Selecting Materials

for Punching and Forming Tools and

the Heat Treatment thereof

Guide rails and brake dies

03

INTRODUCTION

Economic efficiency is a key aspect

of all industrial processes.
Due to rising cost pressure, it is necessary to keep a closer eye than
ever on costs. In terms of toolmaking, this means that demands are
growing all the time in relation to material selection, as well as heat
and surface treatment.
Choosing economical steel does not in
any way involve using the cheapest steel.
It is far more important to select the most
suitable material for the intended purpose.
If the wrong material has been chosen,
this often only emerges when the tool is
in operational use, potentially resulting in
significant extra costs.
When selecting a tool steel, it is important to keep in mind that the tool must not
break during use or chip around the cutting
edge. Similarly, permanent deformation and

premature changes to the tool surface as a

result of wear and tear or corrosion need to
be excluded. Steel availability should also
be checked. Due to the cost situation,
steel manufacturers are being forced to
limit their product ranges. In recent years,
however, various highly versatile tool steels
have been developed, which enable tool
steel portfolios to be restricted without
compromising on technical properties.
This ultimately has considerable benefits
for toolmakers.

04

STRESSES ON TOOLS

Stresses on tools
In order to choose the appropriate steel for an application, it is vital to be
aware of the tool stresses that arise during individual operations.
The diagrams below and on the pages that follow illustrate the relevant
principles.
Cutting
The cutting surfaces of the punch and
cutting plate penetrate the sheet to be cut,
initially deforming it elastically and later
plastically in the shear zone. When the
deformability of the material to be cut is
exceeded, fine cracks form at first which
spread out and expand as cutting continues. Eventually the material fractures and
separates. Because around only a third of
the sheet thickness is cut during the cutting
process (the rest breaking off due to tensile
stresses), a burr appears on the pieces.
This may snag on the tool when the cutting
punch is pulled back so that the punch
comes under undesired, dangerous tensile
stresses. Corrective action can be taken
here by using precision cutting tools which
significantly reduce this burr. Cutting tools
are subjected to pressure during the cutting
process. If cycle times are high, this stress
may occur suddenly.

the tools cutting surfaces and the sheet to

be cut always result in friction, and therefore
wear and tear, when pressure is applied
simultaneously. Depending on the tool area
that is affected, distinctions are made between wear to the end face, lateral surfaces,
and crater wear. Marked wear to the lateral
surfaces can be particularly unfortunate
because it requires intensive regrinding.
This is why there is demand for high wear
resistance when it comes to tool steels used
for cutting tools.
From this brief description, it can be concluded that tool steels for cutting tools
should exhibit the following properties:
high hardness
high compression strength
adequate impact strength
high wear resistance

Materials suitable for cutting tools not only

need high compression strength; they must
also provide adequate resistance to impact.
Relative movements that occur between

Cutting tool

Precision cutting tool

Sheet

Cutting phase

Return phase
Cutting process (principle)

05

STRESSES ON TOOLS

Cold-forming technology
In cold extrusion, predominantly rotationsymmetric workpieces are produced from
blanks such as discs, rod lengths or
preforms. Possible procedures are:
direct impact extrusion
indirect impact extrusion
combination of direct and indirect impact
extrusion
These are shown in the diagram below.
The main difference lies in the direction of
movement. Tools consist of multiple component parts. The material to be formed is
placed in the die. In the case of the impact
extrusion of rods or tubular impact extrusion, the mandrel compresses the material
through the die. When extruding cupshaped sections, the mandrel shapes the
inner surface of the workpiece. The pressure plate must absorb the mechanical load
and distribute it evenly. The moulding cycle

Direct impact
extrusion

exerts enormous forces on the workpiece,

creating a bursting effect within the die
which needs to be absorbed by one or more
casings that reset the die. The demands on
specific tool parts can be summarized as
follows:

Die:
high fatigue strength
high wear resistance
Mandrel:
high wear resistance
high compression strength
Casing:
high tensile strength
high toughness

Indirect impact
extrusion
Mandrel

Mandrel
Material
Material
Tool (die)

Tool (die)

Direct/indirect
impact extrusion
Mandrel
Material
Tool (die)

Ejector
Counterpunch
Impact extrusion (principle)

06

STRESSES ON TOOLS

Deep drawing
The basic design of deep-drawing tools
is as follows:
drawing punch
blank holder
draw die

The strain on the drawing punch largely

arises due to pressure. The blank holder
and draw die are subject to wear mainly
on the edges.
Deep-drawing process (principle)

Bending/folding
When bending or folding, there is
essentially no change in sheet thickness.
This means that friction between the
workpiece and tool, and therefore wear
resistance, is of minor significance here.
Tools are subjected to pressure and must
therefore have high compression strength.
Toughness is also an important factor.
To ensure this compression strength,
a high hardness is set for the tools.

Hydraulic cylinder

Crosshead

Stop

Punch
Workpiece
Die
Bed

Bending (principle)

Cold rolling
In the case of rolling a distinction is made
between profile rolling and flat rolling.
Flat rolling is used to cold-roll sheets,
strips and similar products.

A typical example of the use of profile

rolling is to produce thread rolls for applying
threading to workpieces. The roller surfaces
must be exceptionally hard to withstand
wear from the materials being formed.
Essentially, tools must be tough enough
to absorb the bending stresses that arise.
Often the Cryodur 2379 and Rapidur 3343
steels are used for these purposes.

Rolling

Sheet

Rolling

Cold-rolling process (principle)

Cold rolls

08

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Material properties
Hardness and wear resistance on the one hand and toughness on the
other are conflicting property requirements. Finding a satisfactory
balance between them often involves compromise.
Wear resistance
Friction between the tool and workpiece
partially wears out the working and cutting
surfaces of tools, thereby limiting their
service life. That is why wear resistance
is an important property of tool steels.
However, it cannot be clearly defined and
it is not material-specific. Frequently, using
a tool causes several overlapping types
of wear, which are often compounded by
heating. Because wear resistance depends
on a number of external factors, it is not
possible to extrapolate universal wear resistance from the results of different methods
of testing wear. Instead, findings will always
say more about the case that is undergoing
testing.
The wear resistance of a tool steel depends on its chemical composition, the
microstructure (carbides), its hardness
and surface quality, as well as the type of
load. In this context, it can be stated that
the harder the steel, the greater its wear
resistance. Changing the hardness of the
surface area (by way of nitriding, coatings,
surface hardness, for example) increases
wear resistance.

Wear resistance is highly dependent on

the carbon content of the steel. Because
it is responsible for martensite formation,
carbon is the element that determines the
hardness of steel. In addition, carbon in
steels with higher contents of alloys (particularly Cr, Mo, V, W) tends to form very hard
carbides. As fine particles, these are more
or less embedded in the steel and help to
increase wear resistance considerably.
There is also a direct relationship to the
heat treatment condition and therefore the
steels structural constitution.

Abrasive particle, approx. 900 HV

Depth of scratch

Depth of scratch

(1.2550)
56 HRC (620 HV)

A
M

Max. depth of scratch

Material: 60WCrV7

Material: 90MnCrV8
(1.2842)
62 HRC (740 HV)

Carbide, approx. 1800 HV

Material: X210Cr12
(1.2080)
62 HRC (740 HV)

Diagram: Wear resistance

09

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Grade

Hardness

Wear resistance

Toughness

Cryodur 2067

++

++

Cryodur 2080

+++

+++

Cryodur 2101

++

++

Cryodur 2243

+++

Cryodur 2363

++

++

Cryodur 2379

+++

+++

Cryodur 2436

+++

+++

Cryodur 2510

++

++

Cryodur 2516

++

++

Cryodur 2550

++

Cryodur 2767

+++

Cryodur 2842

++

++

Cryodur 2990

+++

++

++

Rapidur 3343

+++

+++

Comparison of toughness and wear resistance given standard working hardness

Toughness
It is not possible to establish a universal
definition of toughness either. In relation to
tool steels, toughness needs to be understood as the ability of a material to avoid
cracking by way of slight plastic deformation when exposed to a load. There are a
number of ways of describing toughness.
For steels exhibiting low hardness, toughness can be directly assumed from the
values determined in the tensile test for
percent elongation at fracture A5 or percent
reduction of area at fracture Z. A simple
method for testing hard steel grades under
sudden stress is the impact bending and
notched-bar test using various different

sample shapes. For steels with hardness

values exceeding 55 HRC which most of
the cold-work and high-speed steels here
always achieve these tests do not provide
reliable results. In these cases, therefore,
static flexure or torsional tests are
employed which use the measured plastic
activity to gauge toughness.
Hardness and wear resistance on the
one hand and toughness on the other are
conflicting property requirements. Finding
a satisfactory balance between them often
involves compromise. In practice, this usually involves referring to working hardness,
as well as specific surface treatments.

