1), consequently the strains at the lowermost fibre are additive
(a+1) and the strains at the uppermost fibre are subtractive (a-2). This is
demonstrated in figure-2.2.2.1.

+a
M
F

-2

a-2
M

F
+

+1
Axial strain

Bending strain

a+1
Combined strain

2.2.2.1F- Superposition of strain due to axial loading and bending

moment.

2.2.3 Superposition of stresses due to axial force and

bending moment
In linear elasticity, stresses of same kind may be superposed in homogeneous
and isotropic materials. One such example (figure-2.2.3.1) is a simply supported
beam with a central vertical load P and an axial compressive load F. At any
4F
section a compressive stress of
and a bending stress of My
are
2
I
d
produced. Here d is the diameter of the circular bar, I the second moment of area
and the moment is PL
where the beam length is 2L. Total stresses at the
2
32M 4F
upper and lower most fibres in any beam cross-section are
+ 2 and
3
d
2d
4F
32M
2 respectively. This is illustrated in figure-2.2.3.2

3
d
2d

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F
L

2.2.3.1F- A simply supported beam with an axial and transverse loading.

A
F

Md
2I

F
+
A

M
F

Md
2I

2.2.3.2F- Combined stresses due to axial loading and bending moment.

2.2.4 Superposition of stresses due to axial force, bending

moment and torsion
Until now, we have been discussing the methods of compounding stresses of
same kind for example, axial and bending stresses both of which are normal
stresses. However, in many cases members on machine elements are subjected
to both normal and shear stresses, for example, a shaft subjected to torsion,
bending and axial force. This is shown in figure-2.2.4.1. A typical example of this
type of loading is seen in a ships propeller shafts. Figure-2.2.4.2 gives a
schematic view of a propulsion system. In such cases normal and shearing
stresses need to be compounded.

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F
Md

2I
A

F Md
+
A 2I

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P
F

2.2.4.1F- A simply supported shaft subjected to axial force bending moment and
torsion.

PROPELLER

PROPELLER SHAFT

BEARING BLOCK

THRUST BLOCK

GEAR BOX

PRIME MOVER

2.2.4.2F- A schematic diagram of a typical marine propulsion shafting

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2.2.5 Transformation of plane stresses

Consider a state of general plane stress in x-y co-ordinate system. We now wish
to transform this to another stress system in, say, x- y co-ordinates, which is
inclined at an angle . This is shown in figure-2.2.5.1.

y'

yx

xy

xy

x'

yx y

x
2.2.5.1F- Transformation of stresses from x-y to x-y co-ordinate system.

A two dimensional stress field acting on the faces of a cubic element is shown in
figure-2.2.5.2. In plane stress assumptions, the non-zero stresses are x, y and
xy=yx.We may now isolate an element ABC such that the plane AC is inclined at
an angle and the stresses on the inclined face are x and xy .

x'y'
x

x'

xy
B

xy

y
2.2.5.2F- Stresses on an isolated triangular element

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Considering the force equilibrium in x-direction we may write

x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos

This may be reduced to
x + y x y
x ' =
+
cos 2 + xy sin 2 (1)
2
2
Similarly, force equilibrium in y-direction gives
y x
x ' y ' =
sin 2 + xy cos 2 (2)
2
Since plane AC can assume any arbitrary inclination, a stationary value of x is
given by
d x '
=0
d
This gives
tan 2 =

xy
( x y ) / 2

(3)

This equation has two roots and let the two values of be 1 and (1+90o).
Therefore these two planes are the planes of maximum and minimum normal
stresses.
Now if we set x ' y ' = 0 we get the values of corresponding to planes of zero
shear stress.
This also
gives
xy
tan 2 =
x y / 2

And this is same as equation (3) indicating that at the planes of maximum and
minimum stresses no shearing stress occurs. These planes are known as
Principal planes and stresses acting on these planes are known as Principal
stresses. From equation (1) and (3) the principal stresses are given as
1,2 =

x + y
2

x y
2

+ xy
2

( 4)

In the same way, condition for maximum shear stress is obtained from
d
(x ' y ' ) = 0
d
tan 2 =

( x y ) / 2
xy

(5)

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This also gives two values of say 2 and (2+90o), at which shear stress is
maximum or minimum. Combining equations (2) and (5) the two values of
maximum shear stresses are given by
2

max

x y
2
=
+ xy (6)
2

One important thing to note here is that values of tan22 is negative reciprocal of
tan21 and thus 1 and 2 are 45o apart. This means that principal planes and
planes of maximum shear stresses are 45o apart. It also follows that although no
shear stress exists at the principal planes, normal stresses may act at the planes
of maximum shear stresses.

2.2.6 An example
Consider an element with the following stress system (figure-2.2.6.1)
x=-10 MPa, y = +20 MPa, = -20 MPa.
We need to find the principal stresses and show their senses on a properly
oriented element.

Solution:
The principal stresses are

y=20 MPa

yx

1,2 =

10 + 20
2
10 20

+ ( 20 )

2
2

yx

The principal planes are given by

tan21 =

20
( 10 20 ) / 2

x=10 MPa

This gives 20MPa and 30 MPa

20 MPa

y= 20 MPa

2.2.6.1F- A 2-D element with normal

and shear stresses.

= 1.33
The two values are 26.56o and 116.56o

The oriented element to show the principal stresses is shown in figure-2.2.6.2.

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20

30
Pa

yx

Pa

y=20 MPa
20 MPa
Pa
M

30

M
Pa

yx

20

x=10 MPa

y= 20 MPa

26.56o

2.2.6.2F- Orientation of the loaded element in the left to show the principal
stresses.

2.2.7 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

A 5mm thick steel bar is fastened to a ground plate by two 6 mm diameter

pins as shown in figure-2.2.7.1. If the load P at the free end of the steel
bar is 5 KN, find
(a) The shear stress in each pin
(b) The direct bearing stress in each pin.

5 mm

6 mm diameter

100 mm

P
50mm

2.2.7.1F

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A.1:
Due to the application of force P the bar will tend to rotate about point O
causing shear and bearing stresses in the pins A and B. This is shown in
figure-2.2.7.2F. Let the forces at pins A and B be FA and FB and equating
moments about O ,
5x103x0.125 = (FA+FB)x 0.025

(1)

Also, from force balance, FA+P = FB

(2)

Solving equations-1 and 2 we have, FA =10 KN and FB = 15 KN.

(a) Shear stress in pin A =

Shear stress in pin B =

10x103
x0.0062

15x103
x0.0062

(b) Bearing stress in pin A =

= 354 MPa

= 530.5 MPa

10x10 3
= 333MPa
( 0.006x0.005)

15x10 3
Bearing stress in pin B =
= 500 MPa
( 0.006x0.005)

FB

FA
100 mm

50mm

2.2.7.2F

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Q.2:

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A 100 mm diameter off-set link is transmitting an axial pull of 30 KN as

shown in the figure- 2.2.7.3. Find the stresses at points A and B.

50 mm

30 KN

2.2.7.3F

A.2:
The force system at section AB is shown in figure-2.2.7.4.
A =

B =

30x103 x0.05x0.05 30x103

+
= 11.46 MPa

4
2
( 0.1)
( 0.1)
64
4

30x103 x0.05x0.05 30x103

+
= 19.1MPa

4
2
( 0.1)
( 0.1)
64
4

A
30 KN
B

50 mm
30 KN
2.2.7.4F

Q.3:

A vertical load Py = 20 KN is applied at the free end of a cylindrical bar of

radius 50 mm as shown in figure-2.2.7.5. Determine the principal and
maximum shear stresses at the points A, B and C.

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x
B

100
mm

60 m

Py
z
m
50 m
2.2.7.5F

A.3:
At section ABC a bending moment of 1.2 KN-m and a torque of 1KN-m
act.On elements A and C there is no bending stress. Only torsional shear stress
acts and
=

16T
= 40.7 MPa
d 3

=40.7 MPa
On element B both bending (compressive) and torsional shear stress act.

B =

32M
= 97.78 MPa
d 3

=97.78 MPa

= 40.7 MPa
2
97.78

2
97.78

Principal stresses at B =
+ ( 40.7 )
2
2

B1 = 112.5MPa;

B2 = 14.72MPa
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Maximum shear stress at B =

Q.4:

2
97.78

+ ( 40.7 )
2

= 63.61 MPa

A propeller shaft for a launch transmits 75 KW at 150 rpm and is subjected

to a maximum bending moment of 1KN-m and an axial thrust of 70 KN.
Find the shaft diameter based on maximum principal stress if the shear
strength of the shaft material is limited to 100 MPa.

A.4:
Torque, T =

75x103
24.3
= 4775 Nm; then, = 3 KPa
2x150
d

60

Maximum bending moment = 1KNm; then, b =

Axial force = 70 KN; then, =

10.19
KPa
d3

70
89.12
KPa = 2 KPa
2
d
d
4
2

89.12 10.19 24.3

+ 3 = 100x103
Maximum shear stress =
2
3
2d
2d

Solving we get the value of shaft diameter d = 63.4 mm.

2.2.8Summary of this Lesson

The stresses developed at a section within a loaded body and methods of
superposing similar stresses have been discussed. Methods of combining
normal and shear stresses using transformation of plane stresses have
been illustrated. Formulations for principal stresses and maximum shear
stresses have been derived and typical examples are solved.

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Module

2
Stresses in machine
elements
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Lesson
3
Strain analysis
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should learn

Normal and shear strains.

3-D strain matrix.
Constitutive equation; generalized Hookes law
Relation between elastic, shear and bulk moduli ( E, G, K).
Stress- strain relation considering thermal effects.

2.3.1 Introduction
No matter what stresses are imposed on an elastic body, provided the material
does not rupture, displacement at any point can have only one value. Therefore
the displacement at any point can be completely given by the three single valued
components u, v and w along the three co-ordinate axes x, y and z respectively.
The normal and shear strains may be derived in terms of these displacements.

2.3.2 Normal strains

Consider an element AB of length x ( figure-2.3.2.1). If displacement of end A is
u, that of end B is u +

u
u
x . This gives an increase in length of ( u + x -u) and
x
x

therefore the strain in x-direction is

u
.Similarly, strains in y and z directions are
x

v
w
and
.Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components as
y
z
x =

u
v
w
, y =
and z =
.
x
y
z

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u+

u
x
x

A'

B'

2.3.2.1F- Change in length of an infinitesimal element.

2.3.3 Shear strain

In the same way we may define the shear strains. For this purpose consider an
element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be
ABCD ( Figure-2.3.3.1). This gives shear strain in xy plane as xy = + where
is the angle made by the displaced line BC with the vertical and is the angle
made by the displaced line AD with the horizontal. This gives
u
y
u
y
and
=
=
y
y

v
x
v

x
=
=
x
x

y
u+

u
y
y

u
y
y
v+

v
y
y

C'

B'
C

A'

D'

v
A u

v
x
x

D
u+

v+

u
x
x

2.3.3.1F- Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.

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We may therefore write the three shear strain components as

xy =

u v
v w
w u
, yz =
and zx =
+
+
+
y x
z y
x z

Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as

x
y

z
xy

yz

zx

v
w

2.3.4 Constitutive equation

The state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain
components and the strain components in their turns can be completely defined
by the displacement components u, v, and w. The constitutive equations relate
stresses and strains and in linear elasticity we simply have =E where E is
modulus of elasticity. It is also known that x produces a strain of
direction,

in y-direction and

in z-direction

in x-

. Therefore we may

write the generalized Hookes law as

x =

1
1
1
x ( y + z ) , y = y ( z + x ) and z = z ( x + y )
E
E
E

It is also known that the shear stress = G , where G is the shear modulus and
is shear strain. We may thus write the three strain components as

xy =

xy
G

, yz =

yz
G

and zx =

zx
G

In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write

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x K11
K
y 21
z K 31
=
xy K 41
yz K 51

zx K 61

K12

K13

K14

K15

K 22
K 32

K 23
K 33

K 24
K 34

K 25
K 35

K 42

K 43

K 44

K 45

K 52
K 62

K 53
K 63

K 54
K 64

K 55
K 65

K16 x
K 26 y
K 36 z

K 46 xy
K 56 yz

K 66 zx

For isotropic material

K11 = K 22 = K 33 =

1
E

K12 = K13 = K 21 = K 23 = K 31 = K 32 =
K 44 = K 55 = K 66 =

1
G

Rest of the elements in K matrix are zero.

On substitution, this reduces the general constitutive equation to equations for
isotropic materials as given by the generalized Hookes law. Since the principal
stress and strains axes coincide, we may write the principal strains in terms of
principal stresses as

1
[ 1 (2 + 3 )]
E
1
2 = [ 2 (3 + 1 ) ]
E
1
3 = [ 3 (1 + 2 ) ]
E
1 =

From the point of view of volume change or dilatation resulting from hydrostatic
pressure we also have

= K
where =

1
1
x + y + z ) = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) and = ( x + y + z ) = (1 + 2 + 3 )
(
3
3

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These equations allow the principal strain components to be defined in terms of

principal stresses. For isotropic and homogeneous materials only two constants
viz. E and are sufficient to relate the stresses and strains.
The strain transformation follows the same set of rules as those used in stress
transformation except that the shear strains are halved wherever they appear.

2.3.5 Relations between E, G and K

The largest maximum shear strain and shear stress can be given by

max = 2 3 and max =

2 3
and since max = max we have
2
G

1
1
1 3
2 ( 1 + 3 ) 3 ( 1 + 2 ) = 2
and this gives

E
E
G 2

G=E

2(1 + )

Considering now the hydrostatic state of stress and strain we may write
1
( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K(1 + 2 + 3 ) . Substituting 1, 2 and 3 in terms of 1 , 2 and 3
3

we may write
1
( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K [(1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 (1 + 2 + 3 )] and this gives
3

K=E

3(1 2)

2.3.6 Elementary thermoelasticity

So far the state of strain at a point was considered entirely due to applied forces.
Changes in temperature may also cause stresses if a thermal gradient or some
external constraints exist. Provided that the materials remain linearly elastic,
stress pattern due to thermal effect may be superimposed upon that due to
applied forces and we may write

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1
x = x ( y + z ) + T
E
1
y = y ( z + x ) + T
E
1
z = z ( x + y ) + T
E

xy =

xy
G
yz

and yz = G

zx =

zx
G

It is important to note that the shear strains are not affected directly by
temperature changes. It is sometimes convenient to express stresses in terms of
strains. This may be done using the relation = x + y + z . Substituting the
above expressions for x, y and z we have,
=

1
(1 2 ) ( x + y + z ) + 3T
E

and substituting K = E
=

Combining

3(1 2)

we have

1
( x + y + z ) + 3T .
3K

this
x =

x =

with

1
x ( y + z ) + T
E

we

have

E x 3K( 3T) ET
+

1+
1+
1+

Substituting G = E

2(1 + )

and =

3K
1+

we may write the normal and shear

stresses as

x = 2G x + 3KT
y = 2G y + 3KT
z = 2G z + 3KT
xy = G xy
yz = G yz
zx = G zx
These equations are considered to be suitable in thermoelastic situations.

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2.3.7 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

A rectangular plate of 10mm thickness is subjected to uniformly distributed

load along its edges as shown in figure-2.3.7.1. Find the change in
thickness due to the loading. E=200 GPa, = 0.3

1 KN /mm

50mm

4 KN/mm

100mm

2.3.7.1F

A.1:

Here x = 400 MPa, y = 100 MPa and z = 0

This gives z =
Now, z =

x + y = 7.5x104
E

t
where, t is the thickness and t is the change in thickness.
t

Therefore, the change in thickness = 7.5 m.

Q.2:

At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the

strains are

x= -90x10-6, y= -30x10-6 and xy=120x10-6. If the elastic

constants E , and G are 200 GPa , 0.3 and 84 GPa respectively,

determine the normal stresses x and y and the shear stress xy at the
point.

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A.2:
x =

1
x y
E

y =

1
y x
E

xy =

xy
G

This gives x =
y =

E
x + y
1 2

E
y + x
1 2

Substituting values, we get

x = -21.75 MPa, y = -12.53 MPa and xy = 9.23 MPa.

Q.3:

A rod 50 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is compressed axially by an

uniformly distributed load of 250 KN. Find the change in diameter of the
rod if E = 200 GPa and =0.3.

A.3:
Axial stress x =

250

2
( 0.05 )
4

= 127.3MPa

Axial strain, x = 0.636x103

Lateral strain = x = 1.9x104
Now, lateral strain, L =

and this gives

D

= 9.5 m.

Q.4:

If a steel rod of 50 mm diameter and 1m long is constrained at the ends

and heated to 200oC from an initial temperature of 20oC, what would be
the axial load developed? Will the rod buckle? Take the coefficient of
thermal expansion, =12x10-6 per oC and E=200 GPa.

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A.4:
Thermal strain, t = T = 2.16x103
In the absence of any applied load, the force developed due to thermal
expansion, F = E t A = 848KN
For buckling to occur the critical load is given by
2 EI
Fcr = 2 = 605.59 KN .
l

Therefore, the rod will buckle when heated to 200oC.

2.3.8 Summary of this Lesson

Normal and shear strains along with the 3-D strain matrix have been
defined. Generalized Hookes law and elementary thermo-elasticity are
discussed.

2.3.9 Reference for Module-2

1) Mechanics of materials by E.P.Popov, Prentice hall of India, 1989.
2) Mechanics of materials by Ferdinand P. Boer, E. Russel Johnson, J.T
Dewolf, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
3) Advanced strength and applied stress analysis by Richard G. Budyens,
McGraw Hill, 1999.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.

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Module
3
Design for Strength

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Lesson

1
Design for static loading
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand

Types of loading on machine elements and allowable stresses.

Concept of yielding and fracture.

Different theories of failure.

Construction of yield surfaces for failure theories.

Optimize a design comparing different failure theories

3.1.1Introduction
Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their
strength. The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the
component size depends on the stresses developed. Stresses developed in a
link subjected to uniaxial loading is shown in figure-3.1.1.1. Loading may be due
to:
a) The energy transmitted by a machine element.
b) Dead weight.
c) Inertial forces.
d) Thermal loading.
e) Frictional forces.

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3.1.1.1A- Stresses developed in a link subjected to uniaxial loading

In another way, load may be classified as:
a) Static load- Load does not change in magnitude and direction and
normally increases gradually to a steady value.
b) Dynamic load-

Load may change in magnitude for example, traffic of

varying weight passing a bridge.Load may change in direction, for

example, load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder.
Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading. Figure-3.1.1.2 shows load vs
time characteristics for both static and dynamic loading of machine elements.

Load

Time

Static Loading

Load

Load

Load

Time

Time

Time

Dynamic Loading

3.1.1.2F - Types of loading on machine elements.

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3.1.2

Allowable Stresses: Factor of Safety

Determination of stresses in structural or machine components would be

meaningless unless they are compared with the material strength. If the induced
stress is less than or equal to the limiting material strength then the designed
component may be considered to be safe and an indication about the size of the
component is obtained. The strength of various materials for engineering
applications is determined in the laboratory with standard specimens. For
example, for tension and compression tests a round rod of specified dimension is
used in a tensile test machine where load is applied until fracture occurs. This
test is usually carried out in a Universal testing machine of the type shown in
clipping- 3.1.2.1. The load at which the specimen finally ruptures is known as
Ultimate load and the ratio of load to original cross-sectional area is the Ultimate
stress.

3.1.2.1V

SPACE FOR A UNIVERSAL TENSILE TEST CLIPPING

Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for
different materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an allowable
stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties
including the following:
1) Uncertainty in loading.
2) Inhomogeneity of materials.
3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.

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5) Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot- ultimate

strength depends on number of cycles.
6) Safety and reliability.
For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials the ultimate
strength are taken as the critical stress.
An allowable stress is set considerably lower than the ultimate strength. The ratio
of ultimate to allowable load or stress is known as factor of safety i.e.

Ultimate Stress
= F.S.
Allowable Stress
The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of
stresses since this applies to material properties.

