TYPESANDLEVELSOFCOMMUNICATION

Types&LevelsofCommunication
Wecommunicatewithoneanotheronmanydifferentlevels.
Becausewedonothavedirectaccesstothethoughtsandfeelingsofotherpeople,wemustrely
oncommunicationtoconveymessagestooneanother.Thereismoretocommunicationthan
simplyusinglanguagetospeaktooneanother.Communicationexistsonanumberoflevelsand
inavarietyofforms.
VerbalCommunication
Verbalcommunicationreferstotheuseofsymbolsintheformofspokenwordstotransmit
messages.Verbalcommunicationiscomplicatedbythefactthatlanguageisarbitrary,meaning
thatwordschangeovertimeambiguous,meaningthatmanywordslackclearcutmeanings
andabstract,meaningthatwordsarenotthephenomenatowhichtheyrefer.Thus,
miscommunicationoccurswhenthemeaningweattachtoawordchangeswithtime,whena
wordlacksaclearcut,precisemeaningorwhenwordsareusedthataretoogeneral.For
example,theword"love"isaveryimprecisetermoneperson'sdefinitionoflovemaydiffer
substantiallyfromanotherperson's.
NonverbalCommunication
Nonverbalcommunicationreferstotheuseofsymbolsotherthanwordstotransmitmessages.It
includesgestures,bodylanguage,howweutterwords,aspectsofourenvironmentthatinfluence
meaningandobjectssuchasjewelry,furnitureandclothingthatsendpeoplemessagesabout
ourselves.Researchsuggeststhatnonverbalcommunicationconstitutesanywherebetween65
and93percentofallhumancommunication.Justlikewords,nonverbalsymbolsareambiguous.
Whatisapolitegesturetoonepersonmaybeconsideredrudebyanotherperson.Certainforms
ofnonverbalcommunicationmayalsohavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcultures.For
example,directeyecontactisappropriateinU.S.societybutconsidereddisrespectfulinmany
Asiancountries.
IntrapersonalCommunication
Intrapersonalcommunicationisalsoknownasselftalkorthinking,andreferstothewayswe
communicatewithourselves.Weuseintrapersonalcommunicationtoplanourlives,rehearse
scenariosbeforeweactthemout,andtellourselveswhattodoornotdo.Thewaywe
communicatewithourselvesgreatlyaffectsourselfesteem.Apersonwhotellshimself,"I'mso
stupid"whenhefailsanexamwilllikelyhavepoorerselfesteemthansomeonewhothinks,"I
didreallywellonthepreviousfourexams.Imusthavejustbeenhavinganoffday,andI'lldo
betternexttime."
InterpersonalCommunication
Interpersonalcommunicationisthecommunicationwehavewithotherpeople.Thistypeof
communicationvariesfromhighlyimpersonaltoextremelypersonal.Thedegreetowhichwe
communicate,orfailtocommunicate,withothersinfluenceshowourrelationshipswiththem
develop,continueorcometoanend.
PublicCommunication
Publiccommunicationreferstopublicspeechesthatwedeliverinfrontofaudiences.Public
communicationservesthreemainpurposes:toentertain,topersuadeand/ortoinform.Itis
differentfromotherformsofinteractioninthatitrequiresgreaterlevelsofplanningand