10

MATERIALS

Materials
During the punching and forming processes covered in this brochure,
the tools are not generally exposed to higher temperatures.
As result, mainly cold-work tool steels are used in this area supplemented
by high-speed tool steels and, occasionally, hot-work tool steels.
Cold-work tool steels are non-alloyed or
alloyed steels where the surface temperature
is typically less than 200C in use. Hot-work
tool steels are defined as alloyed steels
where the surface temperature typically
exceeds 200C in use. Due to their chemical
composition, high-speed tool steels have
the highest red hardness and tempering
resistance, and can therefore be used at
temperatures of around 600C.
Cold-work tool steels are preferred for tools
used to make workpieces without cutting
from ferrous and non-ferrous metals (e.g.
cutting, punching, drawing or spinning
tools).
High-speed tool steels are mainly used for
cutting tools, as well as for parts subjected
to particularly high loads in forming tools.
Because applications for these groups of
steels overlap, a more detailed description is
warranted here.

Developing materials based on requirements

has led to a wide range of cold-work steels,
some of which exhibit only minor differences in alloy composition or properties. In
the past, repeated attempts were made to
reduce this variety in the interest of improving cost-effectiveness.
These days, non-alloyed cold-work tool
steels are of limited importance. Except for
iron, they contain almost only carbon the
element solely responsible for martensite
formation and therefore hardness. During
hardening these steels attain a high level
of hardness on the periphery as a result of
quenching, but remain soft at the core. They
are therefore known as shell-hardenable.
Applications extend to areas where the
combination of a hard surface and soft core
is desirable.

11

MATERIALS

Through hardening

Wear resistance
Toughness
Tough

Hard

High-carbide

0.4-0.6% C
<1% carbide
52-57 HRC

~1.0% C
5-8% carbide
58-62 HRC

>1.5% C, ~12% Cr
12-18% carbide
60-63 HRC

Cryodur 1730
C45U
$
Cryodur 2550
60WCrV8
$
Cryodur 2767
45NiCrMo16

Cryodur 2067
102Cr6
$
Cryodur 2842
90MnCrV8
$
Cryodur 2363
X100CrMoV5

Cryodur 2080
X210Cr12
$
Cryodur 2436
X210CrW12
$
Cryodur 2379
X153CrMoV12

Classification of common cold-work steels

In addition to carbon, alloyed cold-work

tool steels contain amounts of the carbideforming elements chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium, and occasionally also tungsten,
all of which improve the wear resistance of
these steel grades. Elements such as nickel
and manganese also contribute to high
hardness values across larger cross-sections (through hardening). The effect of such
elements is to make the steel grades slow to
transform. In practical terms, this is beneficial because it means more mild quenching
mediums (oil, air, salt bath) are suitable for
bringing about martensitic hardening. Of
the alloyed cold-work tool steels, ledeburitic
chromium steels which contain more than
1% carbon and 12% chromium occupy a
special position. Due to their carbide content they are highly wear-resistant. They are
somewhat less toughness than the alloyed

cold-work tool steels mentioned previously.

That is why, when planning to utilize these
steels, it is important to check whether the
selected steel is tough enough or whether
the hardness needs to be modified in some
specific way.
High-speed tool steels are also used for
many punching and forming tools. Originally
developed for non-cutting tools, these exhibit particularly high wear resistance, high
hardness at elevated temperatures and thus
good tempering resistance. High-speed tool
steels have a carbon content of between
0.8% and 1.4%. The main alloy elements
are tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium and
cobalt. The associated high carbide content
results in very high wear resistance. The
steel matrix is composed in such a way that
it offers high tempering resistance.

12

COLD-WORK tool STEELS

Cold-work tool steels

Cold-work tool steels can be divided roughly into the following groups: non-alloyed, low or medium-alloy, oil-hardened
and high-alloy, ledeburitic steels.
Name

DIN reference

Chemical composition (standard values in %)

C

Si

Mn

C45U

0.45

0.30

0.70

Cryodur 2067

100Cr6

1.00

0.20

0.35

Cryodur 2080

X210Cr12

2.00

Cryodur 2101

62SiMnCr4

0.65

1.10

1.10

0.70

Cryodur 2243

61CrSiV5

0.60

0.90

0.80

1.10

Cryodur 2357

50CrMoV13-15

0.50

0.30

0.70

3.35

1.60

0.25

Cryodur 2363

X100CrMoV5

1.00

5.30

1.10

0.20

Cryodur 2379

X153CrMoV12

1.55

12.00

0.70

1.00

Cryodur 2436

X210CrW12

2.10

12.00

0.70

Cryodur 2516

120WV4

1.20

0.20

1.00

Cryodur 2550

60WCrV8

0.60

1.10

2.00

Cryodur 2709

X3NiCoMoTi18-9-5

< 0.03

Cryodur 2721

50NiCr13

0.55

Cryodur 2767

45NiCrMo16

0.45

Cryodur 2833

100V1

1.00

Cryodur 2842

90MnCrV8

0.90

Cryodur 2990

~X100CrMoV8-1-1

1.00

0.90

8.00

1.00

1.60

X37CrMoV5-1

0.38

1.00

5.30

1.30

0.40

HS6-5-2C

0.90

0.30

4.10

5.00

1.90

Cryodur 1730

Thermodur 2343
Rapidur 3343

From the group of non-alloyed steels, only

Cryodur 1730 shall be briefly mentioned
here. To be hardened, it needs to be waterquenched (water-hardenable, shell-hardenable). It combines a hard surface with a
tough core. During the tempering process
which must be carried out to achieve the
necessary toughness, hardness quickly falls
according to the temperature selected for
tempering.
The cold-work tool steel Cryodur 2067
contains 1% carbon and 1.5% chromium.
This steel is slower to transform than the
one previously mentioned. It is quenched
using oil rather than water. Nevertheless its

Cr

Mo

Ni

Co

Ti

10.00

1.00

1.50
12.00

0.60

0.20

0.10

5.00

18.00

1.10

0.10

3.20

1.40

0.30

4.00

0.20
2.00

0.30

0.10
0.40

0.10

6.40

hardening depth remains low. Due to its

chromium content, it forms carbides which
increase the steels wear resistance.
Both Cryodur 2542 and Cryodur 2550 are
very similar in terms of chemical composition and therefore properties. For this reason,
Cryodur 2542 is only rarely used nowadays.
Cryodur 2550 is oil-hardenable, which
means it can be hardened by means of an
oil quench. Due to its toughness, it is used
in tools such as chisels which experience a
sudden load or if the toughness of higheralloy steels is inadequate for the intended
application.