3.1.3 Theories of failure

When a machine element is subjected to a system of complex stress system, it is
important to predict the mode of failure so that the design methodology may be
based on a particular failure criterion. Theories of failure are essentially a set of
failure criteria developed for the ease of design.
In machine design an element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its
function. There are basically two types of mechanical failure:
(a) Yielding- This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the
machine
part unsuitable to perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile
materials.
(b) Fracture- in this case the component tears apart in two or more parts. This
mostly occurs in brittle materials.
There is no sharp line of demarcation between ductile and brittle materials.
However a rough guideline is that if percentage elongation is less than 5%
then the material may be treated as brittle and if it is more than 15% then the

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material is ductile. However, there are many instances when a ductile

material may fail by fracture. This may occur if a material is subjected to
(a)

Cyclic loading.

(b)

Long term static loading at elevated temperature.

(c)

Impact loading.

(d)

Work hardening.

(e)

Severe quenching.

Yielding and fracture can be visualized in a typical tensile test as shown in the
clipping- Typical engineering stress-strain relationship from simple tension
tests for same engineering materials are shown in figure- 3.1.3.1.

Stress

(True)

U
f (Engineering)

Y
P

Elastic range

Plastic range

Strain

3.1.3.1F- (a) Stress-strain diagram for a ductile material e.g. low carbon
steel.

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Stress

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(True)
f (Engineering)

0.2 % offset

Strain

Stress

3.1.3.1F- (b) Stress-strain diagram for low ductility.

f (Ultimate fracture)

Strain

Stress

3.1.3.1F- (c) Stress-strain diagram for a brittle material.

Strain

3.1.3.1F- (d) Stress-strain diagram for an elastic perfectly plastic

material.

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For a typical ductile material as shown in figure-3.1.3.1 (a) there is a definite yield
point where material begins to yield more rapidly without any change in stress
level. Corresponding stress is y . Close to yield point is the proportional limit
which marks the transition from elastic to plastic range. Beyond elastic limit for an
elastic- perfectly plastic material yielding would continue without further rise in
stress i.e. stress-strain diagram would be parallel to parallel to strain axis beyond
the yield point. However, for most ductile materials, such as, low-carbon steel
beyond yield point the stress in the specimens rises upto a peak value known as
ultimate tensile stress o . Beyond this point the specimen starts to neck-down
i.e. the reduction in cross-sectional area. However, the stress-strain curve falls till
a point where fracture occurs. The drop in stress is apparent since original crosssectional area is used to calculate the stress. If instantaneous cross-sectional
area is used the curve would rise as shown in figure- 3.1.3.1 (a) . For a material
with low ductility there is no definite yield point and usually off-set yield points are
defined for convenience. This is shown in figure-3.1.3.1. For a brittle material
stress increases linearly with strain till fracture occurs. These are demonstrated
in the clipping- 3.1.3.2 .

SPACE FOR FATIGUE TEST CLIPPING

3.1.3.2V

3.1.4 Yield criteria

There are numerous yield criteria, going as far back as Coulomb (1773). Many of
these were originally developed for brittle materials but were later applied to
ductile materials. Some of the more common ones will be discussed briefly here.

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3.1.4.1

Maximum principal stress theory ( Rankine theory)

According to this, if one of the principal stresses 1 (maximum principal

stress), 2 (minimum principal stress) or 3 exceeds the yield stress, yielding
would occur. In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material
where tensile and compressive yield stress are nearly of same magnitude
1 = y
2 = y
Using this, a yield surface may be drawn, as shown in figure- 3.1.4.1.1.
Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle.
Consider, for example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel.
Here 1= 22, 1 being the circumferential or hoop stress and 2 the axial
stress. As the pressure in the vessel increases the stress follows the dotted
line. At a point (say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, 1
reaches y although 2 is still less than y. Yielding will then begin at point b.
This theory of yielding has very poor agreement with experiment. However,
the

theory

has

been

used 2

successfully for brittle materials.

+y

..

a
-y

+y

-y
3.1.4.1.1F-

Yield surface corresponding to maximum principal stress

theory

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3.1.4.2

Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venants theory)

According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal strain
just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple tension or
compression. If 1 and 2 are maximum and minimum principal strains
corresponding to 1 and 2, in the limiting case
1 =

1
( 1 2 )
E

1 2

2 =

1
( 2 1 )
E

2 1

This gives, E1 = 1 2 = 0
E 2 = 2 1 = 0

The boundary of a yield surface in this case is thus given as shown in figure-

3.1.4.2.1

2=0+1

2
+y
+y

-y

-y

1=0+2

3.1.4.2.1- Yield surface corresponding to maximum principal strain theory

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3.1.4.3

Maximum shear stress theory ( Tresca theory)

According to this theory, yielding would occur when the maximum shear
stress just exceeds the shear stress at the tensile yield point. At the tensile
yield point 2= 3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is y/2. This gives us
six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:

1 2 = y
2 3 = y
3 1 = y

2
+y
+y

-y

-y
3.1.4.3.1F- Yield surface corresponding to maximum shear stress
theory
In a biaxial stress situation ( figure-3.1.4.3.1) case, 3 = 0 and this gives
1 2 = y

if 1 > 0, 2 < 0

1 2 = y

if 1 < 0, 2 > 0

2 = y

if 2 > 1 > 0

1 = y

if 1 < 2 < 0

1 = y

if 1 > 2 > 0

2 = y

if 2 < 1 < 0

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This criterion agrees well with experiment.

In the case of pure shear, 1 = - 2 = k (say), 3 = 0
and this gives 1- 2 = 2k= y
This indicates that yield stress in pure shear is half the tensile yield stress and
this is also seen in the Mohrs circle ( figure- 3.1.4.3.2) for pure shear.

3.1.4.3.2F- Mohrs circle for pure shear

3.1.4.4

Maximum strain energy theory ( Beltramis theory)

According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy
absorbed at a point per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per
unit volume at

1
( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) =
may be given
2
1
( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) =
2

the tensile yield point. This

1
y y by
2
1
y y
2

Substituting, 1, 2 , 3 and y in terms of stresses we have

12 + 2 2 + 32 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 31 ) = y 2
This may be written as
2

1 2
+ 2 1 22 = 1
y y
y

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This is the equation of an ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure3.1.4.4.1 .

2
y
y

E(1+ )
-y

E(1 )

-y

3.1.4.4.1F- Yield surface corresponding to Maximum strain energy theory.

It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in
the above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure 1 = 2 = 3 =
(say), yielding may also occur.
From the above we may write 2 ( 3 2 ) = 2y

and if ~ 0.3, at stress level

lower than yield stress, yielding would occur. This is in contrast to the
experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the theory is not
appropriate.

3.1.4.5

Distortion energy theory( von Mises yield criterion)

According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy
absorbed per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy
absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and
strain energy for volume change EV can be given as
ET =

1
3
( 11 + 2 2 + 33 ) and E V = av av
2
2

Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as

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Ed = ET- EV =

2(1 + ) 2
1 + 2 2 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
6E

At the tensile yield point, 1 = y , 2 = 3 = 0 which gives

E dy =

2(1 + ) 2
y
6E

The failure criterion is thus obtained by equating Ed and Edy , which gives

( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 )
2

+ ( 3 1 ) = 2 2y
2

In a 2-D situation if 3 = 0, the criterion reduces to

12 + 2 2 1 2 = y 2
2

i.e. 1 + 2 1 2 = 1
y y y y

This is an equation of ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure-3.1.4.5.1 .
This theory agrees very well with experimental results and is widely used for
ductile materials.

2
45o

y
y

-y

0.577 y

-y

3.1.4.5.1F- Yield surface corresponding to von Mises yield criterion.

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3.1.5

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Superposition of yield surface

A comparison among the different failure theories can be made by superposing

the yield surfaces as shown in figure- 3.1.5.1.

Maximum principal strain theory

Maximum distortion energy theory

-y

Maximum shear stress theory

Maximum principal stress theory

-y

3.1.5.1F- Comparison of different failure theories.

It is clear that an immediate assessment of failure probability can be made just

by plotting any experimental in the combined yield surface. Failure of ductile
materials is most accurately governed by the distortion energy theory where as
the maximum principal strain theory is used for brittle materials.

3.1.6 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material has a yield point of

350 MPa. Find the required diameter using
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
(b) Maximum distortion energy theory
Take a factor of safety of 2.5.

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A.1:

Torsional shear stress induced in the shaft due to 5 KN-m torque is

=

16 x(5 x103 )
where d is the shaft diameter in m.
d 3

(b) Maximum shear stress theory,

2

max

x y
2
=
+
2

Since x = y = 0, max=25.46x103/d3 =

Y
350 x106
=
2xF.S.
2x 2.5

This gives d=71.3 mm.

(b) Maximum distortion energy theory
In this case 1 = 25.46x103/d3
2 = -25.46x103/d3
According to this theory,
2
2
2
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y

F.S

Since 3 = 0, substituting values of 1 , 2 and Y

D=68 mm.

Q.2:

The state of stress at a point for a material is shown in the figure-3.1.6.1.

Find the factor of safety using (a) Maximum shear stress theory (b) Maximum
distortion energy theory. Take the tensile yield strength of the material as 400
MPa.
x=40 MPa

=20 MPa
y=125 MPa

3.1.6.1F

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A.2:

From the Mohrs circle, shown in figure-3.1.6.2

1 = 42.38 MPa
2 = -127.38 MPa
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
1 2

= Y
2
2xF.S

This gives F.S = 2.356.

(b) Maximum distortion energy theory
2
2
2
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y

F.S

If 3 = 0 this gives F.S = 2.613.

1
x=20 MPa

y=120 MPa

=-20 MPa

80 MPa

44.72 MPa

1
x=20 MPa

y=120 MPa

=-20 MPa

80 MPa

44.72 MPa

3.1.6.2F

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Q.3:

A cantilever rod is loaded as shown in the figure- 3.1.6.3. If the tensile

yield

strength of the material is 300 MPa determine the rod diameter

using (a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress
theory (c) Maximum distortion energy theory.

120
mm

C
F=2KN

T =800 Nm

P=

10

KN

3.1.6.3F

A.3:

At the outset it is necessary to identify the mostly stressed element. Torsional

shear stress as well as axial normal stress is the same throughout the length
of the rod but the bearing stress is largest at the welded end. Now among
the four corner elements on the rod, the element A is mostly loaded as
shown in figure-3.1.6.4

16T
(Torsional shear stress)
d 3
2
d
P (Axial stress)
4
32FL
(Bending stress)
d 3

3.1.6.4F

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Shear stress due to bending

VQ
is also developed but this is neglected
It

due to its small value compared to the other stresses. Substituting values
of T, P, F and L, the elemental stresses may be shown as in figure3.1.6.5:

12732 2445
+ 3

2
d
d
4074
3
d
3.1.6.5F

This gives the principal stress as

2

1,2

1 12732 2445
1 12732 2445 4074
=
+ 3
+ 3 + 3
2
2 d
4 d 2
d
d d

(a) Maximum principal stress theory,

Setting 1 = Y we get d = 26.67 mm.
(b) Maximum shear stress theory,
Setting

1 2 Y
=
, we get d = 30.63 mm.
2
2

(c) Maximum distortion energy theory,

Setting

2
2
2
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 ( Y )

We get d = 29.36 mm.

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3.1.7Summary of this Lesson

Different types of loading and criterion for design of machine parts
subjected to static loading based on different failure theories have been
demonstrated. Development of yield surface and optimization of design
criterion for ductile and brittle materials were illustrated.

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Module
3
Design for Strength
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Lesson

2
Stress Concentration
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand

Stress concentration and the factors responsible.

Determination of stress concentration factor; experimental and theoretical

methods.

Fatigue strength reduction factor and notch sensitivity factor.

Methods of reducing stress concentration.

3.2.1 Introduction
In developing a machine it is impossible to avoid changes in cross-section, holes,
notches, shoulders etc. Some examples are shown in figure- 3.2.1.1.

COLLAR
KEY

BEARING

GRUB SCREW

GEAR

3.2.1.1F- Some typical illustrations leading to stress concentration.

Any such discontinuity in a member affects the stress distribution in the
neighbourhood and the discontinuity acts as a stress raiser. Consider a plate with
a centrally located hole and the plate is subjected to uniform tensile load at the
ends. Stress distribution at a section A-A passing through the hole and another

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section BB away from the hole are shown in figure- 3.2.1.2. Stress distribution
away from the hole is uniform but at AA there is a sharp rise in stress in the
vicinity of the hole. Stress concentration factor k t is defined as k t =
av at section AA is simply P t( w 2b ) and 1 = P

tw

av

, where

. This is the theoretical or

geometric stress concentration factor and the factor is not affected by the
material properties.
P

t
1

3
2
A

A
2b

w
P

3.2.1.2F- Stress concentration due to a central hole in a plate subjected to an

uni-axial loading.
It is possible to predict the stress concentration factors for certain geometric
shapes using theory of elasticity approach. For example, for an elliptical hole in
an infinite plate, subjected to a uniform tensile stress 1 (figure- 3.2.1.3), stress
distribution around the discontinuity is disturbed and at points remote from the
discontinuity the effect is insignificant. According to such an analysis

2b
3 = 1 1 +
a

If a=b the hole reduces to a circular one and therefore 3 = 31 which gives k t =3.
If, however b is large compared to a then the stress at the edge of transverse

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crack is very large and consequently k is also very large. If b is small compared
to a then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does not rise and k t =1.
1
3
2a

2b

3.2.1.3F- Stress concentration due to a central elliptical hole in a plate subjected

to a uni-axial loading.

Stress concentration factors may also be obtained using any one of the following
experimental techniques:
1. Strain gage method
2. Photoelasticity method
3. Brittle coating technique
4. Grid method
For more accurate estimation numerical methods like Finite element analysis
may be employed.
Theoretical stress concentration factors for different configurations are available
in handbooks. Some typical plots of theoretical stress concentration factors and
r

ratio for a stepped shaft are shown in figure-3.2.1.4.

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3.2.1.4F- Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d of a stepped

shaft for different values of D/d subjected to uni-axial loading (Ref.[2]).

In design under fatigue loading, stress concentration factor is used in modifying

the values of endurance limit while in design under static loading it simply acts as
stress modifier. This means Actual stress= k t calculated stress.
For ductile materials under static loading effect of stress concentration is not very
serious but for brittle materials even for static loading it is important.
It is found that some materials are not very sensitive to the existence of notches
or discontinuity. In such cases it is not necessary to use the full value of k t and

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instead a reduced value is needed. This is given by a factor known as fatigue

strength reduction factor k f and this is defined as

kf =

Endurance lim it of notch free specimens

Endurance lim it of notched specimens

Another term called Notch sensitivity factor, q is often used in design and this is
defined as
q=

kf 1
kt 1

The value of q usually lies between 0 and 1. If q=0, k f =1 and this indicates no
notch sensitivity. If however q=1, then k f = k t and this indicates full notch
sensitivity. Design charts for q can be found in design hand-books and knowing

k t , k f may be obtained. A typical set of notch sensitivity curves for steel is

shown in figure- 3.2.1.5.

3.2.1.5F- Variation of notch sensitivity with notch radius for steels of different
ultimate tensile strength (Ref.[2]).

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3.2.2 Methods of reducing stress concentration

A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine
parts. Some of them are as follows:
1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.
2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.
3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches
rather than a long one. This reduces the stress concentration to a large extent.
4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to
provide a narrow notch than a wide notch.
5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.
These are demonstrated in figure- 3.2.2.1.

(a) Force flow around a sharp corner

Force flow around a corner with fillet:

Low stress concentration.

(b) Force flow around a large notch

Force flow around a number of small

notches: Low stress concentration.

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(c) Force flow around a wide projection Force flow around a narrow projection:
Low stress concentration.

(d) Force flow around a sudden

change in diameter in a shaft

Force flow around a stress relieving groove.

3.2.2.1F- Illustrations of different methods to reduce stress concentration

(Ref.[1]).

3.2.3 Theoretical basis of stress concentration

Consider a plate with a hole acted upon by a stress . St. Verants principle
states that if a system of forces is replaced by another statically equivalent
system of forces then the stresses and displacements at points remote from the
region concerned are unaffected. In figure-3.2.3.1 a is the radius of the hole
and at r=b, b>>a the stresses are not affected by the presence of the hole.

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x
b

3.2.3.1F- A plate with a central hole subjected to a uni-axial stress

Here, x = , y = 0 , xy = 0

For plane stress conditions:

r = x cos2 + y sin2 + 2 xy cos sin
= x sin2 + y cos2 2 xy cos sin

r = ( x y ) sin cos + xy cos2 sin2

This reduces to
r = cos2 =

( cos 2 + 1) = + cos 2
2
2 2

= sin2 =

(1 cos 2 ) = cos 2
2
2 2

r =

sin 2
2

such that 1st component in r and is constant and the second component

varies with . Similar argument holds for r if we write r = sin 2 . The

2
stress distribution within the ring with inner radius ri = a and outer radius ro = b
due to 1st component can be analyzed using the solutions of thick cylinders and

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the effect due to the 2nd component can be analyzed following the Stress-function
approach. Using a stress function of the form = R ( r ) cos 2 the stress
distribution due to the 2nd component can be found and it was noted that the
dominant stress is the Hoop Stress, given by
=

a2 3a 4
1 + 2 1 + 4 cos 2
2
r 2
r

This is maximum at = 2 and the maximum value of =

a2 3a4
+
+ 4
2

2
r2
r

Therefore at points P and Q where r = a is maximum and is given by = 3

i.e. stress concentration factor is 3.

3.2.4 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

The flat bar shown in figure- 3.2.4.1 is 10 mm thick and is pulled by a

force P producing a total change in length of 0.2 mm. Determine the
maximum stress developed in the bar. Take E= 200 GPa.
Fillet with stress
concentration factor 2.5
50 mm

25 mm

Hole with stress

concentration factor 2

25 mm

Fillet with stress

concentration factor 2.5

300 mm

300 mm

250 mm

3.2.4.1F
A.1:

Total change in length of the bar is made up of three components and this
is given by
0.3
0.3
0.25
P

0.2x103 =
+
+
9

0.025x0.01 0.05x0.01 0.025x0.01 200x10

This gives P=14.285 KN.

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Stress at the shoulder s = k

16666
where k=2.
(0.05 0.025)x0.01

This gives h = 114.28 MPa.

Q.2:

Find the maximum stress developed in a stepped shaft subjected to a

twisting moment of 100 Nm as shown in figure- 3.2.4.2. What would be the

maximum stress developed if a bending moment of 150 Nm is applied.
r = 6 mm
d = 30 mm
D = 40 mm.
3.2.4.2F

A.2:

Referring to the stress- concentration plots in figure- 3.2.4.3 for stepped

shafts subjected to torsion for r/d = 0.2 and D/d = 1.33, Kt 1.23.
Torsional shear stress is given by =

16T
. Considering the smaller diameter and
d 3

the stress concentration effect at the step, we have the maximum shear stress as
max = K t

16x100
( 0.03)

This gives max = 23.201 MPa.

Similarly referring to stress-concentration plots in figure- 3.2.4.4 for
stepped shaft subjected to bending , for r/d = 0.2 and D/d = 1.33, Kt 1.48
Bending stress is given by =

32M
d 3

Considering the smaller diameter and the effect of stress concentration at

the step, we have the maximum bending stress as
max = K t

32x150
( 0.03)

This gives max = 83.75 MPa.

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3.2.4.3F- Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d for a stepped
shaft subjected to torsion

(Ref.[5]).

3.2.4.4F- Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d for a stepped
shaft subjected to a bending moment (Ref.[5]) .

Q.3:

In the plate shown in figure- 3.2.4.5 it is required that the stress

concentration at Hole does not exceed that at the fillet. Determine the hole
diameter.

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5 mm

100 mm

d'

50 mm

3.2.4.5F
A.3:

Referring to stress-concentration plots for plates with fillets under axial

loading (figure- 3.2.4.6 ) for r/d = 0.1 and D/d = 2,
stress concentration factor, Kt 2.3.
From stress concentration plots for plates with a hole of diameter d under axial
loading ( figure- 3.2.4.7 ) we have for Kt = 2.3, d/D = 0.35.
This gives the hole diameter d = 35 mm.

3.2.4.6F- Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d for a plate
with fillets subjected to a uni-axial loading (Ref.[5]).

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3.2.4.7F- Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with d/W for a plate
with a transverse hole subjected to a uni-axial loading (Ref.[5]).