preparationonthepartofthespeakerandinvolveslessdirectinteraction.Audiencemembers
stillinteractwiththespeakerviamostlynonverbalsymbols,butthereisalesserdegreeofgive
andtakethanthereisinoneononeconversations.
MassCommunication
Masscommunicationreferstoanytypeofmediathatisusedtocommunicatewithmass
audiences.Examplesofmassmediaincludebooks,television,radios,films,computer
technologies,magazinesandnewspapers.Althoughmasscommunicationdoesincludecertain
computertechnologies,itdoesnotincludetechnologieslikeemailthatareusedtocommunicate
oneononewithsomeone.Masscommunicationisresponsibleforgivingusviewsofevents,
issuesandpeoplefromculturesthatdifferfromours.Itenablesustolearnwhatisgoingonin
distantplacesintheworldandletsuslearntheviewpointsofpeopleandcultureswithwhomwe
donothavedirectcontact.
Readmore:Types&LevelsofCommunication|eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/info_8064650_typeslevelscommunication.html#ixzz2Hrz420dK
Thelevelsofcommunicationarethefollowing..1)INTRAPERSONALCOMMUNICATION
islanguageuseorthoughtinternaltothecommunicator.Intrapersonalcommunicationisthe
activeinternalinvolvementoftheindividualinsymbolicprocessingofmessages.Theindividual
becomeshisorherownsenderandreceiver,providingfeedbacktohimorherselfinanongoing
internalprocess.Itcanbeusefultoenvisionintrapersonalcommunicationoccurringinthemind
oftheindividualinamodelwhichcontainsasender,receiver,andfeedbackloop.Although
successfulcommunicationisgenerallydefinedasbeingbetweentwoormoreindividuals,issues
concerningtheusefulnatureofcommunicatingwithoneselfandproblemsconcerning
communicationwithnonsentiententitiessuchascomputershavemadesomearguethatthis
definitionistoonarrow.InCommunication:TheSocialMatrixofPsychiatry,JurgenRuesch
andGregoryBatesonarguethatintrapersonalcommunicationisindeedaspecialcaseof
interpersonalcommunication,as"dialogueisthefoundationforalldiscourse."Intrapersonal
communicationcanencompass:
Daydreaming
Nocturnaldreaming,includingandespeciallyluciddreaming
Speakingaloud(talkingtooneself),readingaloud,repeatingwhatonehearstheadditional
activitiesofspeakingandhearing(inthethirdcaseofhearingagain)whatonethinks,readsor
hearsmayincreaseconcentrationandretention.Thisisconsiderednormal,andtheextentto
whichitoccursvariesfrompersontoperson.Thetimewhenthereshouldbeconcerniswhen
talkingtooneselfoccursoutsideofsociallyacceptablesituations.[1]
Writing(byhand,orwithawordprocessor,etc.)one'sthoughtsorobservations:theadditional
activities,ontopofthinking,ofwritingandreadingbackmayagainincreaseselfunderstanding
("HowdoIknowwhatImeanuntilIseewhatIsay?")andconcentration.Itaidsorderingone's
thoughtsinadditionitproducesarecordthatcanbeusedlateragain.Copyingtexttoaid
memorizingalsofallsinthiscategory.
Makinggestureswhilethinking:theadditionalactivity,ontopofthinking,ofbodymotions,
mayagainincreaseconcentration,assistinproblemsolving,andassistmemory.
Sensemaking(seeKarlWeick)e.g.interpretingmaps,texts,signs,andsymbols
Interpretingnonverbalcommunication(seeAlbertMehrabian)e.g.gestures,eyecontact
Communicationbetweenbodypartse.g."Mystomachistellingmeit'stimeforlunch."

2.)INTERPERSONALCOMMUNICATIONInterpersonalcommunicationisdefinedby
communicationscholarsinnumerousways,thoughmostdefinitionsinvolveparticipantswho
areinterdependentononeanother,haveasharedhistory.Communicationchannelsarethe
mediumchosentoconveythemessagefromsendertoreceiver.Communicationchannelscanbe
categorizedintotwomaincategories:DirectandIndirectchannelsofcommunication.Direct
channelsarethosethatareobviousandcanbeeasilyrecognizedbythereceiver.Theyarealso
underdirectcontrolofthesender.Inthiscategoryaretheverbalandnonverbalchannelsof
communication.Verbalcommunicationchannelsarethosethatusewordsinsomemanner,such
aswrittencommunicationorspokencommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationchannelsare
thosethatdonotrequiresillywords,suchascertainovertfacialexpressions,controllablebody
movements(suchasthatmadebyatrafficpolicetocontroltrafficatanintersection),color(red
fordanger,greenmeansgoetc),sound(sirens,alarmsetc.).Indirectchannelsarethosechannels
thatareusuallyrecognizedsubliminallyorsubconsciouslybythereceiver,andnotunderdirect
controlofthesender.Thisincludeskinesicsorbodylanguage,thatreflectstheinneremotions
andmotivationsratherthantheactualdeliveredmessage.Italsoincludessuchvaguetermsas
"gutfeeling","hunches"or"premonitions".Channelsmeansmodeofcommunicatingthe
messages.Participantsisthecommunicatorswhoarebothsendersandreceivers.Contextrefers
totheinterrelatedconditionofcommunication.Itconsistsofsuchfactorsas:physicalMilieu
Balanceofinterpersonalcommunication
TheJohariwindowmodelfocusesonthebalanceofinterpersonalcommunication.Interpersonal
communicationencompasses:
Speechcommunication
Nonverbalcommunication
Unconsciouscommunication
summarizing
paraphrasing
listening
questioning
Initiating:Declaringone'sconversationalintentandinvitingconsentfromone'sprospective
conversationpartner
Turntaking:Managingtheflowofinformationbackandforthbetweenpartnersina
conversationbyalternatingrolesofspeakerandlistener
Havinggoodinterpersonalcommunicationskillssupportsuchprocessesas:
parenting
intimaterelationship
management
selling
counseling
coaching
mentoringandcomentoring,whichismentoringingroups
conflictmanagement
Interpersonalcommunicationisthesubjectofanumberofdisciplinesinthefieldof
psychology,notablyTransactionalanalysis.3.)GROUPCOMMUNICATIONreferstothe
natureofcommunicationthatoccursingroupsthatarebetween3and12individuals.Small