13

COLD-WORK tool STEELS

Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram for Cryodur 2767

1200
1100
1000

Temperature in oC

900
Ac1e (0.4 K/min)

800

Ac1b (0.4 K/min)

700
600

A + C (traces )

0.14

500

0.4

1.1

2.1

5.6 20 K/min

5 K/min

10 K/min

20

1.25 K/min
2.5 K/min

0.4 K/min

0.2 K/min

400
MS

300

100
0

B
50

98

78

440

435

200

Hardness

RA =
623

HV 10
100
Time in sec

2.2

101

603

613

613 613

102
100
Time in min

5.1

4.4

613 613 603 584 532

103

104

101

102
100
Time in hr

105

106

103
101

104
102

Tempering diagram for Cryodur 2363

70

66

66

62

62

58

58
Hardness in HRC

Hardness in HRC

Tempering diagram for Cryodur 2767

70

54
50
46

54
50
46

42

42

38

38

34

34
30

30
0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tempering temperature in C

Due to its 4.0% nickel content the high-alloy

Cryodur 2767 steel is characterized by high
hardenability along with good toughness.
It is therefore preferred in cutting tools for
thick materials. The TTT diagram for this
steel indicates the slow transformation of
this steel with the areas of pearlitic and
bainitic transformation beginning only after
very long periods. This fact is beneficial for
heat treatment as the steel can be hardened using very mild quenching mediums
such as air, oil or a salt bath (180 - 220C).
During tempering, the hardness of this steel
changes according to its tempering curve.
In the interest of achieving good toughness, temperatures between 250 and 350C
should be avoided when tempering because
the steel experiences embrittlement within
this range. Because this steel is preferred
for tools in large sizes, the ESR (electroslag
remelting) variant of this steel should be
used when toughness requirements are very
high. Due to its solidification characteristics,
this remelting process results in materials

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tempering temperature in C

featuring very high levels of homogeneity

and isotropy.
An important alloyed cold-work tool steel
is Cryodur 2363. Due to its composition of
1.0% carbon and approx. 5% chromium
plus 1.0 % molybdenum, it fills the gap
between medium-alloy and high-alloy,
ledeburitic chromium steels.
Owing to the steels high carbon content,
it achieves a high level of hardness as well
as high carbide content and wear resistance. It is therefore given preferential use
in all cases where tools are exposed to
mixed loads. Usually this steel is hardened
at temperatures between 930 and 970C
and then tempered to the working hardness
according to its tempering diagram.
Given another rise in hardness at tempering
temperatures of around 500C, however,
this diagram indicates the potential for subjecting this steel to secondary hardening.

COLD-WORK tool STEELS

Tempering diagram for Cryodur 2379

using normal heat treatment

Tempering diagram for Cryodur 2379

using special heat treatment

70

70

66

66

62

62

58

58
Hardness in HRC

Hardness in HRC

14

54
50
46

54
50
46

42

42

38

38

34

34

30

30
0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tempering temperature in C

In order to carry out this secondary hardening properly, however, a hardening temperature of between 1020 and 1040C must
be selected and tempering must be performed at least twice at temperatures of 510
to 530C. Although this treatment initially
has no appreciable effect on mechanical/
technical characteristics such as strength,
hardness or toughness, it opens up the
prospect of subjecting this steel to subsequent surface treatment (nitriding in plasma,
for example) at temperatures of around
500C without affecting the steels properties in any significant way.
As ledeburitic cold-work tool steels,
Cryodur 2080 and Cryodur 2436 are
extremely similar, the only difference
being that tungsten content of Cryodur 2436
(0.7%). Their high carbide contents provide
high wear resistance and make them important tool steels for cutting tools and other

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tempering temperature in C

tools prone to high wear. The tungsten content of Cryodur 2436 steel makes it easier
to harden compared to Cryodur 2080.
Due to its tungsten content, Cryodur 2436
requires a somewhat higher hardening
temperature. If oil quenching will be used,
Cryodur 2080 can be hardened at 930 to
960C. Given thinner dimensions (thickness
< 30 mm), air cooling is also possible.
This may be favourable, particularly in
terms of causing minimal distortion. In this
case, a hardening temperature of 950 to
980C must be selected. This temperature
range is also used for Cryodur 2436, which
contains tungsten.
Cryodur 2379 is another ledeburitic coldwork tool steel. It exhibits good toughness
as well as maximum wear resistance, giving
it outstanding cutting edge retention. The
tempering diagram for this steel indicates

15

COLD-WORK tool STEELS

Guide rails

the possibility of secondary hardening,

which is primarily always applied if tools are
to be nitrided.
Whereas for normal primary hardening
temperatures of between 1000 and 1050 C
are needed, secondary hardening calls for
higher hardening temperatures, namely
1050 to 1080C. A more detailed description of the processes involved in secondary
hardening is given in the section covering
the heat treatment of steels. The TTT diagrams in these two cases indicate a broad
range for metastable austenite between the
pearlite and bainite or martensite area. As a
consequence, oil, air or a salt bath of 500 to
550C may be used as a quenching medium
during hardening. This causes exceptionally
low hardening stresses and therefore only
minimal distortion. The procedure for martempering (with salt bath) is also described
in more detail in the section about the heat

treatment of steels. Due to its spectrum of

properties, Cryodur 2379 has tapped into
a wide range of applications. As universal
plate, it can largely replace the Cryodur
2080 and 2436 steels and therefore usefully
helps to limit the variety of types as desired
on all sides.
Cryodur 2990 is characterized by particularly high hardness, strength and adhesive
wear resistance. The improved toughness compared to Cryodur 2379 achieves
enhanced fracture strength. This prolongs
service life. Cryodur 2990 has the ideal
property profile for sheet metal working and
for all punching, cutting and shearing tools,
such as rotary shear blades, punches and
dies, and progressive dies. Other cold-work
applications are also possible (thread rolling, deep drawing, etc.). Cryodur 2990 is
characterized by good EDM properties and
good inductive hardenability.

16

COLD-WORK tool STEELS

Property comparisons
Cryodur 2990 stands out due to its special chemical composition
and the resultant fine, homogeneous microstructure.
Cryodur 2990 is characterized by
extraordinary hardness, strength and
high wear resistance. With its enormous

1.2363

toughness, it also stands for high resistance

to failure and thus for longer service lives
and higher production quantities of the tool.

1.2379

1.2363

Cryodur 2990

1.2379

Cryodur 2990

Impact bending
Impact energy
bendinginenergy
joules in joules

90
80
70
90
60
80
50
70
40
60
30
50
20
40
10
30
0
20
10
0

1.2363
61 HRC

58 HRC

54 HRC

1.2379
59 HRC

61 HRC

58 HRC

61 HRC

58 HRC

54 HRC

59 HRC

61 HRC

58 HRC

60 HRC

63 HRC

61 HRC

200

525

550

200

525

550

200

510

535

200

510

535

Tempering temperature in C
200

525

550

Tempering temperature in C

1.2363

longitudinal
200

1.2379

525
longitudinal

Cryodur
60 HRC299063 HRC

61 HRC

High toughness
combined with higher
hardness

transverse
550
transverse

Cryodur 2990

4.0

-5
Rate of wear
Ratex of
10wear
x 10 -5

3.5
3.0
4.0
2.5
3.5
2.0
3.0
1.5
2.5
1.0
2.0
0.5
1.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.0

1.2363
61 HRC

58 HRC

54 HRC

1.2379
59 HRC

61 HRC

58 HRC

Cryodur
60 HRC299063 HRC

51 HRC

Very good wear resis61 HRC

58 HRC

54 HRC

59 HRC

61 HRC

58 HRC

60 HRC

63 HRC

51 HRC

tance (both abrasive and

adhesive). For example,
Rod/disc test to
compare the abrasive

200

525

550

200

525

550

200

510

535

200

525

550

200

510

535

Tempering temperature in C
200

525

550

Tempering temperature in C

rate of wear.

Cryodur 2990

18

HIGH-SPEED STEELS

High-speed and hot-work steels

Rapidur 3343, a high-speed steel, has become the standard steel for
punching and forming applications.

The data sheet shows that much higher

austenitizing temperatures are required to
harden high-speed steels than is the case
for cold-work steels. The high thermal
stability of the carbides present in highspeed steels is the cause of this, of which
considerable quantities need to dissolve
during austenitizing. Performing hardening
on high-speed steels requires special care.
After hardening, Rapidur 3343 steel attains
a hardness of approx. 64 to 66 HRC. The
high chromium and molybdenum content
results in good through hardening.