3.2.5 Summary of this Lesson

Stress concentration for different geometric configurations and its relation
to fatigue strength reduction factor and notch sensitivity have been
discussed. Methods of reducing stress concentration have been
demonstrated and a theoretical basis for stress concentration was
considered.

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Module

3
Design for Strength
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Lesson

4
Low and high cycle fatigue
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand

Design of components subjected to low cycle fatigue; concept and necessary

formulations.

Design of components subjected to high cycle fatigue loading with finite life;
concept and necessary formulations.

Fatigue strength formulations; Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg equations.

3.4.1 Low cycle fatigue

This is mainly applicable for short-lived devices where very large overloads may
occur at low cycles. Typical examples include the elements of control systems in
mechanical devices. A fatigue failure mostly begins at a local discontinuity and
when the stress at the discontinuity exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain.
The cyclic plastic strain is responsible for crack propagation and fracture.
Experiments have been carried out with reversed loading and the true stressstrain hysteresis loops are shown in figure-3.4.1.1. Due to cyclic strain the
elastic limit increases for annealed steel and decreases for cold drawn steel. Low
cycle fatigue is investigated in terms of cyclic strain. For this purpose we consider
a typical plot of strain amplitude versus number of stress reversals to fail for steel
as shown in figure-3.4.1.2.

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3.4.1.1F- A typical stress-strain plot with a number of stress reversals (Ref.[4]).

Here the stress range is . p and e are the plastic and elastic strain ranges,
the total strain range being . Considering that the total strain amplitude can be
given as

= p + e
A relationship between strain and a number of stress reversals can be given as

'f
= (N)a + 'f (N) b
E
where f and f are the true stress and strain corresponding to fracture in one
cycle and a, b are systems constants. The equations have been simplified as
follows:
=

3.5u
EN0.12

p
+
N

0.6

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In this form the equation can be readily used since u, p and E can be measured
in a typical tensile test. However, in the presence of notches and cracks

Strain amplitude,

determination of total strain is difficult.

1
10 -1

c
1
Pl

10 -2

'f

Elast

ic str
a

as
t ic

in

To
str

tal

ai

str
a

in

10 -3

10 0 10 1

10 2

10 3

10 4

10 5

10 6

Number of stress reversals for failure, N

3.4.1.2F- Plots of strain amplitude vs number of stress reversals for
failure.

3.4.2 High cycle fatigue with finite life

This applies to most commonly used machine parts and this can be analyzed by
idealizing the S-N curve for, say, steel, as shown in figure- 3.4.2.1 .
The line between 103 and 106 cycles is taken to represent high cycle fatigue with
finite life and this can be given by

log S = b log N + c
where S is the reversed stress and b and c are constants.
At point A log ( 0.8u ) = b log103 + c where u is the ultimate tensile stress
and at point B log e = b log106 + c where e is the endurance limit.

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( 0.8u )
0.8u
1
and c = log
b = log
e
e
3

This gives

0.8 0
S

10 3

10 6

N
3.4.2.1F- A schematic plot of reversed stress against number of cycles to fail.

3.4.3 Fatigue strength formulations

Fatigue strength experiments have been carried out over a wide range of stress
variations in both tension and compression and a typical plot is shown in figure3.4.3.1. Based on these results mainly, Gerber proposed a parabolic correlation

and this is given by

2

m v

+ =1
u e

Gerber line

Goodman approximated a linear variation and this is given by

m v

+ =1
u e

Goodman line

Soderberg proposed a linear variation based on tensile yield strength Y and this
is given by

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m v
=1

+
y e

Soderberg line

Here, m and v represent the mean and fluctuating components respectively.

Variable stress, v

o
o
o o
o
o
o
o
o o
oo
oo
o o

Compressive stress

oo

Gerber line
o

o
o

Goodman line
o
o o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Soderberg line
o
o
o o

Mean stress, m
Tensile stress

3.4.3.1F- A schematic diagram of experimental plots of variable stress

against mean stress and Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg lines.

3.4.4 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

A grooved shaft shown in figure- 3.4.4.1 is subjected to rotating-bending

load. The dimensions are shown in the figure and the bending moment is
30 Nm. The shaft has a ground finish and an ultimate tensile strength of
1000 MPa. Determine the life of the shaft.
r = 0.4 mm
D = 12 mm
d = 10 mm
3.4.4.1F

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A.1:

Modified endurance limit, e = e C1C2C3C4C5/ Kf

Here, the diameter lies between 7.6 mm and 50 mm : C1 = 0.85
The shaft is subjected to reversed bending load: C2 = 1
From the surface factor vs tensile strength plot in figure- 3.3.3.5
For UTS = 1000 MPa and ground surface: C3 = 0.91
Since T 450oC, C4 = 1
For high reliability, C5 = 0.702.
From the notch sensitivity plots in figure- 3.3.4.2 , for r=0.4 mm and UTS
= 1000 MPa, q = 0.78
From stress concentration plots in figure-3.4.4.2, for r/d = 0.04 and D/d =
1.2,

Kt = 1.9. This gives Kf = 1+q (Kt -1) = 1.702.

Then, e = ex 0.89x 1x 0.91x 1x 0.702/1.702 = 0.319 e

For steel, we may take e = 0.5 UTS = 500 MPa and then we have
e = 159.5 MPa.
Bending stress at the outermost fiber, b =

32M
d 3

For the smaller diameter, d=0.01 mm, b = 305 MPa

Since b > 'e life is finite.
For high cycle fatigue with finite life,
log S = b log N + C
0.80
1
0.8 x1000
1
where, b = log
= log
= 0.233
e '
3
159.5
3

( 0.8u )
c = log
e '

( 0.8x1000 )
= log
159.5

= 3.60

Therefore, finite life N can be given by

N=10-c/b S1/b if 103 N 106.
Since the reversed bending stress is 306 MPa,
N = 2.98x 109 cycles.

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3.4.4.4F

3.4.4.2F (Ref.[5])

Q.2:

A portion of a connecting link made of steel is shown in figure-3.4.4.3 .

The tensile axial force F fluctuates between 15 KN to 60 KN. Find the
factor of safety if the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength for the
material are 440 MPa and 370 MPa respectively and the component has a
machine finish.
10 mm

60 mm

90 mm

15 mm

6 mm
3.4.4.3F

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A.2:

To determine the modified endurance limit at the step, e = e

C1C2C3C4C5/ Kf where
C1 = 0.75 since d 50 mm
C2 = 0.85 for axial loading
C3 = 0.78 since u = 440 MPa and the surface is machined.
C4 = 1 since T 450oC
C5 = 0.75 for high reliability.
At the step, r/d = 0.1, D/d = 1.5 and from figure-3.2.4.6, Kt = 2.1 and from
figure-

3.3.4.2 q = 0.8. This gives Kf = 1+q (Kt -1) = 1.88.

Modified endurance limit, e = ex 0.75x 0.85x 0.82x 1x 0.75/1.88 = 0.208 e

Take e = 0.5 u . Then e = 45.76 MPa.
The link is subjected to reversed axial loading between 15 KN to 60 KN.
This gives max

60x103
15x103
=
= 100 MPa , min =
= 25 MPa
0.01x0.06
0.01x0.06

Therefore, mean = 62.5 MPa and v = 37.5 MPa.

Using Soderbergs equation we now have,
1
62.5 37.5
=
+
F.S 370 45.75

so that F.S = 1.011

This is a low factor of safety.

Consider now the endurance limit modification at the hole. The endurance
limit modifying factors remain the same except that Kf is different since Kt
is different. From figure- 3.2.4.7 for d/w= 15/90 = 0.25, Kt = 2.46 and q
remaining the same as before i.e 0.8
Therefore, Kf = 1+q (Kt -1) = 2.163.
This gives e = 39.68 MPa. Repeating the calculations for F.S using
Soderbergs equation ,

F.S = 0.897.

This indicates that the plate may fail near the hole.

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Q.3:

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A 60 mm diameter cold drawn steel bar is subjected to a completely

reversed torque of 100 Nm and an applied bending moment that varies
between 400 Nm and -200 Nm. The shaft has a machined finish and has a
6 mm diameter hole drilled transversely through it. If the ultimate tensile
stress u and yield stress y of the material are 600 MPa and 420 MPa
respectively, find the factor of safety.

A.3:

The mean and fluctuating torsional shear stresses are

m = 0 ; v =

16x100
x ( 0.06 )

= 2.36 MPa.

and the mean and fluctuating bending stresses are

m =

32x100
x ( 0.06 )

= 4.72 MPa; v =

32x300
x ( 0.06 )

= 14.16 MPa.

For finding the modifies endurance limit we have,

C1 = 0.75 since d > 50 mm
C2 = 0.78 for torsional load
= 1 for bending load
C3 = 0.78 since u = 600 MPa and the surface is machined ( figure3.4.4.2).

C4 = 1 since T 450oC
C5 = 0.7 for high reliability.
and Kf = 2.25 for bending with d/D =0.1 (from figure- 3.4.4.5 )
= 2.9 for torsion on the shaft surface with d/D = 0.1 (from figure3.4.4.6 )

This gives for bending eb = ex 0.75x1x 0.78x 1x 0.7/2.25 = 0.182 e

For torsion es = esx 0.75x0.78x 0.78x 1x 0.7/2.9 = 0.11 e
And if e = 0.5 u = 300 MPa, eb =54.6 MPa; es = 33 MPa
We may now find the equivalent bending and torsional shear stresses as:

eq = m + v

y
'es

= 15.01 MPa ( Taking y = 0.5 y = 210 MPa)

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eq = m + v

y
'eb

= 113.64 MPa.

Equivalent principal stresses may now be found as

2

1eq

eq
2
=
+
+ eq
2
2

2eq

eq
2
=

+ eq
2
2

eq

eq

and using von-Mises criterion

2

2
eq + 3 eq

y
= 2

F.S

which gives F.S = 5.18.

3.4.4.5 F (Ref.[2])

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3.4.4.6 F (Ref.[2])

3.4.5Summary of this Lesson

The simplified equations for designing components subjected to both low
cycle and high cycle fatigue with finite life have been explained and
methods to determine the component life have been demonstrated. Based
on experimental evidences, a number of fatigue strength formulations are
available and Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg equations have been
discussed. Methods to determine the factor of safety or the safe design
stresses under variable loading have been demonstrated.

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3.4.6 Reference for Module-3

1) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India,1991.
2) Machine design-an integrated approach by Robert L. Norton, Pearson
Education Ltd, 2001.
3) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,
S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.
5) Fundamentals of machine component design, 3rd edition, by Robert C.
Juvinall and Kurt M. Marshek, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

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Module
4
Fasteners
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Lesson

1
Types of fasteners: Pins
and keys
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Fasteners and their types: permanent and detachable fasteners.

Different types of pin joints.

Different types of keys and their applications.

4.1.1 Introduction: Types of fasteners

A machine or a structure is made of a large number of parts and they need be
joined suitably for the machine to operate satisfactorily. Parts are joined by
fasteners and they are conveniently classified as permanent or detachable
fasteners. They are often sub- divided under the main headings as follows:

Permanent fasteners: Riveted joints

Welded joints
Detachable joints:

Threaded fasteners screws, bolts and nuts, studs.

Cotter joints
Knuckle joints

Keys and Pin joints

Starting with the simple pin and key joints all the main fasteners will be discussed
here.

4.1.2 Pin Joints

These are primarily used to prevent sliding of one part on the other, such as, to
secure wheels, gears, pulleys, levers etc. on shafts. Pins and keys are primarily
used to transmit torque and to prevent axial motion. In engineering practice the
following types of pins are generally used.

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(a) Round pins (b) Taper pins (c) Dowel pins (d) Split pins
Round and taper pins are simple cylindrical pins with or without a taper and they
offer effective means of fastening pulleys, gears or levers to a shaft. It may be
fitted such that half the pin lies in the hub and the other half in the shaft as shown
in figure-4.1.2.1 (b). The pin may be driven through the hub and the shaft as in
figure- 4.1.2.1 (c) or as in figure- 4.1.2.1 (d). These joints give positive grip and
the pins are subjected to a shear load. For example, for the shaft in the assembly
shown in figure- 4.1.2.1 (c), the pin is under double shear and we have
D
2 d2 . 1 = T
4 2

where d is the diameter of the pin at hub-shaft interface, is the yield strength in
shear of the pin material and T is the torque transmitted.

d2

Hub
Shaft

Pin

D1

d2

d1

L
d1

(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

4.1.2.1F- Different types of pin joints

A taper pin is preferred over the straight cylindrical pins because they can be
driven easily and it is easy to ream a taper hole.

Dowel pins
These are used to keep two machine parts in proper alignment. Figure- 4.1.2.2
demonstrates the use of dowel pins. Small cylindrical pins are normally used for
this purpose.

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(b)

(a)

4.1.2.2F- Some uses of Dowel pins (Ref.[6]).

Split pins
These are sometimes called cotter pins also and they are made of annealed iron
or brass wire. They are generally of semi-circular cross section and are used to
prevent nuts from loosening as shown in figure- 4.1.2.3. These are extensively
used in automobile industry.

Split pin

4.1.2.3F- Typical use of a split pin (Ref.[6]).

4.1.3 Keys
Steel keys are widely used in securing machine parts such as gears and pulleys.
There is a large variety of machine keys and they may be classified under four
broad headings:
Sunk keys, flat keys, saddle keys and pins or round keys

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Sunk keys may be further classified into the following categories:

(a) Rectangular sunk keys
(b) Gib head sunk keys
(c) Feather keys
(d) Woodruff keys
Rectangular sunk keys are shown in figure- 4.1.3.1. They are the simplest form
of machine keys and may be either straight or slightly tapered on one side. The
parallel side is usually fitted into the shaft.

4.1.3.1F- Rectangular sunk keys (Ref.[6]).

The slots are milled as shown in figure- 4.1.3.1(a). While transmitting torque a
rectangular sunk key is subjected to both shear and crushing or bearing stresses.
Considering shear we may write .b.l.

D
= T where
2

is the yield shear stress of

the key material, D the shaft diameter and T is torque transmitted. Considering
bearing stress we may write br .

t.l D
. =T
2 2

where br is the bearing stress developed in the key. Based on these two criteria
key dimensions may be optimized and compared with the standard key
dimensions available in design hand books.

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The gib head keys are ordinary sunk keys tapered on top with a raised head on
one side so that its removal is easy. This is shown in figure- 4.1.3.2

4.1.3.2F- Gib head key (Ref.[6]).

Some feather key arrangements are shown in figure- 4.1.3.3. A feather key is
used when one component slides over another. The key may be fastened either
to the hub or the shaft and the keyway usually has a sliding fit.

4.1.3.3F- Some feather key arrangements (Ref.[6]).

A woodruff key is a form of sunk key where the key shape is that of a truncated
disc, as shown in figure- 4.1.3.4. It is usually used for shafts less than about 60
mm diameter and the keyway is cut in the shaft using a milling cutter, as shown
in the figure- 4.1.3.4. It is widely used in machine tools and automobiles due to
the extra advantage derived from the extra depth.

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4.1.3.4F- Woodruff key (Ref.[6]).

Lewis keys, shown in figure- 4.1.3.5, are expensive but offer excellent service.
They may be used as a single or double key. When they are used as a single key
the positioning depends on the direction of rotation of the shaft. For heavy load
two keys can be used as shown in figure- 4.1.3.5 (b).

d
6
d
t=
12

b=

4.1.3.5F- Lewis keys (Ref.[6]).

A flat key, as shown in figure- 4.1.3.6 is used for light load because they depend
entirely on friction for the grip. The sides of these keys are parallel but the top is

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slightly tapered for a tight fit. Theses keys have about half the thickness of sunk
keys.

4.1.3.6F- Flat key (Ref.[6]).

4.1.3.7F- Saddle key (Ref.[6]).

A saddle key, shown in figure- 4.1.3.7, is very similar to a flat key except that
the bottom side is concave to fit the shaft surface. These keys also have friction
grip and therefore cannot be used for heavy loads. A simple pin can be used as a
key to transmit large torques. Very little stress concentration occurs in the shaft in
these cases. This is shown in figure- 4.1.2.1 (b).

4.1.4Problems with Answers

Q.1:

Two 30 mm diameter shafts are connected by pins in an arrangement

shown in figure-4.1.4.1. Find the pin diameter if the allowable shear stress
of the pins is 100 MPa and the shaft transmits 5 kW at 150 rpm.
Coupling bush

D= 30 mm
T
Driven shaft

Driving shaft

4.1.4.1F

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A.1:
2N
3
The torque transmitted T= Power/
. Substituting power = 5x10
60

Watts and N=150 rpm we have T = 318.3 Nm. The torque is transmitted
from the driving shaft to the coupling bush via a pin. The torque path is
then reversed and it is transmitted from the coupling bush to the driven
shaft via another pin. Therefore both the pins transmit a torque of 318.3

D
Nm under double shear. We may then write T = 2. .d 2 . y . . Substituting
4
2

D=0.03 m, y = 100 MPa and T= 318.3 MPa we have d=11.6 mm 12

mm.

Q.2:

A heat treated steel shaft of tensile yield strength of 350 MPa has a
diameter of 50 mm. The shaft rotates at 1000 rpm and transmits 100 kW
through a gear. Select an appropriate key for the gear.

A.2:
Consider a rectangular key of width w, thickness t and length L as shown
in figure- 4.1.4.1. The key may fail (a) in shear or (b) in crushing.
Key
Shaft
L

t
w

4.1.4.1F

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Shear failure: The failure criterion is T = y .w.L.

d
2

(1)
2N
where torque transmitted is T= Power/

60
(2)
N being in rpm, w, L and d are the width, length and diameter of the shaft

respectively and y is the yield stress in shear of the key material. Taking
y to be half of the tensile yield stress and substituting the values in
equations (1) and (2) we have wL = 2.19 x 10-4 m2.

Crushing failure: T = c .

t.L d
.
2 2

(3)
Taking c to be the same as y and substituting values in equation (3) we
have
tL= 2.19 x 10-4 m2. Some standard key dimensions are reproduced in
table- 4.1.4.1:

Shaft
Diameter

30-38

38-44

44-50

50-58

58-65

65-75

75-85

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

10

11

12

14

22-110

28-140

36-160

45-180

50-200

56-220

63-250

(mm)
Key width, w
(mm)
Key depth, t
(mm)
Key length, L
(mm)

4.1.4.1T

Based on the standard we may choose w=16 mm. This gives L = 13.6
mm. We may then choose the safe key dimensions as
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w = 16 mm

L = 45 mm

t = 10 mm.

4.1.5 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson firstly the types detachable of fasteners are discussed. Then
types and applications of pin and key joints are discussed with suitable
illustrations. A brief overview of key design is also included.

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Module
4
Fasteners
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Lesson

2
Cotter and knuckle
joint
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

A typical cotter joint, its components and working principle.

Detailed design procedure of a cotter joint.

A typical knuckle joint, its components and working principle.

Detailed design procedure of a knuckle joint.

4.2.1 Cotter joint

A cotter is a flat wedge-shaped piece of steel as shown in figure-4.2.1.1. This is
used to connect rigidly two rods which transmit motion in the axial direction,
without rotation. These joints may be subjected to tensile or compressive forces
along the axes of the rods.
Examples of cotter joint connections are: connection of piston rod to the
crosshead of a steam engine, valve rod and its stem etc.

4.2.1.1F- A typical cotter with a taper on one side only (Ref.[6]).

A typical cotter joint is as shown in figure-4.2.1.2. One of the rods has a socket
end into which the other rod is inserted and the cotter is driven into a slot, made
in both the socket and the rod. The cotter tapers in width (usually 1:24) on one

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side only and when this is driven in, the rod is forced into the socket. However, if
the taper is provided on both the edges it must be less than the sum of the
friction angles for both the edges to make it self locking i.e 1 + 2 < 1 + 2 where
1 , 2 are the angles of taper on the rod edge and socket edge of the cotter
respectively and 1, 2 are the corresponding angles of friction. This also means
that if taper is given on one side only then < 1 + 2 for self locking. Clearances
between the cotter and slots in the rod end and socket allows the driven cotter to
draw together the two parts of the joint until the socket end comes in contact with
the cotter on the rod end.

t1

l1

d1 d2

d4
d3

4.2.1.2F- Cross-sectional views of a typical cotter joint (Ref.[6]).