The level and temperature setting of this

maximum depend on the hardening temperature. Tempering to the desired tempering hardness needs to be carried out at
least twice (three times is better) at tempering temperatures exceeding the secondary
hardening maximum.
In the range of manufacturing operations
described here, Thermodur 2343 EFS, a
hot-work steel, is also used. It exhibits high
tempering resistance and stands out for its
very good level of toughness.
Tempering diagram for Rapidur 3343
70
66
62
58
Hardness in HRC

It features an exceptionally well-balanced

alloy composition with a high content of
carbide-forming chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium and tungsten in addition to carbon. This composition means that the steel
is supplied (soft-annealed) with a carbide
content of some 20%. The steels high
wear resistance comes courtesy of this high
carbide content.

54
50
46
42

This steels tempering curve indicates a

distinct maximum for secondary hardening
of between 520 and 560C.

38
34
30
0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tempering temperature in C

19

MATERIAL SELECTION

Material selection
To make the most appropriate choice from the wide range of tool
steels available, it is necessary to compare their properties based
on tool requirements.
The diagram contrasts the wear resistance and toughness of a number of tool steels
for cold-work applications.

Cryodur
2721

Increasing toughness

Cryodur
2767

Cryodur
2510
Cryodur
2357
Cryodur
2842

Cryodur
2550

Cryodur
2363
Cryodur
2379
Rapidur
3343

Increasing abrasive wear resistance

Cutting:
The choice of steel and working hardness
depends on the thickness and strength of
the material to be cut. The greater the thickness and strength of the material being cut,
the higher the loads on the tool, especially
the stress peaks at the cutting edges.
The toughness of the tool material must
therefore also increase accordingly. This
prerequisite can be satisfied by lowering
tool hardness. It also makes sense to switch
from alloys with higher carbon content to
those containing less. In the smaller size
range, highly wear-resistant 12% chromium
steels are used predominantly. For greater
sheet thicknesses, Cryodur 2550, Cryodur
2767 and Cryodur 2842 are tougher materials that fulfil requirements. Of the 12%

chromium steels, Cryodur 2379 features

equally good wear resistance and higher
toughness compared to Cryodur 2080 or
Cryodur 2436. As a result, the two other
steels are largely being replaced by
Cryodur 2379. In terms of usage, the crossover points between the various steels are
obviously fluid, with the areas of application
overlapping for multiple steels.
For the machining of austenitic workpiece
materials and dynamo sheets, tool hardness
should be increased by 1 to 2 HRC.
Due to lower blade clearance, precision
cutting tools are exposed to higher loads
than ordinary cutting tools, making the use
of the Rapidur 3343 and Cryodur 2379
steels appropriate for these types of tools.

20

MATERIAL SELECTION

Deep-drawn cans

Shearing
As a shaping technique that separates
without cutting, shearing is similar to actual
cutting. Tools must feature a high level of
wear resistance and adequate toughness.
Here too, values for working hardness are
determined by the type, thickness and
hardness of the material being cut. Steels
used include the ledeburitic cold-work tool
steels, particularly Cryodur 2379, but also
high-speed tool steels like Rapidur 3343.
The comparison of materials again demonstrates the usability of Cryodur 2379, which
is replaced by the tougher Cryodur 2363,
Cryodur 2842, Cryodur 2550 and Cryodur
2767 steels only when requirements regarding toughness are higher (thicker material to
be cut).

Cold extrusion
Recommendations for selecting steel for
cold extrusion tools include various steels
for different tools depending on actual requirements. Dies subjected to pressure and
wear require materials that feature sufficient
protection against wear and high compression strength. For single-piece dies,
which are chiefly subjected to wear, the

carbon steels Cryodur 1545 and Cryodur

2833 still meet requirements. In the case
of more complex tool stresses comprising
pressure, wear and bursting loads, the die
insert (sleeve) must be able to withstand the
wear stress. Ledeburitic chromium steels,
especially Cryodur 2379, have proved effective here. This steel in particular superbly
combines the properties of hardness and
wear resistance with more than adequate
toughness. Reinforcement rings must be
able to absorb high tensile stresses, which
demands tool steels with sufficient toughness. Cryodur 2767 has proven itself in this
regard, being extremely tough due to its
high nickel content of 4%. The hot-work
tool steel Thermodur 2343 has also demonstrated its effectiveness based on good
toughness. An additional feature is that the
latter steel may be heated to up to 550C
for the purpose of shrinking due to its tempering behaviour.

Deep drawing

Primarily, ledeburitic cold-work steels are

used for deep-drawing tools. Again Cryodur
2379 has become a standard material.

21

MATERIAL SELECTION

Punching tool

To prevent the workpiece from compressing during cutting and to keep friction low,
the working area of the cutting plate needs
to be bigger than the cross-section of the
punch. The distance between the cutting
edges of the die and the punch is known
as the blade clearance. Its size depends
on the workpieces properties and thickness, as well as the cutting process. The
narrower the blade clearance, the cleaner
the cutting area is. If the blade clearance
is too small, the amount of force required
increases sharply due to the greater friction
and compression of the material being processed. This may result in the cutting edges
chipping or blunting prematurely. A blade
clearance that is too large is just as detrimental because the material being separated may press into the interstices, leading
to major bursting stresses and potentially a
premature rupture of the cutting plates. The
diagram gives the standard values for blade
clearance for cutting and precision cutting tools subject to sheet thickness. When

cutting soft materials the blade clearance

should be at the lower limit and when cutting higher-strength materials it should be
at the upper limit of the relevant range.

Recommended blade clearance

depending on sheet thickness
1,6
1,4

A: Cutting tool
B: Precision cutting tool

1,2

Blade clearance in mm

Blade clearance

1,0

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,015
0,010
0,005

0,000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Sheet thickness in mm

22

MATERIAL SELECTION

Overview: Choice of steel for cutting, punching, shearing

Material to process

Thickness

Grade

Hardness (HRC)

Cryodur 2080

58 62

Cryodur 2436

58 62

Cryodur 2516

59 63

Cryodur 2379

56 60

Cryodur 2363

56 60

Cryodur 2510

56 60

Cryodur 2842

56 60

Cryodur 2550

54 58

Cryodur 2767

48 52

Cryodur 2243

52 59

Cryodur 2101

50 58

up to 2 mm

Cryodur 2436

60 63

up to 6 mm

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Cryodur 2379

60 62

Rapidur 3343

60 64

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Rapidur 3343

58 62

up to 12 mm

Cryodur 2550

54 58

over 12 mm

Cryodur 2767

50 54

Cryodur 2379

60 62

Cryodur 2516

59 63

Rapidur 3343

60 64

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Rapidur 3343

58 62

Cryodur 2379

56 60

Rapidur 3343

56 60

Cryodur 2243

52 59

Cryodur 2101

50 58

Cryodur 2080

58 63

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Cryodur 2436

58 63

Cryodur 2510

57 61

Cryodur 2550

54 58

Cryodur 2842

58 63

up to 4 mm

Sheet steel, strip steel, aluminium and aluminium alloys,

copper and copper alloys

up to 6 mm

up to 12 mm

over 12 mm

Transformer and dynamo

sheet, dynamo strip

up to 4 mm

Austenitic steel grades

up to 6 mm

up to 4 mm

Metallic sheet and strip

up to 6 mm

up to 12 mm

Plastics, wood, rubber, leather,

textiles and paper

23

MATERIAL SELECTION

Overview: Choice of steel for back-up tools (components)