4.2.1.3F- An isometric view of a typical cotter joint (Ref.[6]).

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4.2.2 Design of a cotter joint

If the allowable stresses in tension, compression and shear for the socket, rod
and cotter be t , c and respectively, assuming that they are all made of the
same material, we may write the following failure criteria:

1. Tension failure of rod at diameter d

2
d t = P
4

4.2.2.1F- Tension failure of the rod (Ref.[6]).

2. Tension failure of rod across slot

d1 d1t t = P
4

4.2.2.2F- Tension failure of rod across slot (Ref.[6]).

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3. Tensile failure of socket across slot

d2

2
(d 2 d1 ) (d 2 d1 )t t = P
4

4.2.2.3F- Tensile failure of socket across slot (Ref.[6]).

4. Shear failure of cotter

2bt = P

4.2.2.4F- Shear failure of cotter (Ref.[6]).

5. Shear failure of rod end

2l1d1 = P

4.2.2.5F- Shear failure of rod end (Ref.[6]).

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6. Shear failure of socket end

2l ( d3 d1 ) = P

4.2.2.6F- Shear failure of socket end (Ref.[6]).

7. Crushing failure of rod or cotter

d1tc = P

4.2.2.7F- Crushing failure of rod or cotter (Ref.[6]).

8. Crushing failure of socket or rod

(d

d 1 ) t c = P

4.2.2.8F- Crushing failure of socket or rod (Ref.[6]).

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9. Crushing failure of collar

2
2
(d 4 d1 ) c = P
4

4.2.2.9F- Crushing failure of collar (Ref.[6]).

10. Shear failure of collar

d1t1 = P

4.2.2.10F- Shear failure of collar (Ref.[6]).

Cotters may bend when driven into position. When this occurs, the bending
moment cannot be correctly estimated since the pressure distribution is not
known. However, if we assume a triangular pressure distribution over the rod, as
shown in figure-4.2.2.11 (a), we may approximate the loading as shown in figure4.2.2.11 (b)

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P/2

P/2

d3
b

P/2 P/2

d3 d1 d1
+
6
4

d1

d 1 d1
4 4

(a)

d3 d1 d1
+
6
4

(b)
4.2.2.11F- Bending of the cotter

This gives maximum bending moment =

P d3 d1 d1
+ and
2 6
4

P d 3 d1 d 1 b
d d d
3P 3 1 + 1
+

2
6
4 2
6
4
The bending stress, b =
=
3
2
tb
tb
12
Tightening of cotter introduces initial stresses which are again difficult to
estimate. Sometimes therefore it is necessary to use empirical proportions to
design the joint. Some typical proportions are given below:
d1 = 1.21.d

d 2 = 1.75.d

d3 = 2.4 d
d 4 = 1.5.d
t = 0.31d
b = 1.6d

l = l1 = 0.75d
t1 = 0.45d

s= clearance

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A design based on empirical relation may be checked using the formulae based
on failure mechanisms.

4.2.3 Knuckle Joint

A knuckle joint (as shown in figure- 4.2.3.1) is used to connect two rods under
tensile load. This joint permits angular misalignment of the rods and may take
compressive load if it is guided.
d2
d3

t1

1.
2d

0 .6

1.2d

t2

1.2d

Split pin

d1
d3

0.25d

1.2d

t1

t2

0.8d

4.2.3.1F- A typical knuckle joint

These joints are used for different types of connections e.g. tie rods, tension links
in bridge structure. In this, one of the rods has an eye at the rod end and the
other one is forked with eyes at both the legs. A pin (knuckle pin) is inserted
through the rod-end eye and fork-end eyes and is secured by a collar and a split
pin.
Normally, empirical relations are available to find different dimensions of the joint
and they are safe from design point of view. The proportions are given in the
figure-4.2.3.1.

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d = diameter of rod
d1 = d

t = 1.25d

d 2 = 2d

t1 = 0.75d

d 3 = 1.5.d

t 2 = 0.5d

Mean diameter of the split pin = 0.25 d

However, failures analysis may be carried out for checking. The analyses are
shown below assuming the same materials for the rods and pins and the yield
stresses in tension, compression and shear are given by t, c and .
1. Failure of rod in tension:

2
d t = P
4
2. Failure of knuckle pin in double shear:

2
2 d1 = P
4
3. Failure of knuckle pin in bending (if the pin is loose in the fork)
Assuming a triangular pressure distribution on the pin, the loading on the pin is
shown in figure- 4.2.3.2.
Equating the maximum bending stress to tensile or compressive yield stress we
have

t
t
16P 1 +
3 4
t =
d13

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P/2

P/2

d1

t1 t
+
3 4

t1 t
+
3 4

P/2 P/2
t1

t/2

t/2

t1

4.2.3.2F- Bending of a knuckle pin

4. Failure of rod eye in shear:

( d 2 d1 ) t = P
5. Failure of rod eye in crushing:

d1 t c = P
6. Failure of rod eye in tension:

( d 2 d1 ) t t = P
7. Failure of forked end in shear:
2 ( d 2 d1 ) t1 = P

8. Failure of forked end in tension:

2 ( d 2 d1 ) t1t = P
9. Failure of forked end in crushing:
2d1t1c = P

The design may be carried out using the empirical proportions and then the
analytical relations may be used as checks.

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For example using the 2nd equation we have =

d1 from empirical relation and then find F.S. =

2P
. We may now put value of
d12
y

which should be more than

one.

4.2.4 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

Design a typical cotter joint to transmit a load of 50 kN in tension or

compression. Consider that the rod, socket and cotter are all made of a
material with the following allowable stresses:

y = 150 MPa

Allowable tensile stress

c = 110 MPa

Allowable crushing stress

y = 110 MPa.

Allowable shear stress

A.1:

Refer to figure- 4.2.1.2 and 4.2.2.1

Axial load P =

2
d y . On substitution this gives d=20 mm. In general
4

standard shaft size in mm are

6 mm to 22 mm diameter

2 mm in increment

25 mm to 60 mm diameter

5 mm in increment

60 mm to 110 mm diameter

10 mm in increment

110 mm to 140 mm diameter

15 mm in increment

140 mm to 160 mm diameter

20 mm in increment

500 mm to 600 mm diameter

30 mm in increment

We therefore choose a suitable rod size to be 25 mm.

Refer to figure-4.2.2.2

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For tension failure across slot d 2 d1t y = P . This gives d1t = 1.58x104
4

m2.From empirical relations we may take t=0.4d i.e. 10 mm and this gives
d1= 15.8 mm. Maintaining the proportion let d1= 1.2 d = 30 mm.
Refer to figure-4.2.2.3

The tensile failure of socket across slot d 2 2 d12 ( d 2 d1 ) t y = P

This gives d2 = 37 mm. Let d2 = 40 mm

Refer to figure-4.2.2.4
For shear failure of cotter 2bt = P. On substitution this gives b = 22.72
mm.
Let b = 25 mm.

Refer to figure-4.2.2.5
For shear failure of rod end 2l1d1 = P and this gives l1 = 7.57 mm. Let l1 =
10 mm.

Refer to figure-4.2.2.6
For shear failure of socket end 2l(d2-d1) = P. This gives l= 22.72 mm. Let
l=25 mm

Refer to figure-4.2.2.8
For crushing failure of socket or rod (d3-d1)tc = P. This gives d3 = 75.5
mm. Let d3 = 77 mm.
Refer to figure-4.2.2.9
For crushing failure of collar

2
d 4 d12 ) c = P . On substitution this gives
(
4

d4= 38.4 mm. Let d4= 40 mm.

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Refer to figure-4.2.2.10
For shear failure of collar d1t1 = P which gives t1= 4.8 mm. Let t1 = 5
mm.
Therefore the final chosen values of dimensions are
d= 25 mm; d1= 30 mm; d2 = 40 mm; d3 = 77 mm; d4 = 40 mm; t= 10 mm;
t1= 5 mm; l= 25 mm; l1= 10 mm; b= 27 mm.
Q.2:

Two mild steel rods are connected by a knuckle joint to transmit an axial
force of 100 kN. Design the joint completely assuming the working
stresses for both the pin and rod materials to be 100 MPa in tension, 65
MPa in shear and 150 MPa in crushing.

A.2:
Refer to figure- 4.2.3.1
For failure of rod in tension, P =

2
d y . On substituting P=100 kN,
4

y = 100 MPa we have d= 35.6 mm. Let us choose the rod diameter d =
40 mm which is the next standard size.
We may now use the empirical relations to find the necessary dimensions
and then check the failure criteria.
d1= 40 mm

t= 50 mm

d2 = 80 mm

t1= 30 mm;

d3 = 60 mm

t2= 20 mm;

split pin diameter = 0.25 d1 = 10 mm

To check the failure modes:

1. Failure of knuckle pin in shear: P 2. d12 = y which gives y = 39.8
4
MPa. This is less than the yield shear stress.

t
t
16P 1 +
3 4 . On substitution
2. For failure of knuckle pin in bending: y =
d13
this gives y = 179 MPa which is more than the allowable tensile yield

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stress of 100 MPa. We therefore increase the knuckle pin diameter to

55 mm which gives y = 69 MPa that is well within the tensile yield
stress.
3. For failure of rod eye in shear: (d2-d1)t = P. On substitution d1 = 55mm

= 80 MPa which exceeds the yield shear stress of 65 MPa. So d2

should be at least 85.8 mm. Let d2 be 90 mm.
4. For failure of rod eye in crushing: d1tc = P which gives c = 36.36
MPa that is well within the crushing strength of 150 MPa.
5. Failure of rod eye in tension: (d2-d1)tt = P. Tensile stress developed at
the rod eye is then t = 57.14 MPa which is safe.
6. Failure of forked end in shear: 2(d2-d1)t1 = P. Thus shear stress
developed in the forked end is = 47.61 MPa which is safe.
7. Failure of forked end in tension: 2(d2-d1)t1y = P. Tensile strength
developed in the forked end is then y= 47.61 MPa which is safe.
8. Failure of forked end in crushing: 2d1t1c = P which gives the crushing
stress developed in the forked end as c = 42 MPa. This is well within
the crushing strength of 150 MPa.
Therefore the final chosen values of dimensions are:
d1= 55 mm

t= 50 mm

d2 = 90 mm

t1= 30 mm;

d3 = 60 mm

t2= 20 mm;

and d = 40 mm

4.2.5 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson two well known joints viz. cotter and knuckle joints used in
machinery are discussed. Their constructional detail and working principle
have been described. Then the detailed design procedures of both these
joints are given with suitable illustrations. Finally two examples, one on
cotter joint and the other on cotter joint have been solved.

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Module
4
Fasteners
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Lesson

3
Threaded Fasteners
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Different types of bolts, screws and studs.

Some details of tapping and set screws.

Thread forms in details.

4.3.1 Bolts, screws and studs are the most common types of
threaded fasteners. They are used in both permanent or
removable joints.
Bolts: They are basically threaded fasteners normally used with nuts.
Screws: They engage either with a preformed or a self made internal threads.
Studs: They are externally threaded headless fasteners. One end usually meets
a tapped component and the other with a standard nut.
There are different forms of bolt and screw heads for a different usage. These
include bolt heads of square, hexagonal or eye shape and screw heads of
hexagonal, Fillister, button head, counter sunk or Phillips type. These are shown
in figures-4.3.1.1 and 4.3.1.2.

4.3.1.1F- Types of screw heads (Ref.[6]).

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4.3.1.2F- Types of bolt heads (Ref.[6])..

Tapping screws
These are one piece fasteners which cut or form a mating thread when driven
into a preformed hole. These allow rapid installation since nuts are not used.
There are two types of tapping screws. They are known as thread forming
which displaces or forms the adjacent materials and thread cutting which have
cutting edges and chip cavities which create a mating thread.

Set Screws
These are semi permanent fasteners which hold collars, pulleys, gears etc on a
shaft. Different heads and point styles are available. Some of them are shown in
figure-4.3.1.3.

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4.3.1.3F- Different types of set screws (Ref.[6])..

4.3.2 Thread forms

Basically when a helical groove is cut or generated over a cylindrical or conical
section, threads are formed. When a point moves parallel to the axis of a rotating
cylinder or cone held between centers, a helix is generated. Screw threads
formed in this way have two functions to perform in general:
(a) To transmit power - Square. ACME, Buttress, Knuckle types of thread
forms are useful for this purpose.
(b) To secure one member to another- V-threads are most useful for this
purpose.
Some standard forms are shown in figure-4.3.2.1
V-threads are generally used for securing because they do not shake loose due
to the wedging action provided by the thread. Square threads give higher
efficiency due to a low friction. This is demonstrated in figure- 4.3.2.2.

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4.3.2.1F- Different types of thread forms (Ref.[6]).

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Square thread

cos

V-thread

4.3.2.2F- Loading on square and V threads.

4.3.3 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson firstly different types of bolts, set screws and studs are
discussed. Some details of set and tapping screws are also discussed.
Constructional details of thread forms and their applications have also
been included.

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Module
4
Fasteners
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Lesson

4
Design of bolted joints
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Different types of stresses developed in screw fasteners due to initial

tightening and external load.

Combined effect of initial tightening and external load on a bolted joint.

Leak proof joints and condition for joint separation.

4.4.1

Stresses in screw fastenings

It is necessary to determine the stresses in screw fastening due to both static and
dynamic loading in order to determine their dimensions. In order to design for
static loading both initial tightening and external loadings need be known.

4.4.1.1

Initial tightening load

When a nut is tightened over a screw following stresses are induced:

(a) Tensile stresses due to stretching of the bolt
(b) Torsional shear stress due to frictional resistance at the threads.
(c) Shear stress across threads
(d) Compressive or crushing stress on the threads
(e) Bending stress if the surfaces under the bolt head or nut are not perfectly
normal to the bolt axis.

(a) Tensile stress

Since none of the above mentioned stresses can be accurately determined bolts
are usually designed on the basis of direct tensile stress with a large factor of
safety. The initial tension in the bolt may be estimated by an empirical relation
P 1 =284 d kN, where the nominal bolt diameter d is given in mm. The relation is
used for making the joint leak proof. If leak proofing is not required half of the
above estimated load may be used. However, since initial stress is inversely

284d
proportional to square of the diameter =
, bolts of smaller diameter such
2

d
4

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as M16 or M8 may fail during initial tightening. In such cases torque wrenches
must be used to apply known load.
The torque in wrenches is given by T= C P 1 d where, C is a constant depending
on coefficient of friction at the mating surfaces, P 1 is tightening up load and d is
the bolt diameter.

(b) Torsional shear stress

This is given by =

16T
d c

where T is the torque and d c the core diameter. We

may relate torque T to the tightening load P 1 in a power screw configuration

(figure-4.4.1.1.1 ) and taking collar friction into account we may write
T= P 1

d m l + d m sec P1 c d cm

+
2 d m Lsec
2

where d m and d cm are the mean thread diameter and mean collar diameter
respectively, and c are the coefficients of thread and collar friction
respectively and is the semi thread angle. If we consider that
d cm =

(d m + 1.5d m )
2

then we may write T= C P 1 d m where C is a constant for a given arrangement.

As discussed earlier similar equations are used to find the torque in a wrench.

4.4.1.1.1F- A typical power screw configuration

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(c) Shear stress across the threads

This is given by =

3P
where d c is the core diameter and b is the base width
d c bn

of the thread and n is the number of threads sharing the load

(d) Crushing stress on threads

This is given by c =

d02 dc2 n
4

where d 0 and d c are the outside and core

diameters as shown in figure- 4.4.1.1.1

(e) Bending stress

If the underside of the bolt and the bolted part are not parallel as shown in figure4.4.1.1.2, the bolt may be subjected to bending and the bending stress may be
given by
B =

xE
where x is the difference in height between the extreme corners of the
2L

nut or bolt head, L is length of the bolt head shank and E is the youngs modulus.

4.4.1.1.2F- Development of bending stress in a bolt

4.4.1.2 Stresses due to an external load

If we consider an eye hook bolt as shown in figure- 4.4.1.2.1 where the complete
machinery weight is supported by threaded portion of the bolt, then the bolt is

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subjected to an axial load and the weakest section will be at the root of the
thread. On this basis we may write
2
P 2 = dc t
4

where for fine threads dc =0.88d and for coarse threads dc =0.84d, d being the
nominal diameter.

P2

4.4.1.2.1F- An eye hook bolt

Bolts are occasionally subjected to shear loads also, for example bolts in a flange
coupling as shown in figure- 4.4.1.2.2. It should be remembered in design that
shear stress on the bolts must be avoided as much as possible. However if this
cannot be avoided the shear plane should be on the shank of the bolt and not the
threaded portion. Bolt diameter in such cases may be found from the relation

PCD
T= n d c 2
2
4

where n is the number of bolts sharing the load, is the shear yield stress of the
bolt material. If the bolt is subjected to both tensile and shear loads, the shank
should be designed for shear and the threaded portion for tension. A diameter
slightly larger than that required for both the cases should be used and it should
be checked for failure using a suitable failure theory.

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4.4.1.2.2F- A typical rigid flange coupling

4.4.1.3 Combined effect of initial tightening load and external load
When a bolt is subjected to both initial tightening and external loads i.e. when a
preloaded bolt is in tension or compression the resultant load on the bolt will
depend on the relative elastic yielding of the bolt and the connected members.
This situation may occur in steam engine cylinder cover joint for example. In this
case the bolts are initially tightened and then the steam pressure applies a tensile
load on the bolts. This is shown in figure-4.4.1.3.1 (a) and 4.4.1.3.1 (b).

P2

P2
P1

P2
P1
P2

P2

(a)

(b)

4.4.1.3.1F- A bolted joint subjected to both initial tightening and external load

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Initially due to preloading the bolt is elongated and the connected members are
compressed. When the external load P is applied, the bolt deformation increases
and the compression of the connected members decreases. Here P1 and P2 in
figure 4.4.1.3.1 (a) are the tensile loads on the bolt due to initial tightening and
external load respectively.
The increase in bolt deformation is given by B =

Pb
and decrease in member
Kb

PC
where, P b is the share of P2 in bolt, P C is the share of
KC
and K c are the stiffnesses of bolt and members. If the parts

compression is C =
P2 in members, K b

are not separated then b = c and this gives

P
Pb
= C
Kb KC

Therefore, the total applied load P 2 due to steam pressure is given by

P 2 = Pb + P C
This gives

Pb= P 2 K, where K =

Kb
. Therefore the resultant load on bolt
(K b + K c )

is P 1 +KP 2 . Sometimes connected members may be more yielding than the bolt
and this may occurs when a soft gasket is placed between the surfaces. Under
these circumstances
K b >>K c or

Kc
<< 1 and this gives K 1. Therefore the total load P = P 1 + P 2
Kb

Normally K has a value around 0.25 or 0.5 for a hard copper gasket with long
through bolts. On the other hand if

K C >>K b , K approaches zero and the total

load P equals the initial tightening load. This may occur when there is no soft
gasket and metal to metal contact occurs. This is not desirable. Some typical
values of the constant K are given in table 4.4.1.3.1.

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Type of joint

Metal to metal contact with through bolt

0-0.1

Hard copper gasket with long through

0.25-0.5

bolt

0.50-

Soft copper gasket with through bolts

0.75

Soft packing with through bolts

0.75-

Soft packing with studs

1.00
1.00

4.4.1.3.1T

4.4.2 Leak proof joint

The above analysis is true as long as some initial compression exists. If the
external load is large enough the compression will be completely removed and
the whole external load will be carried by the bolt and the members may bodily
separate leading to leakage.
Therefore, the condition for leak proof joint is

P
P1
> b . Substituting Pb=P 2 K
Kc
Kb

Kc 1 K
the condition for a leak proof joint reduces to P 1 >P 2 (1-K). It is
=
Kb
K
therefore necessary to maintain a minimum level of initial tightening to avoid
leakage.

and

4.4.3 Joint separation

Clearly if the resultant load on a bolt vanishes a joint would separate and the
condition for joint separating may be written as P 1 +KP 2 =0
Therefore if P 1 >KP 2 and P 1 < A b tyb , there will be no joint separation. Here A b
and tyb are the bolt contact area and tensile yield stress of the bolt material
respectively and condition ensures that there would be no yielding of the bolt due
to initial tightening load.

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The requirement for higher initial tension and higher gasket factor (K) for a better

Resultant LoadP

joint may be explained by the simple diagram as in figure- 4.4.3.1.

P= P 2 line
(i.e. when leakage starts)
= tan-1(K)

P= P 1+KP 2

Leakage starts here at P = P 2*

More external load sustained
before leakage for higher K

P1
45o

P 2*

P 2 (External Load)
4.4.3.1F Force diagram for joint separation

4.4.4 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

12 M20 x 2.5C bolts are used to hold the cylinder head of a reciprocating
air compressor in position. The air pressure is 7 MPa and the cylinder bore
diameter is 100 mm. A soft copper gasket with long bolts is used for
sealing. If the tensile yield stress of the bolt material is 500 MPa find the
suitability of the bolt for the purpose. Check if the joint is leak proof and
also if any joint separation may occur.

A.1:
According to Indian Standard Thread designation M20 x 2.5C indicates a
metric bolt of nominal diameter 20 mm and a course pitch of 2.5 mm.
Some typical bolt dimensions are quoted in table-4.4.4.1 as recommended
by I.S. 4218-1978 (Part VI) :

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Designation

Pitch
(mm)

Minor Diameter

Stress

Bolt

Nut

area

(mm)

(mm)

(mm2)

M2

0.40

1.509

1.567

207

M5

0.8

4.019

4.134

14.2

M10

1.25

8.466

8.647

61.6

M16

1.5

14.160 14.376

167

M20

1.5

18.160 18.376

272

M24

21.546 21.835

384

4.4.4.1T-

Based on this for M20 x 2.5C bolt the initial tightening load is given by
P1=284 d which is 56.8 kN.

2
x ( 0.1) x7x106
External load on each bolt P2 = 4
i.e. 4.58 kN.
12
From section 4.4.1.3 the constant K = 0.5-0.75. Taking an average value
of K=0.625 the total resultant load P is given by P=56.8+0.625x4.58 =
59.66 kN.
From the table above, the stress area for M20 x 2.5C bolt is 245 mm2. The
stress produced in the bolt =

59.66x103
= 243MPa .
245x106

The stress is within the yield stress of the material and gives a factor of
safety of 500/243 2.
Test for leak proof joint
Refer to section 4.4.2. The condition for leak proofing is P 1 >P 2 (1-K).
P 2 (1-K) = 1.717 kN which is much less than P1= 56.8 kN. Therefore the
joint is leak proof.
Test for joint separation
Two conditions are P 1 >KP 2 and P 1 <Aty. KP 2 =2.86 kN which is much
less than P 1 = 56.8 kN and Abty= 245x10-6 = 122.5 kN which is much
higher than P 1 = 56.8 kN. Therefore the joint separation will not take place.
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Q.2:

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In a steam engine the steam pressure is 2 MPa and the cylinder diameter
is 250 mm. The contact surfaces of the head and cylinder are ground and
no packing is required. Choose a suitable bolt so that the joint is leak
proof. Assume number of bolts to be used is 12.

A.2:
Let the nominal diameter of the bolt to be chosen is d mm. The initial
tightening load = 248d kg i.e. 2.48d kN.
The external load per bolt =

2
x ( 0.25 ) x2x106 12 = 8.18 kN . Now the
4

condition for leak proofing is P 1 >P 2 (1-K). Here for ground surfaces K=0.1.
Therefore
2.48d = 8.18 x 0.9. This gives d = 2.97 mm. This is the minimum
requirement and we take d = 10 mm. We also check for yielding (P 1 + K
P 2 )/ Ab < ty.
Here, Ab from the table-4.4.4.1 is 58 mm2 and therefore (P 1 + K P 2 )/ Ab=

( 2.48x10 + 0.1x8.18) x103 = 442 MPa which is well within the range. It
58

therefore seems that from strength point of view a smaller diameter bolt
will suffice. However, the choice of M10 x 1.5C would provide a good
safety margin and rigidity.

4.4.5 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson stresses developed in screw fastenings due to initial
tightening load and external load have been discussed along with relevant
examples. Following this combined effect of initial tightening and external
load on bolts is discussed and the condition for the bolted parts not to
separate is derived. Condition for leak proof joints and joint separation
have also been discussed.

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4.4.6 Reference for Module-4

1) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India,
1991.
2) Machine design-an integrated approach by Robert L. Norton, Pearson
Education Ltd, 2001.
3) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,
S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.
5) Fundamentals of machine component design, 3rd edition, by Robert C.
Juvinall and Kurt M. Marshek, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
6) The elements of machine design by S.J.Berard and E.O.Waters, D.Van
Nostrand Company, 1927.

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Module
5
Couplings
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Lesson
1
Introduction, types and
uses

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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

The function of couplings in machinery.

Different types of couplings: rigid and flexible couplings.

Types of rigid couplings such as sleeve, clamp, ring compression type and
flange couplings.

Types of misalignments and couplings suitable to connect misaligned shafts.

5.1.1 Introduction
Couplings are used to connect two shafts for torque transmission in varied
applications. It may be to connect two units such as a motor and a
generator or it may be to form a long line shaft by connecting shafts of
standard lengths say

6-8m by couplings. Coupling may be rigid or they

may provide flexibility and compensate for misalignment. They may also
reduce shock loading and vibration. A wide variety of commercial shaft
couplings are available ranging from a simple keyed coupling to one which
requires a complex design procedure using gears or fluid drives etc.
However there are two main types of couplings:
Rigid couplings
Flexible couplings
Rigid couplings are used for shafts having no misalignment while the
flexible couplings can absorb some amount of misalignment in the shafts
to be connected. In the next section we shall discuss different types of
couplings and their uses under these two broad headings.

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5.1.2 Types and uses of shaft couplings

5.1.2.1 Rigid couplings
Since these couplings cannot absorb any misalignment the shafts to be
connected by a rigid coupling must have good lateral and angular
alignment. The types of misalignments are shown schematically in figure5.1.2.1.1.

Aligned shaft axes

Shaft axes with lateral

misalignment

Shaft axes with angular

misalignment

5.1.2.1.1.F- Types of misalignments in shafts

5.1.2.1.1 Sleeve coupling
One of the simple type of rigid coupling is a sleeve coupling which
consists of a cylindrical sleeve keyed to the shafts to be connected. A
typical sleeve coupling is shown in figure- 5.1.2.1.1.1.

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Sleeve
L

Key
Keyway

d0

Shaft

5.1.2.1.1.1F- A typical sleeve coupling

Normally sunk keys are used and in order to transmit the torque safely it is
important to design the sleeve and the key properly. The key design is
usually based on shear and bearing stresses. If the torque transmitted is
T, the shaft radius is r and a rectangular sunk key of dimension b and
length L is used then the induced shear stress ( figure- 5.1.2.1.1.2) in
the key is given by
L
= T b r
2

and for safety

( 2T bLr ) < y
where y is the yield stress in shear of the key material. A suitable factor of
safety must be used. The induced crushing stress in the key is given as
b L
br = T
r
2 2

and for a safe design

4T ( bLr ) < c
where c is the crushing strength of the key material.

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Key
Shear plane
Crushing plane

b
L

5.1.2.1.1.2F- Shear and crushing planes in the key.

The sleeve transmits the torque from one shaft to the other. Therefore if di
is the inside diameter of the sleeve which is also close to the shaft
diameter d (say) and d0 is outside diameter of the sleeve, the shear stress
developed in the sleeve is sleeve =
shaft is given by shaft =

16Td 0

d 04 d i4

and the shear stress in the

16T
. Substituting yield shear stresses of the
d3i

sleeve and shaft materials for sleeve and shaft both di and d0 may be
evaluated.
However from the empirical proportions we have:
d0 = 2di + 12.5 mm and L=3.5d.
These may be used as checks.

5.1.2.1.2

Sleeve coupling with taper pins

Torque transmission from one shaft to another may also be done using
pins as shown in figure-5.1.2.1.2.1.

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Pin

d0

Sleeve

Shaft
L

5.1.2.1.2.1F- A representative sleeve coupling with taper pins.

The usual proportions in terms of shaft diameter d for these couplings are:
d0 = 1.5d, L = 3d and a = 0.75d.
The mean pin diameter dmean = 0.2 to 0.25 d. For small couplings dmean is
taken as 0.25d and for large couplings dmean is taken as 0.2d. Once the
dimensions are fixed we may check the pin for shear failure using the
relation

d
2 d 2mean = T .
4
2

Here T is the torque and the shear stress must not exceed the shear
yield stress of the pin material. A suitable factor of safety may be used for
the shear yield stress.

5.1.2.1.3 Clamp coupling

A typical clamp coupling is shown in figure-5.1.2.1.3.1. It essentially
consists of two half cylinders which are placed over the ends of the shafts
to be coupled and are held together by through bolt.

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5.1.2.1.3.1F- A representative clamp coupling

The length of these couplings L usually vary between 3.5 to 5 times the
and the outside diameter d0 of the coupling sleeve between 2 to 4 times
the shaft diameter d. It is assumed that even with a key the torque is
transmitted due to the friction grip. If now the number of bolt on each half
is n, its core diameter is dc and the coefficient of friction between the shaft
and sleeve material is we may find the torque transmitted T as follows:
The clamping pressure between the shaft and the sleeve is given by
p=

n 2
x d x t
2 4 c

( dL / 2 )

where n is the total number of bolts, the number of effective bolts for each
shaft is n/2 and t is the allowable tensile stress in the bolt. The tangential
force per unit area in the shaft periphery is F = p. The torque transmitted
can therefore be given by T =

dL
d
p. .
2
2

5.1.2.1.4 Ring compression type couplings

The coupling (figure-5.1.2.1.4.1) consists of two cones which are placed on
the shafts to be coupled and a sleeve that fits over the cones. Three bolts

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are used to draw the cones towards each other and thus wedge them
firmly between the shafts and the outer sleeve. The usual proportions for
these couplings in terms of shaft diameter d are approximately as follows:
d1 = 2d + 15.24 mm

L1 = 3d

d2 = 2.45d + 27.94 mm

L2 = 3.5d + 12.7 mm

d3 = 0.23d + 3.17 mm

L3 = 1.5d

d2

d
d1

and the taper of the cone is approximately 1 in 4 on diameter.

L3
d3

L1
L2

5.1.2.1.4.1F- A representative ring compression type coupling.

5.1.2.1.4 Flange coupling

It is a very widely used rigid coupling and consists of two flanges keyed to
the shafts and bolted. This is illustrated in figure-5.1.2.1.4.2.

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Protecting flange

t2
t3

Hub

d2
d1

d3

Key

t1

5.1.2.1.4.2F- A typical flange coupling

Design details of such couplings will be discussed in the next lesson. The
main features of the design are essentially
(a) Design of bolts
(b) Design of hub
(c) Overall design and dimensions.

5.1.2.2 Flexible coupling

As

discussed

earlier

these

couplings

can

accommodate

some

misalignment and impact. A large variety of flexible couplings are available

commercially and principal features of only a few will be discussed here.

5.1.2.2.1 Oldham coupling

These couplings can accommodate both lateral and angular misalignment
to some extent. An Oldham coupling consists of two flanges with slots on
the faces and the flanges are keyed or screwed to the shafts. A cylindrical

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piece, called the disc, has a narrow rectangular raised portion running
across each face but at right angle to each other. The disc is placed
between the flanges such that the raised portions fit into the slots in the
flanges. The disc may be made of flexible materials and this absorbs
some misalignment. A schematic representation is shown in figure5.1.2.2.1.1.

5.1.2.2.1.1F- A schematic diagram of an Oldham coupling

5.1.2.2.2 Universal joints

These joints are capable of handling relatively large angular misalignment
and they are widely used in agricultural machinery, machine tools and
automobiles.A typical universal joint is shown in figure- 5.1.2.2.2.1.There are
many forms of these couplings, available commercially but they essentially
consist of two forks keyed or screwed to the shaft. There is a center piece
through which pass two pins with mutually perpendicular axes and they connect
the two fork ends such that a large angular misalignment can be accommodated.
The coupling, often known as, Hookes coupling has no torsional rigidity nor can
it accommodate any parallel offset.

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5.1.2.2.2.1F- A typical universal joint (Ref. [2])

5.1.2.2.2

Pin type flexible coupling

One of the most commonly used flexible coupling is a pin type flexible
flange coupling in which torque is transmitted from one flange to the other
through a flexible bush put around the bolt. This is shown in the next
lesson and is shown in figure-5.2.2.1.
These are used when excessive misalignment is not expected such as a
coupling between a motor and a generator or a pump mounted on a
common base plate. Detail design procedure for these couplings will be
discussed in the next lesson.

5.1.3 Summary of this Lesson

Basic function of shaft couplings, their types and uses have been
discussed in this lesson. Among the rigid couplings some details of sleeve
couplings with key or taper pins, clamp couplings, ring compression type
couplings and flange couplings have been described. Among the flexible
couplings the Oldham coupling and universal joints are described and the
functions of pin type flexible couplings are given briefly.

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Module
5
Couplings
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Lesson

2
Design procedures for
rigid and flexible
rubber-bushed
couplings
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Detailed design procedure of a typical rigid flange coupling.

Detailed design procedure of a typical flexible rubber-bush coupling.

5.2.1 Rigid Flange Coupling

A typical rigid flange coupling is shown in Figure- 5.1.2.1.4.2.
If essentially consists of two cast iron flanges which are keyed to the shafts
to be joined. The flanges are brought together and are bolted in the annular
space between the hub and the protecting flange. The protective flange is
provided to guard the projecting bolt heads and nuts. The bolts are placed
equi-spaced on a bolt circle diameter and the number of bolt depends on
the shaft diameter d. A spigot A on one flange and a recess on the
opposing face is provided for ease of assembly.
The design procedure is generally based on determining the shaft
diameter d for a given torque transmission and then following empirical
relations different dimensions of the coupling are obtained. Check for
different failure modes can then be carried out. Design procedure is given in
the following steps:
(1) Shaft diameterd based on torque transmission is given by
1/ 3

16T
d=

where T is the torque and y is the yield stress in shear.

(2) Hub diameter d1 =1.75d +6.5mm
(3) Hub length L = 1.5d

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But the hub length also depends on the length of the key. Therefore this
length L must be checked while finding the key dimension based on shear
and crushing failure modes.
(4) Key dimensions:
If a square key of sides b is used then b is commonly taken as

d
. In that
4

case, for shear failure we have

d
d

.L k .y. = T
2
4

where y is the yield stress in shear and Lk is the key

length.
This gives Lk =

8T
d 2 y

If Lk determined here is less than hub length L we may assume the key
length to be the same as hub length.
For crushing failure we have
d
d

.L k c. = T where c is crushing stress induced in the key. This gives

2
8

c =

16T
Lk d 2

and if c < cy , the bearing strength of the key material , the key dimensions
chosen are in order.
(5) Bolt dimensions :
The bolts are subjected to shear and bearing stresses while transmitting
torque.
Considering the shear failure mode we have
d

n. d b 2 yb c = T
4
2

where n is the number of bolts, db the nominal bolt diameter, T is the torque
transmitted, yb is the shear yield strength of the bolt material and dc is the
bolt circle diameter. The bolt diameter may now be obtained if n is known.
The number of bolts n is often given by the following empirical relation:

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n=

4
d+3
150

where d is the shaft diameter in mm. The bolt circle diameter must be such
that it should provide clearance for socket wrench to be used for the bolts.
The empirical relation takes care of this
Considering crushing failure we have
n.d b t 2 cyb

dc
=T
2

where t2 is the flange width over which the bolts make contact and cyb is
the yield crushing strength of the bolt material. This gives t2. Clearly the bolt
length must be more than 2t2 and a suitable standard length for the bolt
diameter may be chosen from hand book.
(6) A protecting flange is provided as a guard for bolt heads and nuts. The
thickness t3 is less than t 2 2 . The corners of the flanges should be rounded.
(7) The spigot depth is usually taken between 2-3mm.
(8) Another check for the shear failure of the hub is to be carried out. For this
failure mode we may write
d1t 2 yf

d1
=T
2

where d1 is the hub diameter and yf is the shear yield strength of the flange
material.
Knowing yf we may check if the chosen value of t2 is satisfactory or not.
Finally, knowing hub diameter d1, bolt diameter and protective thickness t2
we may decide the overall diameter d3.

5.2.2 Flexible rubber bushed couplings

This is simplest type of flexible coupling and a typical coupling of this type
is shown in Figure-5.2.2.1.

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t2

c
t3

dr

dbr

dneck
Hub
Shaft
Key

dc

d1 d

Brass bush
Pin
Rubber bush

5.2.2.1F- A typical flexible coupling with rubber bushings.

In a rigid coupling the torque is transmitted from one half of the coupling to
the other through the bolts and in this arrangement shafts need be aligned
very well.
However in the bushed coupling the rubber bushings over the pins (bolts) (as
shown in Figure-5.2.2.1) provide flexibility and these coupling can
accommodate some misalignment.
Because of the rubber bushing the design for pins should be considered
carefully.
(1) Bearing stress
Rubber bushings are available for different inside and out side diameters.
However rubber bushes are mostly available in thickness between 6 mm
to 7.5mm for bores upto 25mm and 9mm thickness for larger bores. Brass
sleeves are made to suit the requirements. However, brass sleeve
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thickness may be taken to be 1.5mm. The outside diameter of rubber

bushing dr is given by
dr= db +2 tbr +2 tr
where db is the diameter of the bolt or pin , tbr is the thickness of the brass
sleeve and tr is the thickness of rubber bushing. We may now write
n.d r t 2 p b

dc
=T
2

where dc is the bolt circle diameter and t2 the flange thickness over the
bush contact area. A suitable bearing pressure for rubber is 0.035 N/mm2
and the number of pin is given by n =

d
+ 3 where d is in mm.
25

The dc here is different from what we had for rigid flange bearings. This
must be

judged considering the hub diameters, out side diameter of

the bush and a suitable clearance. A rough drawing is often useful in this
regard.
From the above torque equation we may obtain bearing pressure
developed and compare this with the bearing pressure of rubber for safely.
(2) Shear stress
The pins in the coupling are subjected to shear and it is a good practice to
ensure that the shear plane avoids the threaded portion of the bolt. Unlike
the rigid coupling the shear stress due to torque transmission is given in
terms of the tangential force F at the outside diameter of the rubber bush.
Shear stress at the neck area is given by
b =

pb t 2d r
2
d neck
4

where dneck is bolt diameter at the neck i.e at the shear plane.
Bending Stress
The pin loading is shown in Figure-5.2.2.2.

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t2

p
dbr

5.2.2.2F- Loading on a pin supporting the bushings.

Clearly the bearing pressure that acts as distributed load on rubber bush
would produce bending of the pin. Considering an equivalent concentrated
load F= pt2d the bending stress is

b =

32F ( t 2 2 )
d 3br

Knowing the shear and bending stresses we may check the pin diameter for
principal stresses using appropriate theories of failure.
We may also assume the following empirical relations:
Hub diameter = 2d
Hub length = 1.5d
Pin diameter at the neck =

0.5d
n

5.2.3 Problems with answers

Q.1:

Design a typical rigid flange coupling for connecting a motor and a

centrifugal pump shafts. The coupling needs to transmit 15 KW at
1000 rpm. The allowable shear stresses of the shaft, key and bolt
materials are 60 MPa,50 MPa and 25 MPa respectively. The shear
modulus of the shaft material may be taken as 84GPa. The angle of

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twist of the shaft should be limited to 1 degree in 20 times the shaft

diameter.
A.1:
The shaft diameter based on strength may be given by
d =

16T
where T is the torque transmitted and y is the
y

allowable yield stress in shear.

15x103
2N
Here T = Power/
=
= 143Nm

2x1000
60

60
And substituting y = 60x106Pa we have
1

16x143 3
= 2.29x102 m  23mm .
d =
6
x60x10
Let us consider a shaft of 25 mm which is a standard size.
From the rigidity point of view
T G
=
J
L

Substituting T = 143Nm , J =

(0.025) 4 = 38.3x109 m 4 , G = 84x109 Pa

32

143
=
L 38.3x109 x84x109

= 0.044 radian per meter.