Grade

Working hardness in HRC or

working strength in N/mm

Cryodur 2842

56 60 HRC

Stripper,
stripper plate

Cryodur 2842

58 60 HRC

Cryodur 1730

ca. 650 N/mm

Spring-loaded bolt,
punch guide, guide rod,
guide post

Cryodur 2842

58 62 HRC

Cryodur 2210

58 62 HRC

Formadur 2162

58 60 HRC

Ejector,
ejector plate

Cryodur 2210

56 60 HRC

Cryodur 2842

56 60 HRC

Cryodur 1730

ca. 650 N/mm

Cryodur 2379

58 62 HRC

Cryodur 2842

58 62 HRC

Tools

Pressure piece, pressure

plate, spacer

Punch holder,
base plate
Blank holder

Overview: Choice of steel for cold extrusion tools

Tools
Single-piece dies

Die insert,
punch

Reinforcement ring

Shear blade

Shear sleeve

Grade

Working hardness in HRC

Cryodur 1545

60 64

Cryodur 2833

60 64

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Cryodur 2436

58 62

Cryodur 2721

54 58

Rapidur 3343

60 64

Thermodur 2343

46 52

Cryodur 2709

52 56

Thermodur 2714

48 52

Cryodur 2767

48 52

Rapidur 3343

60 64

Cryodur 2363

56 60

Cryodur 2379

58 62

Cryodur 2550

54 58

Rapidur 3343

60 64

24

HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment of cold-work tool steels

Heat treatment is a key step in tool production. It is what gives tool steels
the properties required to achieve the desired output in future operational
use. Heat treatment comes at the end of the production process.
Errors at this stage can often result in irreparable damage to the (nearly)
finished tool. The fact that lots of damage to tools can be attributed to
improper heat treatment clearly shows how important it is to describe
in-depth the processes and procedures of heat treatment.
Heat treatment conditions
Apart from a few exceptions, tool steels are
supplied to toolmakers in a soft-annealed
condition. Depending on their chemical
composition, in this state the steels exhibit
a maximum hardness of 180 to 250 HB.
Only high-speed steels will have hardnesses of 240 to 300 HB due to the very
high amount of alloy elements they contain.
Steels can be machined effectively in this
condition. At this stage they are, however,
unsuitable for the actual application.
From a metallographic perspective, in a
soft-annealed condition all the carbon in the
steel is set in the form of carbides. The carbides are present as fine, spherical particles
in a ferritic matrix. Because the matrix is
virtually free from carbon, hardness is low.
This gives the steels in this condition good
machinability.

In order to convert a steel to a hardened

state, it must undergo various transformations. When it comes to hardening, carbon
is the most important alloy element. Because its atom size is considerably smaller
than that of iron, in the iron lattice structure
it fits into interstitial positions (gaps).
At room temperature, iron exists in a bodycentred cubic (b.c.c.) matrix (ferrite) exhibiting a parameter of 0.286 x 10-9 m. Above
911C it transforms to a face-centred cubic
(f.c.c.) matrix (austenite) at a parameter of
0.357 x 10-9 m. During this transformation,
two unit cells of ferrite form a new unit cell
of austenite. Between the spherical iron
atoms there are vacancies in which carbon
can be stored.

2,86 A

Annealed structure

3,57 A

Body-centred cubic (b.c.c.)

Face-centred cubic (f.c.c.) matrix,

matrix

maximum packing density

25

HEAT TREATMENT

The mesh effect of austenite enables it to

dissolve (store) up to 2.1% carbon. In ferrite, however, only a maximum of 0.02% C
can be dissolved and at room temperature
just 0.00001% C. This differing ability to dissolve carbon into vacancies is consciously
utilized in the process of hardening steels.
Steels practically always contain more carbon than can be dissolved in ferrite at room
temperature. In a soft-annealed condition,
this carbon is present in the form of carbides (compounds of C with the elements
Fe, Cr, Mo, V, W). If the steel is now heated
beyond its transformation temperature so
that it becomes austenitic, carbon can now
be stored in vacancies within the austenite.
This carbon must be provided by the carbides, i.e. the carbides diffuse their carbon
out to the austenite while at the same time
other carbide elements find their way into
the austenite. Plenty of time is needed for
the processes of ferrite/austenite transformation and the carbon solution. The steel
is cooled down rapidly (quenched) from
the austenitizing temperature (hardening
temperature). The carbon dissolved at high
concentration in the austenite endeavours
to compensate for its declining solubility as
the temperature falls by wanting to leave the
interstitial positions in the austenite.
Rapid cooling prevents this back diffusion,
however, and the carbon remains in a state
of forced dissolution. The iron lattice structure is under extreme stresses as a result.
It is no longer able to transform from austenite lattice to iron lattice and is instead flipped
over to a deformed structure (martensite) in
fractions of a second.
Although steel hardened in this way is very
hard, it is also extremely brittle.
The steel must therefore be tempered. For
this purpose, the steel is heated again but to
a much lower temperature than during hardening. As the temperature rises, the carbon
atoms are initially released from the deformed lattice and are able to form carbides
by combining with the free alloy elements.

In the case of some high-alloy steels (highspeed steels, for example), what are known
as special carbides may arise, leading to
a distinct secondary hardening maximum.
The deformed martensitic lattice loses
deformation as a result, which is associated
with a certain loss of hardness.
During the preceding hardening, often not
all austenite is transformed to martensite.
In high-alloy steels in particular, austenite
is slow to transform, meaning that some
residual austenite may still be present
after hardening in addition to martensite.
Because the tempered martensite loses
deformation, during cooling down from the
tempering temperature the residual austenite may transform to martensite, which
undergoes the process described above
during the second tempering process.

Heat treatment process

The first step in the heat treatment process
is stress-relief annealing. The cutting and
non-cutting processes applied to make the
tool have caused stresses in the tool being
treated. If these stresses are not resolved
prior to hardening, significant distortions or
cracks in the tool are unavoidable.
In stress-relief annealing, tools are heated
slowly and thoroughly to 600 - 650C and
held at this temperature for a minimum of
two hours. For larger tools, a holding time
of at least one hour is recommended per
50 mm wall thickness. Subsequent cooling
must occur slowly in a furnace to avoid new
stresses from forming. Strain relief almost
always involves a change in shape which
must be resolved as part of subsequent
finish-machining.
Tool hardness is determined by three
subprocesses:
heating to hardening temperature
austenitizing and
quenching

26

HEAT TREATMENT

Austenitizing

Temperature

Heating
Premachining
Finishmachining
600-650C

Tempering

Hardening

Stress-relief
annealing

Quenching

Hardening temperature*

3rd pre-warming
stage 1 min/mm
~ 900C

Air/oil

2nd pre-warming
stage 30 s/mm
~ 650C

Salt bath*

Slow
furnace
cooling

* Temperatures according to
material data sheets

Equalization
temperature 1st tempering* 2nd tempering* Further tempering*
1h/100 mm

Air

1st pre-warming
stage 30 s/mm
~ 400C

Air

~100C

Time
Time-temperature sequence diagram for the heat treatment of ledeburitic chromium steels

Heat is quite crucial with regard to hardening temperature. The thermal conductivity
of high-alloy steels is relatively low. This
means that considerable temperature differences can emerge between the edge
and the core when heating up large tools.
Rapid heating would therefore result in
severe temperature stresses, which could
lead to distortion or cracks. Building multiple pre-heating stages into the heating
process equalizes the temperature across
the entire cross-section. Depending on the
selected steel and tool for hardening, up to
three pre-heating stages may be required.
Heating from the final pre-warming stage to
hardening temperature needs to happen as
quickly as possible. The tool must be held
at the hardening temperature long enough
for the necessary amount of carbides to

dissolve in the austenite following temperature equalization. It should not be held

for too long, however, because temperatures this high may cause damaging grain
growth. The diagram on the page opposite
provides information on the correct holding
time once hardening temperature has been
reached at the tools surface.
Quenching to form the hard martensite
desired must be effected swiftly. If cooling
is too rapid, though, it may again result in
severe temperature stresses, potentially
leading to distortion or cracks. The chosen quenching medium therefore depends
on the steel. There is a basic rule for the
quenching speed: It should be as slow as
possible but as fast as necessary. Hardened tools must not be cooled to room

Air

27

HEAT TREATMENT

200
180
a

160

Time in min

140

120
100
80

a
a

a = wall thickness

60
40
20
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

Wall thickness in mm (hardening cross-section)

High-alloy steels (ledeburitic, 12% chromium steels)
Carbon, low and medium-alloy tool steels
Holding period after reaching hardening temperature at the tools surface

temperature. Instead they should be caught

at approx. 100C and held until the martensite transformation is complete.
One hour per 100 mm wall thickness can be
assumed as the equalization time, although
longer periods will not be detrimental. Again,
the reason for this lies with the limited thermal conductivity of tool steels, which means
that the core of tools cools more slowly than
the periphery. Without equalization there is a
risk that the core of tools remains austenitic,
whereas the edges are already completely
martensitic. The potential result: extreme
stresses or cracks if the core also becomes
martensitic. To minimize changes in dimensions during quenching from the hardening
temperature, as well as the risk of cracking,
it is recommended to always make quench-

ing as mild as possible and no more abrupt

than necessary. To that end, step quenching (martempering) is useful for tools of
complicated shape made of alloyed steels.
Tools are placed in a molten salt bath or a
tempered oil bath, the temperature of which
is just above the martensite start temperature. This interrupts the cooling process in
the tools outer layer. The core, however,
cools down to the edge temperature, resulting in full temperature equalization. Stresses arising during this cooling are largely dissipated in the still relatively soft austenite.
Following temperature equalization, tools
are removed from the salt bath and cooled
in air. Only then does the austenite transform to martensite.