The limiting twist is 1 degree in 20 times the shaft diameter

180
= 0.035 radian per meter
which is
20x0.025
Therefore, the shaft diameter of 25mm is safe.
We now consider a typical rigid flange coupling as shown in Figure
5.1.2.1.4.2F.
HubUsing empirical relations
Hub diameter d1 = 1.75d + 6.5 mm. This gives
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d1 = 1.75x25 + 6.5 = 50.25mm say d1 = 51 mm

Hub length L=1.5d. This gives L = 1.5x25 = 37.5mm, say L= 38mm.
Hub thickness t1=

d1 d 51 25
=
= 13mm
2
2

Key
Now to avoid the shear failure of the key (refer to Figure 5.1.2.1.1.2 F)
d
d
d
L k . y . = T where the key width w = and the key length is Lk
2
4
4

8T
8x143
i.e.
= 0.0366 m = 36.6 mm
2
( y d )
50x106 x(0.025) 2

This gives Lk =

The hub length is 37.5 mm. Therefore we take Lk = 37.5mm.

To avoid crushing failure of the key (Ref to Figure 5.1.2.1.1.2 F)
d
d
( L k ). = T where is the crushing stress developed in the key.
2
8

This gives =

16
Lk d 2

Substituting T = 143Nm, Lk = 37.5 x 10-3 m and d = 0.025 m

16x143x106
= 97.62MPa
37.5x103 x(0.025) 2

Assuming an allowable crushing stress for the key material to be

100MPa, the key design is safe. Therefore the key size may be taken
as: a square key of 6.25 mm size and 37.5 mm long. However keeping
in mind that for a shaft of diameter between 22mm and 30 mm a
rectangular key of 8mm width, 7mm depth and length between 18mm
and 90mm is recommended. We choose a standard key of 8mm width,
7mm depth and 38mm length which is safe for the present purpose.
Bolts.
To avoid shear failure of bolts
n

2 dc
d b yb
=T
4
2

where number of bolts n is given by the empirical relation

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n=

4
d + 3 where d is the shaft diameter in mm.
150

which gives n=3.66 and we may take n=4 or more.

Here yb is the allowable shear stress of the bolt and this is assumed to
be 60 MPa.
dc is the bolt circle diameter and this may be assumed initially based
on hub diameter d1=51 mm and later the dimension must be justified
Let dc =65mm.
Substituting the values we have the bolt diameter db as

8T
db=
n yb d c

1
2

8x143

2
= 7.48x103
i.e.
6
3

4
x25x10
x65x10

which gives db = 7.48 mm.

With higher factor of safety we may take db = 10 mm which is a
standard size.
We may now check for crushing failure as
nd b t 2 c

dc
=T
2

Substituting n=4, db=10mm,c=100MPa,dc=65mm&T=143Nm and this

gives t2=2.2mm.
1
However empirically we have t2= t1 + 6.5 = 13mm
2

Therefore we take t2=13mm which gives higher factor of safety.

Protecting flange thickness.

Protecting flange thickness t3 is usually less than

1
t2 we therefore
2

take t3 = 8mm since there is no direct load on this part.

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Spigot depth
Spigot depth which is mainly provided for location may be taken as
2mm.

Check for the shear failure of the hub

To avoid shear failure of hub we have
d1t 2 f

d1
=T
2

Substituting d1=51mm, t2=13mm and T = 143Nm, we have shear

stress in flange f as f =

2T
(d 2 1 t 2 )

And this gives f = 2.69 MPa which is much less than the yield shear
value of flange material 60MPa.

Q.2:

Determine the suitable dimensions of a rubber bush for a flexible

coupling to connect of a motor and a pump. The motor is of 50 KW and
runs at 300rpm. The shaft diameter is 50mm and the pins are on pitch
circle diameter of 140mm. The bearing pressure on the bushes may be
taken as 0.5MPa and the allowable shear and bearing stress of the pin
materials are 25 MPa and 50 MPa respectively. The allowable shear
yield strength of the shaft material may be taken as 60MPa.

A.2:
A typical pin in a bushed flexible coupling is as shown in Figure-5.2.3.1.

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Rubber bush

dneck

Brass sleeve

Enlarged
Diameter

L
L1

5.2.3.1F- A typical pin for the bushings.

There is an enlarged portion on which a flexible bush is fitted to absorb

the misalignment. The threaded portion provided for a nut to tighten on
the flange. Considering the whole pin there are three basic stresses
developed in the pin in addition to the tightening stresses. There are (a)
shear stresses at the unthreaded neck area (b) bending stress over the
loaded portion (L) of the enlarged portion of the pin and (c) bearing
stress.
However, before we consider the stresses we need to determine the pin
diameter

T=

and

length.

Here

the

torque

transmitted

50x103
= 159Nm
2x3000

60
1

16T 3
Based on torsional shear the shaft diameter d =
y

Substituting T=159Nm and y = 60MPa, we have d = 23.8mm. Let the

shaft diameter be 25mm. From empirical relations we have
Pin diameter at the neck dneck =
where the number of pins n =

0.5d
n

4d
+3
150

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Substituting d = 25 mm we have
n = 3.67 (say) 4
dneck = 6.25 (say) 8mm
On this basis the shear stress at the neck =

T
2 dc
4 d neck n 2

which gives

11.29 MPa and this is much less than yield stress of the pin material.
There is no specific recommendation for the enlarged diameter based on
dneck but the enlarged diameters should be enough to provide a neck for
tightening. We may choose
denlarged = 16mm which is a standard size. Therefore we may determine
the inner diameter of the rubber bush as
dbush = Enlarged diameter of the pin + 2x brass sleeve thickness.
A brass sleeve of 2mm thickness is sufficient and we have
dbush = 20mm
Rubber bush of core diameter up to 25mm are available in thickness of
6mm. Therefore we choose a bush of core diameter 20mm and
thickness 6mm.
In order to determine the bush length we have
T = npLd bush

dc
2

where p is the bearing pressure, (Ldbush) is the projected area and dc is

the pitch circle diameter. Substituting T= 159Nm, p = 0.5MPa, dbush =
0.02m and dc = 0.14m we have L = 56.78 mm.
The rubber bush chosen is therefore of 20mm bore size, 6mm wall
thickness and 60 mm long.

5.2.4 Summary of this Lesson

Detailed design procedure of a rigid flange coupling has been discussed in
which failure modes of different parts such as the shaft, key, bolts and
protecting flange are described. Design details of a flexible coupling using

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rubber bushings have also been discussed. Here the failure modes of the
flexible rubber bushings have been specially considered. Some typical
problems have also been solved.

5.2.5 Reference for Module-5

1) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,
S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
2) The elements of machine design by S.J.Berard and E.O.Waters, D.Van
Nostrand Company, 1927.
3) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India, 1991.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.
5)

A text book of machine drawing by R. K. Dhawan, S. Chand and Co.

Ltd., 1996.

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Module
6
Power Screws
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Lesson
1
Power Screw drives and
their efficiency
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand

Power screw mechanism.

The thread forms used in power screws.

Torque required to raise and lower a load in a power screw

Efficiency of a power screw and condition for self locking.

6.1.1 Introduction
A power screw is a drive used in machinery to convert a rotary motion into
a linear motion for power transmission. It produces uniform motion and the
design of the power screw may be such that
(a) Either the screw or the nut is held at rest and the other member rotates as
it moves axially. A typical example of this is a screw clamp.
(b) Either the screw or the nut rotates but does not move axially. A typical
example for this is a press.
Other applications of power screws are jack screws, lead screws of a
lathe, screws for vices, presses etc.
Power screw normally uses square threads but ACME or Buttress threads
may also be used. Power screws should be designed for smooth and
noiseless transmission of power with an ability to carry heavy loads with
high efficiency. We first consider the different thread forms and their
proportions:
Square threadsThe thread form is shown in figure-6.1.1.1. These threads have high
efficiency but they are difficult to manufacture and are expensive. The
proportions in terms of pitch are:
h1= 0.5 p ; h2 = 0.5 p - b ; H = 0.5 p + a ; e = 0.5 p
a and b are different for different series of threads.

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p
e

a
H

h1

h2

6.1.1.1F Some details of square thread form

There are different series of this thread form and some nominal diameters,
corresponding pitch and dimensions a and b are shown in table-6.1.1.1 as per
I.S. 4694-1968.

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6.1.1.1T Dimensions of three different series of square thread form.

Nominal
Dia
(mm)
10-22
22-62
115-175
250-300
420-500

Fine Series
Steps Pitch
(mm)
2
2
5
10
20

(mm)
2
3
6
12
18

(mm)
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.5

(mm)
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
1

Nominal
Dia
(mm)
22-28
30-36
115-145
240-260
270-290

Normal Series
Steps Pitch
a
(mm)
2
2
5
10
10

(mm)
5
6
14
22
24

(mm)
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5

b
(mm)
0.5
0.5
1
1
1

Nominal
Dia
(mm)
22-28
30-38
115-130
250-280
290-300

Coarse Series
Steps Pitch
a
(mm)
2
2
5
10
10

(mm)
8
10
22
40
44

(mm)
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5

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b
(mm)
0.5
0.5
1
1
1

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According to IS-4694-1968, a square thread is designated by its nominal

diameter and pitch, as for example, SQ 10 x 2 designates a thread form of
nominal diameter 10 mm and pitch 2 mm.

Acme or Trapezoidal threads

The Acme thread form is shown in figure- 6.1.1.2. These threads may be
used in applications such as lead screw of a lathe where loss of motion
cannot be tolerated. The included angle 2 = 29o and other proportions
are
a=

p
and h = 0.25 p + 0.25 mm
2.7

6.1.1.2F Some details of Acme or Trapezoidal thread forms.

A metric trapezoidal thread form is shown in figure- 6.1.1.3 and different

proportions of the thread form in terms of the pitch are as follows:
Included angle = 30o ; H1= 0.5 p ; z = 0.25 p + H1/2 ; H3 = h3 = H1+ ac =
0.5 p + ac
ac is different for different pitch, for example
ac = 0.15 mm for p = 1.5 mm ; ac = 0.25 mm for p = 2 to 5 mm;
ac = 0.5 mm for p = 6 to 12 mm ; ac = 1 mm for p = 14 to 44 mm.

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6.1.1.3F- Some details of a metric Trapezoidal thread form.

Some standard dimensions for a trapezoidal thread form are given in

table- 6.1.1.2 as per IS 7008 (Part II and III) - 1973:

6.1.1.2T- Dimensions of a trapezoidal thread form.

Nominal Diameter
(mm)
pitch
(mm)

10

25

50

75

100

150

200

250

300

1.5

10

12

16

18

22

24

According to IS7008-1973 trapezoidal threads may be designated as, for

example, Tr 50 x 8 which indicates a nominal diameter of 50 mm and a
pitch of 8 mm.

Buttress thread
This thread form can also be used for power screws but they can transmit
power only in one direction. Typical applications are screw jack, vices etc.
A Buttress thread form is shown in figure- 6.1.1.4. and the proportions are
shown in the figure in terms of the pitch.
On the whole the square threads have the highest efficiency as compared
to other thread forms but they are less sturdy than the trapezoidal thread
forms and the adjustment for wear is difficult for square threads.

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When a large linear motion of a power screw is required two or more

parallel threads are used. These are called multiple start power drives.

p/8

3
p
4

45o

6.1.1.4F Some details of a Buttress thread form

6.1.2

Efficiency of a power screw

A square thread power screw with a single start is shown in figure6.1.2.1. Here p is the pitch, the helix angle, dm the mean diameter of
thread and F is the axial load. A developed single thread is shown in
figure- 6.1.2.2 where L = n p for a multi-start drive, n being the number of
starts. In order to analyze the mechanics of the power screw we need to
consider two cases:
(a) Raising the load
(b) Lowering the load.

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F
Collar

Nut
Nut

F
L=np

Screw
F

dm

dm

6.1.2.1F A square thread power screw

6.1.2.2F- Development of a
single thread

Raising the load

This requires an axial force P as shown in figure- 6.1.2.3. Here N is the
normal reaction and N is the frictional force.
For equilibrium
P - N cos - N sin = 0

F + N sin - N cos = 0

This gives

N = F ( cos sin )

P=

F ( cos + sin )

L
N
dm

( cos sin )

6.1.2.3 F- Forces at the contact surface

for raising the load.

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Torque transmitted during raising the load is then given by

TR = P

dm
d ( cos + sin )
=F m
2
2 ( cos sin )

Since tan =
TR = F

L
we have
d m

d m ( d m + L )
2 ( d m L )

The force system at the thread during lowering the load is shown in
figure- 6.1.2.4. For equilibrium
P - N cos + N sin = 0

F - N cos - N sin = 0
This gives

N = F ( cos + sin )

P=

F ( cos sin )

N
dm

( cos + sin )

6.1.2.4F- Forces at the contact

surface for lowering the load.
Torque required to lower the load is given by
TL = P

dm
d ( cos sin )
=F m
2
2 ( cos + sin )

And again taking tan =

TL = F

L
d m

we have

d m ( d m L )
2 ( d m + L )

Condition for self locking

The load would lower itself without any external force if
dm < L
and some external force is required to lower the load if

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dm L
This is therefore the condition for self locking.

Efficiency of the power screw is given by

=

Work output
Work input

Here work output = F. L

Work input = p. dm
This gives
=

F
tan
P

The above analysis is for square thread and for trapezoidal thread some
modification is required. Because of the thread angle the force normal to
the thread surface is increased as shown in figure- 6.1.2.5. The torque is
therefore given by
T=F

d m ( d m sec + L )
2 ( d m Lsec )

This considers the increased friction due to the wedging action. The
trapezoidal threads are not preferred because of high friction but often
used due to their ease of machining.

F
cos

Fx

Thread angle = 2

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6.1.2.5 F Normal force on a trapezoidal thread surface

Bursting effect on the nut

Bursting effect on the nut is caused by the horizontal component of the
axial load F on the screw and this is given by ( figure- 6.1.2.5)
Fx = F tan
For an ISO metric nut 2 = 60o and Fx = 0.5777 F.

Collar friction
If collar friction c is considered then another term Fdc/2 must be added
to torque expression. Here dc is the effective friction diameter of the collar.
Therefore we may write the torque required to raise the load as
T=F

d
d m ( d m + L )
+ c F c
2 ( d m L )
2

6.1.3 Problems with answers

Q.1:

The C-clamp shown in figure-6.1.3.1 uses a 10 mm screw with a pitch of 2

mm. The frictional coefficient is 0.15 for both the threads and the collar. The
collar has a frictional diameter of 16 mm. The handle is made of steel with
allowable bending stress of 165 MPa. The capacity of the clamp is 700 N.
(a) Find the torque required to tighten the clamp to full capacity.
(b) Specify the length and diameter of the handle such that it will not bend
unless the rated capacity of the clamp is exceeded. Use 15 N as the
handle force.

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6.1.3.1 F- A typical C- clamp.

A.1.
(a) Nominal diameter of the screw, d = 10 mm.
Pitch of the screw, p = 2 mm.
Choosing a square screw thread we have the following dimensions:
Root diameter, d3 = dnominal -2h3 = 7.5 mm (since ac = 0.25 mm and
h3=0.5p + ac)
Pitch diameter, d2 = dnominal -2z = 8 mm. (since z = 0.5 p)
Mean diameter, dm = (7.5+8)/2 = 7.75 mm.
Torque, T = F

d
d m ( d m + L )
+ c F c
2 ( d m L )
2

Here F = 700 N, = c = 0.15, L = p = 2 mm (assuming a single start

screw thread) and dc = 16 mm. This gives T = 1.48 Nm.
Equating the torque required and the torque applied by the handle of
length L we have 1.48 = 15 L since the assumed handle force is 15 N.
This gives L= 0.0986 m. Let the handle length be 100 mm.
The maximum bending stress that may be developed in the handle is
=

My 32M
where d is the diameter of the handle.
=
I
d 3

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Taking the allowable bending stress as 165 MPa we have

1/ 3

32M
d=

1/ 3

32x1.48
=

x165x106

= 4.5x103 m = 4.5 mm

With a higher factor of safety let d = 10 mm.

Q.2.

A single square thread power screw is to raise a load of 50 KN. A screw

thread of major diameter of 34 mm and a pitch of 6 mm is used. The
coefficient of friction at the thread and collar are 0.15 and 0.1 respectively.
If the collar frictional diameter is 100 mm and the screw turns at a speed
of 1 rev s-1 find
(a) the power input to the screw.
(b) the combined efficiency of the screw and collar.

A.2.
(a) Mean diameter, dm = dmajor p/2 = 34-3 = 31 mm.
Torque T = F

d
d m ( d m + L )
+ c F c
2 ( d m L )
2

Here F = 5 x 103 N, dm = 31 mm, = 0.15, c = 0.1, L = p = 6 mm and

dc = 100 mm
Therefore T = 50x103 x

0.031 0.15 x 0.031 + 0.006

3 0.1

+ 0.1x50x10 x
2 x 0.031 0.15x0.006
2

= 416 Nm
Power input = T = 416 x 2 x 1 = 2613.8 Watts.
(b) The torque to raise the load only (T0) may be obtained by substituting
= c= 0 in the torque equation. This gives
T0 = F

d m L FL 50x103 x0.006
=
= 47.75

=
2 d m 2
2

Therefore =

FL / 2 47.75
=
= 0.1147 i.e. 11.47%
T
416

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6.1.4 Summary
Power screw drive in machinery is firstly discussed and some
details of the thread forms used in such drives are given. The force
system at the contact surface between the screw and the nut is
analyzed and the torque required to raise and lower a load,
condition for self locking and the efficiency of a power screw are
derived. Typical problems on power screw drives are taken up and
discussed.

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Module
6
Power Screws
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Lesson
2
Design of power screws
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

Stresses in power screw.

Design procedure of a power screw.

6.2.1 Stresses in power screws

Design of a power screw must be based on the stresses developed in the
constituent parts. A power screw is subjected to an axial load and a turning
moment. The following stresses would be developed due to the loading:

a) Compressive stress is developed in a power screw due to axial load.

Depending on the slenderness ratio it may be necessary to analyze for
buckling. The compressive stress c is given by c =

P
where dc is the
d c 2

core diameter and if slenderness ratio is more than 100 or so buckling

criterion must be used.

is defined as =

L
where I=Ak2 and L is the
k

length of the screw. Buckling analysis yields a critical load Pc and if both
ends are assumed to be hinged critical load is given by PC = 2
general the equation may be written as PC = n2

EI
. In
L2

EI
where n is a constant
L2

that depends on end conditions.

b) Torsional shear stress is developed in the screw due to the turning
moment and this is given by

16T
where T is the torque applied.
d c 3

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c) Bending stresses are developed in the screw thread and this is illustrated
in figure-6.2.1.1. The bending moment M=
a single thread is given by b=

F' h
and the bending stress on
2

d m t 3
My
t
. Here y = , I =
and F is the load
12
I
2

on a single thread. Figure-6.2.1.2 shows a developed thread and figure6.2.1.3 shows a nut and screw assembly. This gives the bending stress at
the thread root to be b =

3F' h
. This is clearly the most probable place
d m t 2

for failure.
Assuming that the load is equally shared by the nut threads
d) Bearing stress br at the threads is given by

F' / n
br=
d m h

e) Again on similar assumption shear stress at the root diameter is given by

=

F' / n
d c t

Here n/ is the number of threads in the nut. Since the screw is subjected to
torsional shear stress in addition to direct or transverse stress combined
effect of bending, torsion and tension or compression should be considered in
the design criterion.

6.2.2 Design procedure of a Screw Jack

A typical screw jack is shown in figure-6.2.2.1 . It is probably more
informative to consider the design of a jack for a given load and lift. We
consider a reasonable value of the load to be 100KN and lifting height to be
500mm. The design will be considered in the following steps:

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1. Design of the screw

A typical screw for this purpose is shown in figure-6.2.2.2.
Let us consider a mild steel screw for which the tensile and shear strengths
may be taken to be approximately 448MPa and 224 MPa respectively. Mild
steel being a ductile material we may take the compressive yield strength to
be also close to 448MPa. Taking a very high factor of safety of 10 due to the
nature of the application and considering the axial compression the core
diameter of the screw dc is given by d c =

100x103
which gives dc 54
448x106

4 10

mm.
From the chart of normal series square threads in table- 6.1.1.1 the nearest
standard nominal diameter of 70 mm is chosen, with pitch p = 10 mm.
Therefore, core diameter dc = 60 mm , Major diameter dmaj = 70mm , Mean
diameter dm = 65 mm , Nominal diameter dn = 70mm.
The torque required to raise the load is given by
T=

Fd m l + d m

2 d m l

Where l = np, n being the number of starts. Here we have a single start screw
and hence l = p =10mm, dm = 65mm, F = 100X103N
Taking a safe value of for this purpose to be 0.26 and substituting the
values we get
T = 1027 Nm.

Check for combined stress

The screw is subjected to a direct compressive stress c and a torsional
shear stress . The stresses are given by
c =

4F
4x100x103
=
= 35.3MPa
d c 2 x(0.06) 2

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16T
16x1027
=
= 24.22MPa
3
d c
x(0.060)3

The principal stress can be given by

2

1,2

35.3
2
35.3
=

+ ( 24.22 )
2
2

= 47.6MPa and 12.31 MPa

and maximum shear stress max = 29.96 MPa.

The factor of safety in compression =

448
= 36.4 and in shear =
12.31

224
= 7.48 . Therefore the screw dimensions are safe. Check for buckling
29.96

and thread stress are also necessary. However this can be done after
designing the nut whose height and number of threads in contact is needed to
determine the free length of the screw.

2. Design of the nut

A suitable material for the nut, as shown in figure- 6.2.2.3,

is phosphor

bronze which is a Cu-Zn alloy with small percentage of Pb and the yield
stresses may be taken as
Yield stress in tension ty = 125MPa
Yield stress in compression cy = 150MPa
Yield stress in shear y = 105MPa
Safe bearing pressure Pb = 15MPa.
Considering that the load is shared equally by all threads bearing failure may
be avoided if
F=

d maj2 d c 2 Pb n /
4

where n/ is the number of threads in contact. Substituting values in the above

equation we have n/ = 6.52. Let n/ =8. Therefore H = n/p = 8X10 = 80mm.
The nut threads are also subjected to crushing and shear. Considering
crushing failure we have

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F = n/

d maj2 d c 2
4

This gives c = 12.24 MPa which is adequately safe since cy = 150 MPa and
therefore crushing is not expected. To avoid shearing of the threads on the
nut we may write F = dmaj t n/ where t is the thread thickness which for the
square thread is

p
ie 5. This gives =11.37 MPa and since y= 105MPa
2

shear failure of teeth is not expected. Due to the screw loading the nut needs
to be checked for tension also and we may write
CF =

D12 d c 2 ty
4

A correlation factor C for the load is used to account for the twisting moment.
With C=1.3 and on substitution of values in the equation D1 works out to be
70mm. But D1 needs to be larger than dmaj and we take D1 = 100mm.
We may also consider crushing of the collar of the nut and to avoid this we
may write F =

D 2 2 D12 cy
4

Substituting values we have D2 = 110 mm. To allow for the collar margin we
take

D2 =120mm. Considering shearing of the nut collar D1ay = F .

Substituting values we have a = 4mm Let a = 15mm

3. Buckling of the Screw.

Length L of the screw = Lifting height + H.
This gives L= 500+80 = 580 mm
(0.07) 4
With the nominal screw diameter of 70mm , I =
= 1.178X106
64
and K =

I
1.178X106
=
= 0.0175mm.

A
2
(0.07)
4

The slenderness ration =

L
0.58
=
 33
K 0.0175

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This value of slenderness ratio is small (< 40) and the screw may be treated
as a short column . No buckling of the screw is therefore expected.

4. Tommy bar
A typical tommy bar for the purpose is shown in figure-6.2.2.4.a.
Total torsional moment without the collar friction is calculated in section
6.2.2.1 and T = 1027 Nm. The collar friction in this case ( see figure-6.2.2.1)
occurs at the interface I. However in order to avoid rotation of the load when
the screw rotates a loose fitting of the cup is maintained.
Length l/ of the tommy bar = l1 + D3 and we may write the torque T as
T= F1l/ Where F1 is the maximum force applied at the tommy bar end and this
may be taken as approximately 400 N . This gives l/=

1027
= 2.56m. This
400

length of the tommy bar is too large and one alternative is to place the tommy
bar centrally and apply force at both the ends. This alternative design of the
tommy bar is also shown in figure-6.2.2.4.b The bar is subjected to a bending
moment and its maximum value may be taken as1027 Nm. This means to
avoid bending we may write

3
d1 ty =1027 where d1 is the tommy bar
32

diameter as shown in figure- 6.2.2.4.b If we choose a M.S bar of ty =

448MPa the tommy bar diameter d1 works out to be d1 = 0.0285m.
Let d1 = 30 mm and we choose d2 = 40mm

5. Other dimensions
D3 = (1.5 to 1.7 ) d
D4 =

D3
2

Let D3 = 112 mm

= 56 mm

Let L1 = 100 mm and t4 = 10 mm

Frame
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t1 = 0.25 dn

18

mm , D5

2.25 D2 = 270 mm, D6 = 1.75 D5 = 473 mm,

t3 = t1/2 = 9 mm.

h/2
h/2

t
F

dm
t
6.2.1.2 F- Dimensions of a developed
thread

dc/2

dm/2

6.2.1.1 F- Loading and bending stresses in screw threads

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6.2.1.3 F- A screw and nut assembly

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D3
D4

t3

Interface I
D2

D1

H'
dc
dmaj

t1
t2
D5
D6
6.2.2.1F- A typical screw jack

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D3
D4
L1

t4
d1

D2

t4

dn
D1

6.2.2.3F- A phosphor bronze nut for the

screw jack

dn

6.2.2.2F- The screw with the provision for tommy

bar attachment

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l'
D3

l1
l2

d1

d2

6.2.2.4.a F- A typical tommy bar with a holding end.

l'

d1

6.2.2.4.b F- A typical centrally located tommy bar

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6.2.3 Summary of this Lesson

In this lesson firstly the stresses developed in a power screw are discussed.
Design procedure of a screw jack is then considered and the components such
as the screw, the nut and the tommy bar are designed for strength. Finally the
assembled screw jack along with the components are shown in the dimensioned
figures.

6.2.4 Reference for Module-6

1) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,
S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
2) The elements of machine design by S.J.Berard and E.O.Waters, D.Van
Nostrand Company, 1927.
3) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India, 1991.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.
5)

A text book of machine drawing by R. K. Dhawan, S. Chand and Co.

Ltd., 1996.

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Module
9
Thin and thick cylinders
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Lesson
1
Thin Cylinders

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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of:

Stresses developed in thin cylinders.

Formulations for circumferential and longitudinal stresses in thin cylinders.

Basic design principles.

Joint design; Welded or Riveted.

9.1.1 Stresses in thin cylinders

If the wall thickness is less than about 7% of the inner diameter then the cylinder
may be treated as a thin one. Thin walled cylinders are used as boiler shells,
pressure tanks, pipes and in other low pressure processing equipments. In
general three types of stresses are developed in pressure cylinders viz.
circumferential or hoop stress, longitudinal stress in closed end cylinders and
radial stresses. These stresses are demonstrated in figure-9.1.1.1.

p
t

2r

(a)

(b)

(c)

9.1.1.1F- (a) Circumferential stress (b) Longitudinal stress and (c) Radial
stress developed in thin cylinders.
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In a thin walled cylinder the circumferential stresses may be assumed to be

constant over the wall thickness and stress in the radial direction may be
neglected for the analysis. Considering the equilibrium of a cut out section the
circumferential stress and longitudinal stress z can be found. Consider a
section of thin cylinder of radius r, wall thickness t and length L and subjected to
an internal pressure p as shown in

figure-9.1.1.2(a). Consider now an

element of included angle d at an angle of from vertical. For equilibrium we

may write

2 prdL cos = 2 tL
0

This gives =

pr
t

Considering a section along the longitudinal axis as shown in figure-9.1.1.2 (b)

we may write pr2 = z (ro2-ri2)
where ri and ro are internal and external radii of the vessel and since ri ro = r
ro ri = t we have z =

(say) and

t
r

(a)

(b)

9.1.1.2F- (a) Circumferential stress in a thin cylinder (b) Longitudinal stress

in a thin cylinder
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Thin walled spheres are also sometimes used. Consider a sphere of internal
radius r subjected to an internal pressure p as shown in figure-9.1.1.3. The
circumferential and longitudinal stresses developed on an element of the surface
of the sphere are equal in magnitude and in the absence of any shear stress due
to symmetry both the stresses are principal stresses. From the equilibrium
condition in a cut section we have
1 = 2=

P
1

9.1.1.3 F- Stresses in a spherical shell

9.1.2 Design Principles

Pressure vessels are generally manufactured from curved sheets joined by
welding. Mostly V butt welded joints are used. The riveted joints may also be
used but since the plates are weakened at the joint due to the rivet holes the
plate thickness should be enhanced by taking into account the joint efficiency. It
is probably more instructive to follow the design procedure of a pressure vessel.
We consider a mild steel vessel of 1m diameter comprising a 2.5 m long
cylindrical section with hemispherical ends to sustain an internal pressure of (
say) 2MPa.

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The plate thickness is given by t

pr
where yt is the tensile yield stress. The
yt

minimum plate thickness should conform to the Boiler code as given in table9.1.2.1.

9.1.2.1T- Minimum plate thickness

Boiler diameter(m)

0.90

0.94

to 1.4 to 1.80 > 1.80

1.37
Plate

thickness 6.35

8.00

9.525

12.70

(mm)
The factor of safety should be at least 5 and the minimum ultimate stresses of
the plates should be 385 MPa in the tension, 665 MPa in compression and 308
MPa in shear.
This gives tc

2x106 x0.5
, i.e., 13 mm. Since this value is more than the value
(385x106 / 5)

prescribed in the code the plate thickness is acceptable. However for better
safety we take

tc =15mm. Thickness ts of the hemispherical end is usually

taken as half of this value and we take ts 8mm.

Welded Joint
The circumferential stress developed in the cylinder =

pr
. With p=2MPa ,
tc

r=0.5m and tc = 15 mm, =67 MPa and since this is well below the allowable
stress of 100 MPa ( assumed) the butt welded joint without cover plate would be
adequate.
Consider now a butt joint with 10mm cover plates on both sides, as shown in
figure- 9.1.2.1.

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15 mm thick plate

Fillet weld

9.1.2.1F- Longitudinal welded joint with cover plates.

The stress induced in the weld w is given by Fc = 2wLtcsin450

where L is the weld length. We may now write Fc = t.L and therefore w is
given by w =

t
15
= 67x
which gives w = 71 MPa which
0
t c 2sin 45
10x2x sin 45o

again is adequate. For increased safety we may choose the butt joint with 10mm
thick cover plates. The welding arrangement of the vessel is shown in figure9.1.2.2.

Full penetration butt weld

8 mm thick plate

Fillet weld
Longitudinal joint
1m

15 mm thick plate

9.1.2.2F- The welding arrangement of the joint.

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Riveted Joint
The joints may also be riveted in some situations but the design must be
checked for safety. The required plate thickness must take account the joint
efficiency .
This gives tc =

pr
Substituting p = 2MPa, r = 0.5 m, = 70 % and ty = (385/5)
ty

MPa we have tc = 18.5 mm. Let us use mild steel plate of 20 mm thickness for
the cylinder body and 10mm thick plate for the hemispherical end cover. The
cover plate thickness may be taken as 0.625tc i.e. 12.5 mm. The hoop stress is
now given by = pr = 50MPa and therefore the rivets must withstand tc i.e. 1
tc
MN per meter.
We may begin with 20mm diameter rivets with the allowable shear and bearing
stresses of 100 MPa and 300 MPa respectively. This gives bearing load on a
single rivet

Fb = 300x106x0.02x0.02 = 120 kN. Assuming double shear

the shearing load on a single rivet FS = 100x106x2x (0.02) 2 = 62.8kN.

4

The rivet pitch based on bearing load is therefore (120 kN/ 1MN per meter) i.e.
0.12m and based on shearing load is (62.8 kN/ 1MN per meter) i.e. 0.063m. We
may therefore consider a minimum allowable pitch of 60mm. This gives
approximately 17 rivets of 20 mm diameter per meter. If two rows are used the
pitch is doubled to 120mm. For the hemispherical shaped end cover the bearing
load is 60 kN and therefore the rivet pitch is again approximately 60 mm.
The

maximum

tensile

stress

developed

in

the

plate

section

is

t = 1x106/[(1-17x0.02)x0.02] = 75.76 MPa which is a safe value considering the

allowable tensile stress of 385 MPa with a factor of safety of 5. A longitudinal
riveted joint with cover plates is shown in figure9.1.2.3 and the whole riveting
arrangement is shown in figure-9.1.2.4.

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20 mm thick plate
12.5 mm thick plates
20 mm diameter
rivets at 120 mm pitch

9.1.2.3F- A longitudinal joint with two cover plates

20 mm thick plate
20 mm rivets @
60 mm pitch length

+ +

12.5 mm thick
cover plates

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

10 mm thick plate
10 mm thick cover plates

20 mm rivets @ 120mm pitch length

9.1.2.4F- General riveting arrangement of the pressure vessel.

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9.1.3Summary of this Lesson

Stresses developed in thin cylinders are first discussed in general and
then the circumferential ( ) and longitudinal stresses ( z ) are expressed
in terms of internal pressure, radius and the shell thickness. Stresses in a
spherical shell are also discussed. Basic design principle of thin cylinders
are considered. Design of both welded and riveted joints for the shells are
discussed.

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Module
9
Thin and thick
cylinders
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Lesson
2
Thick cylindersStresses due to internal
and external pressures.
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of:

Stresses in thick cylinders.

Lames equation for radial and circumferential stresses.

Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses for different boundary conditions.

Methods of increasing elastic strength of thick cylinders by prestressing.

9.2.1 Stresses in thick cylinders

For thick cylinders such as guns, pipes to hydraulic presses, high pressure
hydraulic pipes the wall thickness is relatively large and the stress variation across the
thickness is also significant. In this situation the approach made in the previous section is
not suitable. The problem may be solved by considering an axisymmetry about z-axis and
solving the differential equations of stress equilibrium in polar co-ordinates. In general
the stress equations of equilibrium without body forces can be given as

r 1 r rz r
=0
+
+
+
r
r r
z
r 1 z

+
+
+ 2 r = 0
r
r r
z
zr 1 z z zr
+
+
+
=0
r
r r
z
For axisymmetry about z-axis

(1)

= 0 and this gives

r rz r
+
+
=0
r
z
r
r z

+
+ 2 r = 0
r
z
r
zr z zr
+
+
=0
r
z
r

(2)

In a plane stress situation if the cylinder ends are free to expand z = 0 and due to
uniform radial deformation and symmetry rz = z = r = 0. The equation of equilibrium
reduces to

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r r
=0
+
r
r
This can be written in the following form:
r

r
+ r =
r

(3)

If we consider a general case with body forces such as centrifugal forces in the case of a
rotating cylinder or disc then the equations reduce to
r r
+
+ 2 r = 0
r
r
r

which may be written as

r
+ r + 2 r 2 = 0
r

(4)

It is convenient to solve the general equation so that a variety of problems may be solved.
Now as shown in figure- 9.2.1.1, the strains r and may be given by
r =
=

u r 1
= [ r ]
r E

( r + u r ) r = u r
r

since z = 0

(5)

1
[ r ]
E

(6)

ur +

ur

'

u r
r
r

'
'

A
A

B
B

'

9.2.1.1F- Representation of radial and circumferential strain.

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Combining equation (5) and (6) we have

r

r r + (1 + ) ( r ) = 0
r
r

(7)

Now from equation (4) we may write

= r 2 r + 2 r + 22 r
r
r
r

and combining this with equation (7) we

may arrive at
r

2r

+ 3 r + ( 3 + ) 2 r = 0
2
r
r

(8)

For a non-rotating thick cylinder with internal and external pressures pi and po we
substitute

= 0 in equation (8) and this gives

2r

r 2 +3 r = 0
r
r

(9)

A typical case is shown in figure- 9.2.1.2. A standard solution for equation (9) is
r = c rn where c and n are constants. Substituting this in equation (9) and also
combining with equation (3) we have

c2
r2
c
= c1 22
r
r = c1 +

(10)

where c1 and c2 are constants.

ro
ri

pi

po

9.2.1.2F- A thick cylinder with both external and internal pressure.

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Boundary conditions for a thick cylinder with internal and external pressures pi and po
respectively are:
at

r = ri r = -pi

and at r = ro r = -po
The negative signs appear due to the compressive nature of the pressures. This gives
2

c1 =

2 2

pi ri po ro
2

ro ri

c2 =

ri ro ( po pi )
2

ro ri

The radial stress r and circumferential stress are now given by

2

r =

ro ri

2 2

pi ri p o ro

ro ri

ro ri

(11)

2 2

pi ri po ro

ri ro ( po pi ) 1

ri ro ( po pi ) 1
2

ro ri

It is important to remember that if works out to be positive, it is tensile and if it is

negative, it is compressive whereas r is always compressive irrespective of its sign.
Stress distributions for different conditions may be obtained by simply substituting the
relevant values in equation (11). For example, if po = 0 i.e. there is no external pressure
the radial and circumferential stress reduce to
r2

r = 2 2 2 + 1

ro ri r

2 2

r
pr
= 2 i i 2 o2 + 1

ro ri r

pi ri

(12)

The stress distribution within the cylinder wall is shown in figure- 9.2.1.3.

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ro
ri

r pi

9.2.1.3F- Radial and circumferential stress distribution within the cylinder

wall when only internal pressure acts.

It may be noted that r + = constant and hence the deformation in z-direction is

uniform. This means that the cross-section perpendicular to the cylinder axis remains
plane. Hence the deformation in an element cut out by two adjacent cross-sections does
not interfere with the adjacent element. Therefore it is justified to assume a condition of
plane stress for an element in section 9.2.1.
If pi = 0 i.e. there is no internal pressure the stresses r and reduce to
2
2

po ro ri

r = 2 2 2 1

ro ri r

(13)

po ro ri
= 2 2 2 + 1

ro ri r

The stress distributions are shown in figure-9.2.1.4.

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po
ro
ri

r
(negative)

(negative)

9.2.1.4F- Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the

cylinder wall when only external pressure acts.

9.2.2 Methods of increasing the elastic strength of a thick cylinder

by pre-stressing
In thick walled cylinders subjected to internal pressure only it can be seen from equation
(12) that the maximum stresses occur at the inside radius and this can be given by
r ( max )

r = ri

= pi

(max)

r = ri

= pi

ro + ri
ro ri

This means that as pi increases may exceed yield stress even when

pi < yield.

Furthermore, it can be shown that for large internal pressures in thick walled cylinders
the wall thickness is required to be very large. This is shown schematically in figure9.2.2.1. This means that the material near the outer edge is not effectively used since the

stresses near the outer edge gradually reduce (Refer to figure- 9.2.1.3).

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pi

t
9.2.2.1F- A schematic variation of wall thickness with the internal pressure in
a thick walled cylinder.

In order to make thick-walled cylinders that resist elastically large internal pressure and
make effective use of material at the outer portion of the cylinder the following methods
of pre-stressing are used:
1.

Shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder.

2.

Multilayered or laminated cylinders.

3.

Autofrettage or self hooping.

1.

Composite cylinders
An outer cylinder (jacket) with the internal diameter slightly smaller than
the outer diameter of the main cylinder is heated and fitted onto the main
cylinder. When the assembly cools down to room temperature a composite
cylinder is obtained. In this process the main cylinder is subjected to an
external pressure leading to a compressive radial stress at the interface.
The outer cylinder or the jacket is subjected to an internal pressure leading
to a tensile circumferential stress at the inner wall. Under this condition as
the internal pressure increases the compression in the inner cylinder is first
released and then only the cylinder begins to act in tension. Gun barrels

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are normally pre-stressed by hooping since very large internal pressures

are generated.
Here the main problem is to determine the contact pressure ps. At the
contact surface the outer radius rsi of the inner cylinder is slightly larger
than the inside diameter rso of the outer cylinder. However for stress
calculations we assume that rso  rsi = rs (say). The inner and outer
cylinders are shown in figure- 9.2.2.2.

ro

rso

rsi
ri

ps
ps

Jacket or outer cylinder

Inner cylinder

9.2.2.2F- Dimensions and the pressures at the contact surface of the

internal and outer cylinders.