Vacuum furnace

The data sheets for some steels specify

temperatures of between 180 and
220C for martempering although their Ms
temperatures are above this range. In this
case, only very mild quenching is involved.
Other steels, particularly high-alloy steels
like Cryodur 2363, Cryodur 2379, Cryodur
2436, and the Rapidur high-speed steels,
require a salt bath temperature of 500 to
550C. This temperature, which is considerably higher than Ms, can be understood
on taking a closer look at the TTT diagrams
for the continuous cooling of these steels.
Within this temperature range, the stated
steels show a distinct area of metastable
austenite between the pearlitic and bainitic
stage. The tool can be held within this

temperature range for as long as desired

without undergoing transformation, thereby
ensuring adequate temperature equalization.
The subsequent cooling in air is still fast
enough for martensite formation.
When hardening is complete, the tools must
be tempered to achieve the case hardness
and toughness. The tempering temperature
selected depends on the steel and desired
working hardness. The tool needs to spend
one hour per 20 mm wall thickness at the
tempering temperature before cooling in
still air. It works well to temper tools at least
twice, and in many cases even three times,
in order to largely eliminate the remaining
austenite.

Proper heat treatment is essential

Heat treatment units

Various types of furnace are used to carry
out heat treatments.
Muffel furnaces heated using gas or electric
have a simple furnace design. They are
suitable for temperatures up to approx.
1000C. Because no special atmosphere
can be set in this furnaces, tool surfaces
need to be protected against oxidation and
decarburization.
During heat treatment in salt-bath furnaces,
the heat transfers molten salt to tools. Good
heat transfer will achieve rapid heating. Salt
baths are used at up to approx. 1350C
and can therefore also be used for hardening and tempering. Tool surfaces are not
decarburized or oxidized. Any salt residue
must, however, be cleaned off quickly and
thoroughly or corrosion may occur. Accurate temperatures are a further benefit of
this type of furnace. Due to their size, salt
baths are usually restricted to small tools.

Another point to note about this procedure

is that the salts used contain cyanogen
compounds involving high environmental
constraints. Vacuum furnaces are gaining
prominence. Tools being treated are heated
in a container under vacuum and brought
up to hardening temperature. This type of
heating, which is backed by an additional
convection heater at the lower temperature
range depending on the design of furnace,
is considerably slower than with a salt
bath something to bear in mind with large
tools. Cooling in this furnace is usually done
by nitrogen at a pressure of up to 6 bar (but
sometimes up to 20 bar), which flows into
the furnace chamber for quenching to occur. A specific advantage of this procedure
is that following this type of heat treatment,
tool surfaces are taken right down to bright
metal and any distortions are minor due to
the relatively mild quenching. This method
is always used if tools require only minimal
post-treatment following heat treatment.

30

HEAT TREATMENT

The hardenability of tool steels is dependent not only on the carbon content but
also on the cross-section. Martensite is
formed on the periphery during quenching,
thereby achieving a high level of hardness
there, while heat is conducted only slowly
from the core, which means that martensite
formation is no longer able to occur there.
Areas exposed to slow cooling therefore
have a considerably lower hardness level.
This is the reason why many tools do not
attain the desired hardness across the
entire cross-section, something to keep in
mind in vacuum hardening especially.
The diagram for determining working hardness shows the attainable working hardness based on tool diameter and quenching

medium. If, for example, a hardness of 64

HRC is required for a tool made of Cryodur 2379 with a diameter of 120 mm in its
untempered state, follow a vertical line up
from the horizontal axis (diameter of workpiece) to the appropriate steel curve. From
this point of intersection, move across to
the vertical axis where the working hardness (30 mm) can be read off. After hardening, a round workpiece with a diameter of
120 mm made from Cryodur 2379 will thus
exhibit a hardness of 64 HRC to a depth of
up to 30 mm. The intersection of the steel
curve with the axis at an angle of 45 yields
the diameter to be through-hardened on the
horizontal axis (100 mm).
The following graphic shows the hardenability of tool steels during hardening.

Hardening depth at 58 HRC

Hardening depth at 64 HRC

100

2379
2436
2080
2510
2842
2767
2550
2067
2210
2542

90

70
60
50
40
30

20

40

60

Hardening depth in mm

80

2379
2436
2379
2436
2080
2510
2842
2067
2210

100
90
80
70

Quenching medium
Oil
Air

60
50
40
30

20

20

10

10

0
80 100 120 140 160 180 200

20

Diameter of workpiece in mm
Effect of hardening depth on the diameter of the workpiece for Cryodur cold-work steels

40

60

0
80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Diameter of workpiece in mm

Hardening depth in mm

Hardenability

DISTORTION AND CHANGES IN VOLUME AND DIMENSION

Distortion and changes in

dimension
These two phenomena are very important in
the heat treatment of tools. Although the two
terms describe different processes, they are
often interlinked. Whereas distortion can be
kept in check by technical means by way
of mild and uniform cooling, for example,
or in the structural design of tools changes
in dimension are based on the processes
occurring during microstructural transformations.
The changes in microstructure and dimensions associated with heat treatment processes are described below. Information is
also provided on how to avoid distortion and
cracking. It should be noted that, according
to EN 10052, dimensional change refers to
"the change in dimension of a component
without change in shape". By contrast,
changes in shape are characterized by
changes of curvature and angles.
Distortion is defined as change in shape
and dimensional change.

Changes in dimension during

heating and cooling
Heat treatment processes involve temperature changes which result in changes in
volume within the material due to thermal
expansion. In addition to thermal expansion, the state of the solution or precipitation

changes, which involves a change in lattice

constants and therefore also a change in
volume.

Changes in volume due to thermal expansion

If heating or cooling run so slowly that the
resulting temperature stresses are eliminated elastically, there will be no measurable
change in volume on the workpiece after
heat treatment is complete.
In the case of faster changes in
temperature, the temperature differences
that always occur in real tools cause internal stresses to form. These internal stresses
may exceed the yield strength of the material being treated and are then eliminated
plastically. In an extreme case, tensile
strength is exceeded, making cracking a
possibility. Normally, however, only changes
in dimension dependent on size are a
consequence. During quenching, the tensile
stresses occurring at the edges have a minimal effect on the surface to volume ratio
(spherical shape), i.e. a cylinder shrinking in
length and increasing in diameter. Because
the core cools down last, the edge comes
under compressive stress (stress reversal),
while tensile stresses form in the core. As a
consequence, for a ferritic, austenitic steel
compressive stresses will be present in the
edge area and tensile stresses in the core.