For the outer cylinder the radial and circumferential stresses at the contact
surface may be given by
r2
= 2 2 1 o2 = ps
ro rs rs
2
2
ps rs ro
= 2 2 1 + 2
ro rs rs
2

r = rs

r = r

ps rs

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In order to find the radial displacements of the cylinder walls at the

contact we consider that =

u 1
= ( r ) . This gives the radial
r E

displacement of the inner wall of the outer cylinder as

pr
u r1 = s s
E

r2 + r2

o2 s2 +
r r

o s

Similarly for the inner cylinder the radial and circumferential stresses at
the outer wall can be given by
r

r = rs

= ps

r = r = ps
s

rs + ri
rs ri

And following the above procedure the radial displacement of the contact
surface of the inner cylinder is given by

u r2

pr
= s s
E

r2 + r2

s2 i2

rs ri

The total interference at the contact is therefore given by

pr
= s s
E

r2 + r2 r2 + r2
o2 s2 + s2 i2 .
r r

o s rs ri

This gives the contact pressure in terms of the known variables as follows:

ps =

E
2
2
r + r
rs + ri
o
s

rs 2
+ 2
2
2
ro rs
rs ri

The combined stress distribution in a shrink fit composite cylinder is made

up of stress distribution in the inner and outer cylinders and this is shown
in figure-9.2.2.3.

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rs

ro

ps

rs

ri

ro

+
r

rs

ri

9.2.2.3F- Combined stress distribution in a composite cylinder.

Residual circumferential stress is maximum at r = ri for the inner cylinder

and is given by
2

(max)

r = ri

2ps rs
2

rs ri

Residual circumferential stress is maximum at r = rs for the outer cylinder

and is given by

(max)

r = rs

= ps

ro + rs
ro rs

Stresses due to fluid pressure must be superimposed on this to find the

complete stress distribution.
2.

Multilayered or Laminated cylinder

The laminated cylinders are made by stretching the shells in tension and
then welding along a longitudinal seam. This is shown in figure- 9.2.2.4.

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Welded junctions
weld

weld

9.2.2.4F- Method of construction of multilayered cylinder

3.

Autofrettage
In some applications of thick cylinders such as gun barrels no inelastic
deformation is permitted. But for some pressure vessel design satisfactory
function can be maintained until the inelastic deformation that starts at
inner bore spreads completely over the wall thickness. With the increase in
fluid pressure yielding would start at the inner bore and then with further
increase in fluid pressure yielding would spread outward. If now the
pressure is released the outer elastic layer would regain its original size
and exert a radial compression on the inner shell and tension on the outer
region.
This gives the same effect as that obtained by shrinking a hoop
over an inner cylinder. This is known as Self- hooping or Autofrettage.
This allows the cylinder to operate at higher fluid pressure. For a given
autofrettage fluid pressure a given amount of inelastic deformation is
produced and therefore in service the same fluid pressure may be used
without causing any additional inelastic deformation.

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9.2.3 Summary of this Lesson

Stresses and strains in thick cylinders are first discussed and Lames equations are
derived. Radial and circumferential stress distribution across the wall thickness in thick
cylinders have been illustrated. Methods of increasing elastic strength of a thick cylinder
by prestressing are then discussed. Interface pressure and displacement during shrinking a
hollow cylinder over the main cylinder have been expressed in terms of known variables.
Finally multilayered or laminated cylinders and autofrettage are discussed.

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Module
9
Thin and thick cylinders
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Lesson
3
Design principles for
thick cylinders
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of:

Failure theories applied to thick walled pressure vessels.

Variation of wall thickness with internal pressure based on different failure

theories.

Failure criterion of prestressed thick cylinders.

Comparison of wall thickness variation with internal pressure for solid wall,
single jacket and laminated thick walled cylinders.

Failure criterion for thick walled cylinders with autofrettage.

9.3.1 Application of theories of failure for thick walled pressure

vessels.
Having discussed the stresses in thick walled cylinders it is important to
consider their failure criterion. The five failure theories will be considered
in this regard and the variation of wall thickness to internal radius ratio t/ri
or radius ratio ro/ri with p/yp for different failure theories would be
discussed. A number of cases such as po =0, pi =0 or both non-zero po
and pi are possible but here only the cylinders with closed ends and
subjected to an internal pressure only will be considered, for an example.
9.3.1.1 Maximum Principal Stress theory
According to this theory failure occurs when maximum principal stress
exceeds the stress at the tensile yield point. The failure envelope
according to this failure mode is shown in figure-9.3.1.1.1 and the failure
criteria are given by 1 = 2 = yp. If po =0 the maximum values of
circumferential and radial stresses are given by

(max)

r = ri

= pi

ro + ri
ro ri

r (max)

r = ri

= pi

(1)

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Here both and r are the principal stresses and is larger. Thus the
condition for failure is based on and we have

pi

ro + ri
ro ri

= yp where yp is the yield stress.

1+

This gives

pi

yp
t
1
=
p
ri
1 i
yp

(2)

2
+yp

-yp

+yp

-yp
9.3.1.1.1F- Failure envelope according to Maximum Principal Stress Theory.

9.3.1.2 Maximum Shear Stress theory

According to this theory failure occurs when maximum shear stress
exceeds the maximum shear stress at the tensile yield point. The failure
envelope according to this criterion is shown in figure- 9.3.1.2.1 and the
maximum shear stress is given by
max =

1 2
2

where the principal stresses 1 and 2 are given by

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1 = = pi

ro + ri
ro ri

2 = r = pi
Here 1 is tensile and 2 is compressive in nature. max may therefore be
given by
2

max = pi

ro
2

ro ri

(3)
and since the failure criterion is max = yp / 2 we may write
t
=
ri

1
1
pi

1 2

yp

(4)

2
2 1
=1
yc yt

2 = yt

+yt

+yt

-yc
1 = yc
-yc
2 = yc

1 = yt
1

1 2
=1
yt yc

9.3.1.2.1F- Failure envelope according to Maximum Shear Stress theory.

9.3.1.3 Maximum Principal Strain theory

According to this theory failure occurs when the maximum principal strain
exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point.

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1 =

1
{1 ( 2 + 3 )} = yp and this gives 1 ( 2 + 3 ) = yp
E

where yp and yp are the yield strain and stress respectively. Following
this the failure envelope is as shown in figure-9.3.1.3.1. Here the three
principle stresses can be given as follows according to the standard 3D
solutions:

1 = = pi

ro + ri
ro ri

, 2 = r = pi and 3 = z =

pi ri
2

ro ri

(5)
The failure criterion may now be written as
2
r2 + r2
ri
o
i

pi 2
+ 2
2
r r2
ro ri
o i

= yp and this gives

1 + (1 2 ) pi yp
t
=
1
ri
1 (1 + ) pi yp

(6)

2
+yp
+yp

-yp

-yp

9.3.1.3.1F- Failure envelope according to Maximum Principal Strain theory

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9.3.1.4 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

According to this theory if the maximum distortion energy exceeds the
distortion energy at the tensile yield point failure occurs. The failure
envelope is shown in figure-9.3.1.4.1 and the distortion energy Ed is
given by
Ed =

1+
6E

{( )
1

+ ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2

Since at the uniaxial tensile yield point 2 = 3 = 0 and 1 = yp

Ed at the tensile yield point =

1+ 2

3E yp

We consider 1 = , 2 = r and 3 = z and therefore

1 = pi

ro + ri
ro ri

z =

r = pi

pi ri
2

ro ri

(7)

The failure criterion therefore reduces to

pi
yp

1 ro ri
=
3 r2
o
2

which gives

t
1
1
=
ri
1 3 pi yp
(8)

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2
yp

yp

-yp

-yp

9.3.1.4.1F- Failure envelope according to Maximum Distortion Energy

Theory

Plots of pi/yp and t/ri for different failure criteria are shown in figure9.3.1.4.2.

Maximum principal stress theory

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

Distortion energy theory

Maximum strain theory
Maximum shear stress theory

1 2

3 4 5 6

7 8

ri

9.3.1.4.2F- Comparison of variation of

against t

ri

for different

failure criterion.
The criteria developed and the plots apply to thick walled cylinders with
internal pressure only but similar criteria for cylinders with external

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pressure only or in case where both internal and external pressures exist
may be developed. However, on the basis of these results we note that
the rate of increase in pi/yp is small at large values of t/ri for all the failure
modes considered. This means that at higher values of pi small increase
in pressure requires large increase in wall thickness. But since the
stresses near the outer radius are small, material at the outer radius for
very thick wall cylinders are ineffectively used. It is therefore necessary to
select materials so that pi/yp is reasonably small. When this is not
possible prestressed cylinders may be used.
All the above theories of failure are based on the prediction of the
beginning of inelastic deformation and these are strictly applicable for
ductile materials under static loading. Maximum principal stress theory is
widely used for brittle materials which normally fail by brittle fracture.
In some applications of thick cylinders such as, gun barrels no
inelastic deformation can be permitted for proper functioning and there
design based on maximum shear stress theory or maximum distortion
energy theory are acceptable. For some pressure vessels a satisfactory
function is maintained until inelastic deformation that starts from the inner
radius and spreads completely through the wall of the cylinder. Under
such circumstances none of the failure theories would work satisfactorily
and the procedure discussed in section lesson 9.2 is to be used.

9.3.1.5 Failure criteria of pre-stressed thick cylinders

Failure criteria based on the three methods of pre-stressing would now be
discussed. The radial and circumferential stresses developed during
shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder are shown in figure9.3.1.5.1.

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Jacket

ps

ro

rs

pi
r

9.3.1.5.1F-

ps

Cylinder

ri

Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses in a

composite thick walled cylinder subjected to an internal
pressure.

Following the analysis in section 9.2 the maximum initial (residual)

circumferential stress at the inner radius of the cylinder due to the contact
pressure ps is
2

r = ri

= 2ps

rs
2

ro rs

and the maximum initial (residual) circumferential stress at the inner radius
of the jacket due to contact pressure ps is

r = rs

= ps

ro + rs
ro rs

Superposing the circumferential stresses due to pi (considering the

composite cylinder as one) the total circumferential stresses at the inner
radius of the cylinder and inner radius of the jacket are respectively

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= 2ps

r = ri

rs
2

rs ri

+ pi

ro ri

2
2
2
ri ro + rs
= ps 2
+ pi 2 2
2
2
ro rs
rs ro ri
2

ro + ri

ro + rs

r =r
s

These maximum stresses should not exceed the yield stress and therefore
we may write
2

2ps

rs
2

rs ri

+ pi

ro + ri
ro ri

= yp

(9)

2
2
2
ri ro + rs
+ pi 2 2
ps 2
= yp
2
2
ro rs
rs ro ri
2

ro + rs

(10)

It was shown in section-9.2 that the contact pressure ps is given by

ps =

E
(11)

r2 + r2 r2 + r2
rs o2 s2 + s2 i2
ro rs rs ri

From (9), (10) and (11) it is possible to eliminate ps and express t/ri in
terms of pi/yp and this is shown graphically in figure-9.3.1.5.2.

Laminated
Single jacket
3.0

Solid wall

2.0
1.0
0

0 1 2

3 4 5 6

7 8

ri

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9.3.1.5.2F- Plot of

pi/yp vs t/ri for laminated multilayered, single

jacket and solid wall cylinders.

This shows that even with a single jacket there is a considerable reduction
in wall thickness and thus it contributes to an economic design.
As discussed earlier autofrettage causes yielding to start at the inner bore
and with the increase in pressure it spreads outwards. If now the pressure
is released the outer elastic layer exerts radial compressive pressure on
the inner portion and this in turn causes radial compressive stress near
the inner portion and tensile stress at the outer portion. For a given fluid
pressure during autofrettage a given amount of inelastic deformation is
produced and therefore in service the same fluid pressure may be used
without causing any additional elastic deformation.
The self hooping effect reaches its maximum value when yielding
just begins to spread to the outer wall. Under this condition the cylinder is
said to have reached a fully plastic condition and the corresponding
internal fluid pressure is known as fully plastic pressure, say, pf . This
pressure may be found by using the reduced equilibrium equation (3) in
section- 9.2.1 which is reproduced here for convenience
= r + r

d r
dr

(12)
Another equation may be obtained by considering that when the maximum
shear stress at a point on the cylinder wall reaches shear yield value yp it
remains constant even after further yielding. This is given by
1
( r ) = yp
2

(13)
However experiments show that fully plastic pressure is reached before
inelastic deformation has spread to every point on the wall. In fact Luders
lines appear first. Luders lines are spiral bands across the cylinder wall
such that the material between the bands retains elasticity. If the cylinder

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is kept under fully plastic pressure for several hours uniform yielding
across the cylinder wall would occur.
This gives

d r
= 2 yp / r and on integration we have
dr

r = 2 yp log r + c

Applying the boundary condition at r = ro r = 0 we have

r
r
r = 2 yp log and = 2 yp 1 + log
ro
ro

(14)
Also applying the boundary condition at r = ri r = - pf we have

r
pf = 2 yp log i
ro

(15)

Since the basic equations are independent of whether the cylinders are
open or closed ends, the expressions for r and apply to both the
conditions. The stress distributions are shown in figure- 9.3.1.5.3.

ro

Tensile

pi

ri

Compressive

9.3.1.5.3F- Stress distribution in a thick walled cylinder with autofrettage

If we roughly assume that 2yp = yp we have

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r
pf
= log i
yp
ro
(16)
The results of maximum principal stress theory and maximum shear stress
theory along with the fully plastic results are replotted in figure 9.3.1.5.4
where we may compare the relative merits of different failure criteria. It
can be seen that cylinders with autofrettage may endure large internal
pressure at relatively low wall thickness.
2.0

Maximum autofrettage

1.6
1.2

Maximum principal stress theory

0.8

Maximum shear stress theory

0.4
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ri

ro

9.3.1.5.4F- Plots of pi/yp vs

maximum

ri

ro

principal

for maximum shear stress theory,

stress

theory

and

maximum

autofrettage.

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Finally it must be remembered that for true pressure vessel

design it is essential to consult Boiler Codes for more complete
information and guidelines. Pressure vessels can be extremely
dangerous even at relatively low pressure and therefore the
methodology stated here is a rough guide and should not be
considered to be a complete design methodology.

9.3.2Problems with Answers

Q.1: Determine the necessary thickness of the shell plates of 2.5m diameter
boiler with the internal pressure of 1MPa. The material is mild steel with a
tensile strength of 500MPa. Assuming an efficiency of the longitudinal
welded joint to be 75% and a factor of safety of 5 find the stress in the
perforated steel plate.

A.1:
Considering that the boiler design is based on thin cylinder principles the
shell thickness is given by
t=

pr
where r is the boiler radius and is the joint efficiency.
ty

This gives
106 x1.25
= 0.0166m = 16.6 mm,say 20mm.
t=
500
6

x10 x0.75
5
The stress in the perforated plate is therefore given by

pr
i.e. 62.5MPa
t

Q.2:

A hydraulic cylinder with an internal diameter 250mm is subjected to an

internal pressure of 10 MPa. Determine the wall thickness based on (a)
Maximum principal stress theory, b) Maximum shear stress theory and c)

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Maximum distortion energy theory of failure. Compare the results with wall
thickness calculated based on thin cylinder assumption. Assume the yield
stress of the cylinder material to be 60 MPa.
A.2:
Considering that the hydraulic cylinders are normally designed on the thick
cylinder assumption we have from section 9.3.1.1 for Maximum Principal
stress Theory we have

pi
1+

yp

t = ri
1

pi
1

yp

Here

pi
= 10 / 60  0.167 and ri = 125 mm. This gives t = 22.9mm, say 23
yp

mm
From section 9.3.1.2 for Maximum Shear Stress theory we have

1
t = ri
1 2 pi

yp

With

pi
0.167 and ri = 125 mm, t = 28.2 mm, say 29 mm.
yp

From section 9.3.1.4 for maximum distortion energy theory we have

1
t = ri
1

p
1 3 i

yp

with

pi
0.167 and ri = 125mm t = 23.3 mm, say 24 mm.
yp

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p
Considering a thin cylinder t = ri i
yp

and this gives t = 20.875mm, say 21

mm.
The thin cylinder approach yields the lowest wall thickness and this is
probably not safe. The largest wall thickness of 29mm predicted using the
maximum shear stress theory is therefore adopted.

Q.3: A cylinder with external diameter 300mm and internal diameter 200mm is
subjected to an internal pressure of 25 MPa. Compare the relative merits of
a single thick walled cylinder and a composite cylinder with the inner
cylinder whose internal and external diameters are 200mm and 250 mm
respectively. A tube of 250 mm internal diameter and 300mm external
diameter is shrunk on the main cylinder. The safe tensile yield stress of the
material is 110 MPa and the stress set up at the junction due to shrinkage
should not exceed 10 MPa.

A.3:
We first consider the stresses set up in a single cylinder and then in a
composite cylinder.
Single cylinder
The boundary conditions are
at r = 150mm r = 0

and

at r = 100mm r = - 20MPa

Using equation (10) in section 9.2.1

C1+

C2
=0
0.0225

and

This gives C1= 16 and

C1 +

C2
= 20
0.01

C2 = -0.36

The hoop stress at r = 100mm and r = 150 mm are 52 MPa and 32 MPa
respectively.

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Stress in the composite cylinder

The stresses in the cylinder due to shrinkage only can be found using the
following boundary conditions
at r = 150mm r = 0

and

at r = 125mm r = -10MPa

Following the above procedure the hoop stress at r = 150 mm and r = 125mm
are 45.7MPa and 55.75MPa respectively.
The stress in the inner cylinder due to shrinkage only can be found using
the following boundary conditions
at r = 100mm r = 0

and at r = 125mm r = -10MPa

This gives the hoop stress at r = 100mm and r = 125mm to be - 55.55

MPa and

45.55 MPa respectively.

Considering the internal pressure only on the complete cylinder the

boundary conditions are
at r = 150mm r = 0 and

at r = 100mm r = -25 MPa

This gives
()r =150mm = 40MPa

()r=125mm = 49 MPa

()r=100mm = 65MPa.

Resultant stress due to both shrinkage and internal pressure

Outer cylinder
()r=150mm = 40 +45.7 = 85.7 MPa

()r=125mm = 49+55.75 = 104.75 MPa

Inner cylinder
()r=125mm = 49 -45.7 = 3.3 MPa
()r=100mm = 65 - 55.75 = 9.25 MPa
The stresses in both the single cylinder and the composite are within the
safe tensile strength of the material. However in the single cylinder the
stress gradient is large across the wall thickness whereas in the
composite cylinder the stress variation is gentle. These results are
illustrated in figure- 9.3.2.1

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85.7 MPa

54.67 MPa
3.3 MPa

104 MPa
38.24 MPa 9.25 MPa
200 mm

250 mm 300 mm

9.3.2.1F- Stress gradients (circumferential) in the inner and outer

cylinders as well as the gradient across the wall of a single cylinder.

9.3.3 Summary of this Lesson

The lesson initially discusses the application of different failure theories in
thick walled pressure vessels. Failure criterion in terms of the ratio of wall
thickness to the internal radius and the ratio of internal pressure to yield
stress have been derived for different failure criterion. Failure criterion for
prestressed composite cylinders and cylinders with autofrettage have also
been derived. Finally comparisons of different failure criterion have been
discussed.

9.3.4References for Module-9

1) Design of machine elements by M.F.Spotts, Prentice hall of India,
1991.
2) Machine design-an integrated approach by Robert L. Norton, Pearson
Education Ltd, 2001.

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3) A textbook of machine design by P.C.Sharma and D.K.Agarwal,

S.K.Kataria and sons, 1998.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.
5) Fundamentals of machine component design, 3rd edition, by Robert C.
Juvinall and Kurt M. Marshek, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
6) Advanced strength and applied stress analysis, 2nd Edition, by Richard
G. Budynas, McGraw Hill Publishers, 1999.
7) Mechanics of Materials by E.J. Hearn, Pergamon Press, 1977.

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