31

32

DISTORTION AND CHANGES IN VOLUME AND DIMENSION

Austenite

Martensite (tetragonal)

Martensite (cubic)
(tempered at 200C, 6.5 hr)

Pearlite (annealed)

0.120

0.125

0.130

Specific volume in cm/g

Steel featuring 0.8% C and different microstructures

Changes in volume due to

microstructural transformation
During slow heating and cooling processes,
temperature stresses remain at a low level.
Nevertheless changes in dimension are
possible. The cause: the change in structure intended through heat treatment also
manifests itself as a change in volume. In
this way, the annealed structure (starting as
pearlite) transforms to austenite while holding at the hardening temperature and the
volume shrinks. During cooling, tetragonal
martensite forms and the volume increases.
A decrease in volume takes place in parallel
to the tempering process as the tetragonal
martensite transforms to cubic.
Linearly, this means a change in dimension
independent of size occurs during slow
temperature changes, e.g. when hardening
alloyed steels in air. This is unavoidable and
must be planned into the manufacture of
machine tools.

Concurrent thermal expansion

and microstructural transformation
Where microstructural transformation is
an issue in addition to thermal expansion
(normal case), the time sequence is impor-

tant. If, for example, the transformation in a

cylinder takes place prior to the maximum
temperature stress, the ferrite-pearlite
structure present will be compressed into
a barrel shape. By contrast, if transformation occurs after the maximum stress, the
austenite is pressed into a barrel shape during the subsequent increase in volume due
to martensite formation. This starts at the
edge and offsets the pressure temperature
stresses building up there following stress
reversal or actually reverses them so that
they ultimately come to pass in the core.
In the case of through-hardening steels,
the residual stress at the surface generally
consists of a tensile stress which always
brings the risk of cracking.
When transformation stresses coincide
with the highest temperature stresses, the
latter have a greater effect if transformation
proceeds in the core before the edge. By
contrast, if the edge transforms before the
core, the transformation stresses dissipate
the temperature stresses or reverse these
so that a bobbin shape appears. In practical
terms, a large number of overlappings are
conceivable in affected borderline cases.

DISTORTION AND CHANGES IN VOLUME AND DIMENSION

Influence of the material

The increase in volume as a result of the
change in structure (martensite formation)
rises with the dissolved carbon content.
With medium-alloy steels, a disproportionate positive change in dimension may be
counteracted by a reduction in hardening.
For that to happen, a suitable tool steel
grade must be selected for the specific tool
cross-section so that sufficient hardening takes place in the core without through
hardening and the formation of pearlite.
Another possibility for counteracting the
increase in volume due to martensite is to
generate high residual austenite content.
With the carbon content fixed by the alloy
system, the proportions of martensite and
austenite in e.g. ledeburitic chromium steels
can be varied over a wide range based on
the chosen hardening temperature. This
is because, with increasing austenitizing
temperature (state of solution), the end
of martensite formation falls below room
temperature. In the process, the loss of
hardness from the softer austenite is largely
compensated for by the hard carbides,
which account for 20% of the volume. It
should be noted that in bar steel the latter
is elongated in the direction of deformation.
During rapid cooling, they prevent the steel
matrix from shrinking due to their low thermal expansion. Tools therefore grow more
on the axis of a bar than transversely.
It must be pointed out here that for many
tools it is not possible to control the in-

crease in volume beyond achieving specified residual austenite. The reason for this
is its instability which means that lengthy
heating during use or caused by external
stresses may transform residual austenite
to martensite. The result: an increase in
tools with potential problems.

Changes in dimension during

tempering

During the tempering of a hardened steel,

the martensite loses volume first as a
result of the precipitation of carbides. At
higher tempering temperatures, the residual
austenite degrades to martensite and the
volume increases. The progression depends on the type of steel, the hardening
temperature, i.e. the ratio of martensite to
residual austenite, the tempering time, and
the internal stress state.
In addition to the volumetric decreases, a
reduction in hardness can be seen at the
same time (martensite relief). For hot-work
and high-speed steels, this reduction in
hardness at higher temperatures is overcompensated for by the precipitation of
special carbides (secondary hardening).
When residual austenite transform to
martensite during tempering, this creates
considerable internal stresses due to the
different volumes. In use this may lead to
cracking in this untempered martensite
(brittle). As a result, higher-alloy steels
where residual austenite may form must
be tempered at least twice.

33

34

DISTORTION AND CHANGES IN VOLUME AND DIMENSION

Changes in shape
In comparison to changes in dimension,
changes in shape involve a loss of symmetry. Unlike changes in dimension, they are
not inherent in the system. In many cases,
it is possible to influence them. Changes in
shape tend to occur more in thin or asymmetrical tools.

Changes in shape due to

residual stresses
Internal stresses distributed asymmetrically,
which are produced through straightening or machining procedures, for example,
can be eliminated plastically (distortion)
during heating to hardening temperature.
This is because solidity falls with increasing
temperature. In an extreme case, cracking
may even arise if there is overlapping with
temperature and transformation stresses.
Changes in shape due to asymmetrical
internal stresses are avoidable if any other
residual stresses are taken into consideration during the production sequence and
heating to hardening temperature. Stressrelief annealing following rough machining
and step heating has proved effective in
achieving a temperature distribution that
depends on the cross-section as little as
possible.

Changes in shape due to incorrect removal or partial decarburization on one side

In the case of larger dimensions especially,
segregation means that the core exhibits
a different chemical composition than the
edge. If removed incorrectly, this may result
in distortion even if heat treatment is optimal in other respects. The reason for this is
the greater tendency for residual austenite
to form in areas of core segregation. Ingots
intended for heat treatment should not
therefore be separated into several layers.
Due to the resulting reduced resistance to
changes in shape, forming processes (rolling, forging) in the manufacturing of steel
products must run at high temperatures.

Due to diffusion, decarburization is always

present in the edge area. Machining allowances must take this issue into consideration. A false economy on the necessary
machining allowances may lead to cracking in the edge area where it is exposed to
high loads (tensile stresses) from additional
structural stresses (volumetric differences),
or adequate processing occurs on one side
only, which may lead to significant distortions due to the resulting increase in volume
by way of partial decarburization.

Changes in shape due to

incorrect rest in furnace or
uneven heating/cooling

If heating at the heat treating temperature

is not uniform, e.g. due to monodirectional
irradiation, a change in shape may occur. A
suitable rest creates an additional source of
risk because sag is possible under its own
weight due to reduced solidity at the high
temperature. Uneven cooling is another reason for changes in shape.
The potential faults addressed here must be
heeded by heat treatment facilities. Correct batch loading and suitable heating and
cooling systems are vital requirements in
ensuring low distortion from hardening.

Design suitable for heat treatment

The stresses that arise during hardening
and therefore changes in dimension and
shape depend on the size and shape of
the tools. If some basic rules are considered when designing tools, numerous risks
associated with heat treatment can be
avoided:
aim for reasonable distributions of mass
(e.g. by way of additional bores or
notches)
avoid sharp-edged changes of cross section (e.g. with chamfering, folding,
impact counts)
aim for shapes which are as symmetrical
as possible
provide equipment for correctly handling
tools to be treated.

35

DISTORTION AND CHANGES IN VOLUME AND DIMENSION

adverse

reasonable

Risk of
cracking
adverse

reasonable

max

Mould slide
Failure due to notch effect
(impact count)
N

Stress distribution S d

Sd in a flat without notch

Summary
In terms of performance characteristics and
tool service life, it is absolutely crucial to
carry out heat treatment correctly. A variety
of methods and units enable optimal heat

F
Sd in a notched flat with small radius

treatment of tools, taking into consideration

the behaviour of steel grades during transformation and some basic rules. Targeted
treatment of tool surfaces can be used to
achieve specific properties in these areas.

Plasma furnace

37

Surface treatments

ipi

Chromium plating
Nickel plating

ctr
oc
Ele

Roll coating
Shot blasting
Pressure polishing

al

nic

ha

ec

om

he

mi

erm

ca

ha
s
s-p
Ga
Th

Spraying
Explosion plating

Surface
treatment
methods

Carburization
Nitriding
Boronizing
Oxidizing

ica

Ion implantation
PVD coating
CVD coating

m
he

ep

oc

rec

Induction hardening
Flame hardening
Laser beam hardening

erm
Th

tat
i

on

Thermal

Mechanical
Overview of surface treatment methods

Influence of surface treatments

There are many different methods of
surface engineering which can be used to
improve the specific surface characteristics
of tools. Special procedures (PVD) may be
used to apply substances such as TiN to
tools in layers just a few m in thickness.
Their extremely high hardness results in an
appreciable increase in wear resistance,
which can give tool performance a significant boost. Nitriding of tools plays a very
important part. In this process, nitrogen is
added to the edge layer of tools, thereby
considerably increasing wear resistance.
This can have positive effects in the case
of cutting tools in particular, because the
tendency to form cold pick-up is avoided.
When using nitriding, however, please note
that it reduces the toughness of the edge
area considerably. With all applications of

PVD coating and nitriding methods, the fact

that these processes run at high temperatures is a consideration. PVD coatings are
performed at temperatures around 500C
and nitriding in the range between 400 and
600C. These methods may only be used
with tool steels that feature adequate
tempering resistance. Of the cold-work
steels presented in this brochure, only
Cryodur 2363 and Cryodur 2379 are classified as nitridable if they have previously
been subjected to special heat treatment
(hardening at 1050-1080C, tempering at
temperatures above the secondary hardening maximum). Due to the high process
temperature for liquid nitriding (570C), this
method is associated with risk. The preference is then to choose gas nitriding
(510C) or plasma nitriding.

38

Weight comparisons

Tool steel weight comparisons (kg/m)

Dimensions in
mm

Dimensions in
mm

square

round

hexagonal

octagonal

0,163

51

20,418

16,036

16,915

16,915

0,245

0,234

52

21,226

16,671

17,585

17,585

0,333

0,319

53

22,051

17,319

18,267

18,267

0,395

0,435

0,416

54

22,891

17,978

18,963

18,963

0,636

0,499

0,551

0,527

55

23,745

18,750

19,772

19,772

0,785

0,617

0,680

0,650

56

24,618

19,335

20,394

20,394

11

0,950

0,746

0,823

0,789

57

25,505

20,031

21,129

21,129

12

1,130

0,888

0,979

0,936

58

26,407

20,740

21,877

21,877

13

1,327

1,042

1,149

1,099

59

27,326

21,462

22,638

22,638

14

1,539

1,208

1,332

1,275

60

28,260

22,195

23,412

23,412

15

1,766

1,387

1,530

1,463

61

29,210

29,210

25,296

24,198

16

2,010

1,578

1,740

1,665

62

30,175

30,175

26,133

24,998

17

2,269

1,782

1,965

1,879

63

31,157

31,157

26,982

25,881

18

2,543

1,998

2,203

2,107

64

32,154

32,154

27,846

26,637

19

2,834

2,226

2,454

2,348

65

33,170

33,170

28,720

27,480

20

3,140

2,466

2,719

2,601

66

34,200

34,200

29,610

28,330

21

3,462

2,719

2,998

2,868

67

35,240

35,240

30,520

29,190

22

3,799

2,984

3,290

3,148

68

36,300

36,300

31,440

30,070

23

4,153

3,261

3,596

3,440

69

37,370

37,370

32,370

30,960

24

4,522

3,551

3,916

3,746

70

38,460

38,460

33,310

31,870

25

4,906

3,853

4,249

4,065

71

39,570

39,570

34,270

32,780

26

5,307

4,168

4,596

4,396

72

40,690

40,690

35,240

33,710

27

5,723

4,495

4,956

4,741

73

41,830

41,830

36,230

34,660

28

6,154

4,836

5,330

5,099

74

42,990

42,990

37,230

35,610

29

6,602

5,185

5,717

5,469

75

44,160

44,160

38,240

36,580

30

7,055

5,549

6,118

5,853

76

45,340

45,340

39,270

37,560

31

7,544

5,925

6,533

6,250

77

46,540

46,540

40,310

38,560

32

8,038

6,313

6,961

6,659

78

47,760

47,760

41,360

39,560

33

8,549

6,714

7,403

7,082

79

48,990

48,990

42,430

40,590

34

9,075

7,127

7,859

7,518

80

50,240

50,240

43,510

41,620

35

9,616

7,553

8,328

7,966

81

51,500

51,500

44,500

42,670

36

10,714

7,990

8,811

8,428

82

52,780

52,780

45,710

43,730

37

10,747

8,440

9,307

8,903

83

54,080

54,080

46,830

44,800

38

11,335

8,903

9,817

9,391

84

55,390

55,390

47,970

45,890

39

11,940

9,378

10,340

9,891

85

56,720

56,720

49,120

46,990

40

12,560

9,865

11,877

10,405

86

58,060

58,060

50,280

48,100

41

13,196

10,364

11,428

10,932

87

59,420

59,420

51,460

49,220

42

13,847

10,876

11,992

11,472

88

60,790

60,790

52,650

50,360

43

14,515

11,400

12,570

12,024

89

62,180

62,180

53,850

51,510

44

15,198

11,936

13,162

12,590

90

63,580

63,580

55,070

52,680

45

15,896

12,485

13,767

13,169

91

65,010

65,010

56,300

53,850

46

16,611

13,046

14,385

13,761

92

66,440

66,440

57,540

55,040

47

17,341

13,619

15,017

14,336

93

67,900

67,900

58,800

56,250

48

18,086

14,205

15,663

14,983

94

69,360

69,360

60,070

57,460

49

18,848

14,803

16,323

15,614

95

70,850

70,850

61,360

58,690

50

19,625

15,414

16,996

16,258

96

72,350

72,350

62,650

59,930

square

round

hexagonal

octagonal

0,196

0,154

0,170

0,283

0,222

0,385

0,302

0,502

9
10

39

Weight comparisons

Dimensions in
mm

square

round

hexagonal

octagonal

97

73,860

58,010

63,960

61,190

98

75,390

59,210

65,290

62,460

99

76,940

60,340

66,630

63,740

100

78,500

61,650

67,980

65,030

102

81,670

64,150

70,730

67,660

104

84,910

66,680

73,530

70,340

106

88,200

69,270

76,390

73,070

108

91,560

71,910

79,300

75,850

110

94,980

74,600

82,260

78,690

112

98,470

77,340

85,280

81,580

114

102,02

80,130

88,350

84,520

116

105,63

82,960

91,480

87,510

118

109,30

85,850

94,660

90,550

120

113,04

88,780

97,900

93,650

122

116,84

91,770

101,19

96,790

124

120,70

94,800

104,53

99,990

126

124,63

97,880

107,93

103,25

128

128,61

101,01

111,38

106,55

130

132,66

104,20

114,89

109,90

135

142,50

112,35

123,60

118,40

140

153,86

120,84

133,25

127,46

145

164,20

129,10

142,96

136,70

150

176,60

138,70

153,00

146,30

160

201,00

157,80

174,00

165,50

170

225,90

178,20

196,50

187,90

180

254,30

199,80

220,30

210,70

190

283,40

222,60

245,40

243,80

200

314,00

246,60

271,90

260,10

220

379,90

298,40

329,00

314,80

240

452,20

355,10

391,60

374,60

260

530,70

416,80

459,60

439,50

280

615,40

483,40

533,00

509,90

300

706,50

554,90

611,80

585,30

320

803,80

631,30

696,10

665,90

340

907,50

712,70

785,90

751,80

360

1071,0

799,00

881,00

842,00

380

1133,0

890,00

982,00

939,00

400

1256,0

986,00

1088,0

1040,0

450

1589,0

1248,0

1377,0

1317,0

500

1962,0

1541,0

1699,0

1626,0

600

2826,0

2219,0

2447,0

2341,0

700

3846,0

3021,0

3331,0

3187,0

800

5024,0

3926,0

4351,0

4162,0

900

6358,0

4994,0

5507,0

5268,0

1000

7850,0

6165,0

6798,0

6503,0

Deutsche Edelstahlwerke GmbH

Germany
Auestrae 4
58452 Witten
[email protected]
[email protected]
www.dew-stahl.com
08/2013 We reserve the right to make changes and technical
improvements without notice. Errors and omissions excepted.
The product-specific data sheets take priority over the details
given in the catalogue.
The desired performance characteristics are only binding if
they had been agreed upon exclusively at the time that the
contract was made.