groupcommunicationgenerallytakesplaceinacontextthatmixesinterpersonalcommunication
interactionswithsocialclustering.4.)PUBLICCOMMUNICATIONIt'sattheheartofour
economy,society,andpolitics.Studiosuseittopromotetheirfilms.Politiciansuseittoget
elected.Businessesuseittoburnishtheirimage.Advocatesuseittopromotesocialcauses.It'sa
fieldbuiltonideasandimages,persuasionandinformation,strategyandtactics.Nopolicyor
productcansucceedwithoutasmartmessagetargetedtotherightaudienceincreativeand
innovativeways.
Communication
Communicationisaprocessofexchanginginformation,ideas,thoughts,feelingsandemotions
throughspeech,signals,writing,orbehavior.Incommunicationprocess,asender(encoder)
encodesamessageandthenusingamedium/channelsendsittothereceiver(decoder)who
decodesthemessageandafterprocessinginformation,sendsbackappropriatefeedback/reply
usingamedium/channel.
TypesofCommunication
Peoplecommunicatewitheachotherinanumberofwaysthatdependuponthemessageandits
contextinwhichitisbeingsent.Choiceofcommunicationchannelandyourstyleof
communicatingalsoaffectscommunication.So,therearevarietyoftypesofcommunication.
VerbalCommunication
Verbalcommunicationreferstothetheformofcommunicationinwhichmessageistransmitted
verballycommunicationisdonebywordofmouthandapieceofwriting.Objectiveofevery
communicationistohavepeopleunderstandwhatwearetryingtoconvey.Inverbal
communicationremembertheacronymKISS(keepitshortandsimple).
Whenwetalktoothers,weassumethatothersunderstandwhatwearesayingbecauseweknow
whatwearesaying.Butthisisnotthecase.usuallypeoplebringtheirownattitude,perception,
emotionsandthoughtsaboutthetopicandhencecreatesbarrierindeliveringtherightmeaning.
Soinordertodelivertherightmessage,youmustputyourselfontheothersideofthetableand
thinkfromyourreceiverspointofview.Wouldheunderstandthemessage?howitwouldsound
ontheothersideofthetable?
VerbalCommunicationisfurtherdividedinto:
OralCommunication
WrittenCommunication
OralCommunication
Inoralcommunication,Spokenwordsareused.Itincludesfacetofaceconversations,speech,
telephonicconversation,video,radio,television,voiceoverinternet.Inoralcommunication,
communicationisinfluencebypitch,volume,speedandclarityofspeaking.
AdvantagesofOralcommunicationare:Itbringsquickfeedback.Inafacetofaceconversation,
byreadingfacialexpressionandbodylanguageonecanguesswhetherhe/sheshouldtrust
whatsbeingsaidornot.
DisadvantageoforalcommunicationInfacetofacediscussion,userisunabletodeeplythink
aboutwhatheisdelivering,sothiscanbecountedasa
WrittenCommunication
Inwrittencommunication,writtensignsorsymbolsareusedtocommunicate.Awritten
messagemaybeprintedorhandwritten.Inwrittencommunicationmessagecanbetransmitted

viaemail,letter,report,memoetc.Message,inwrittencommunication,isinfluencedbythe
vocabulary&grammarused,writingstyle,precisionandclarityofthelanguageused.
WrittenCommunicationismostcommonformofcommunicationbeingusedinbusiness.So,it
isconsideredcoreamongbusinessskills.
Memos,reports,bulletins,jobdescriptions,employeemanuals,andelectronicmailarethetypes
ofwrittencommunicationusedforinternalcommunication.Forcommunicatingwithexternal
environmentinwriting,electronicmail,InternetWebsites,letters,proposals,telegrams,faxes,
postcards,contracts,advertisements,brochures,andnewsreleasesareused.
Advantagesofwrittencommunicationincludes:Messagescanbeeditedandrevisedmanytime
beforeitisactuallysent.Writtencommunicationproviderecordforeverymessagesentandcan
besavedforlaterstudy.Awrittenmessageenablesreceivertofullyunderstanditandsend
appropriatefeedback.
Disadvantagesofwrittencommunicationincludes:Unlikeoralcommunication,Written
communicationdoesntbringinstantfeedback.Ittakemoretimeincomposingawritten
messageascomparedtowordofmouth.andnumberofpeoplestrugglesforwritingability.
NonverbalCommunication
Nonverbalcommunicationisthesendingorreceivingofwordlessmessages.Wecansaythat
communicationotherthanoralandwritten,suchasgesture,bodylanguage,posture,toneof
voiceorfacialexpressions,iscallednonverbalcommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationisall
aboutthebodylanguageofspeaker.
Nonverbalcommunicationhelpsreceiverininterpretingthemessagereceived.Often,nonverbal
signalsreflectsthesituationmoreaccuratelythanverbalmessages.Sometimesnonverbal
responsecontradictsverbalcommunicationandhenceaffecttheeffectivenessofmessage.
Nonverbalcommunicationhavethefollowingthreeelements:
AppearanceSpeaker:clothing,hairstyle,neatness,useofcosmeticsSurrounding:roomsize,
lighting,decorations,furnishings
BodyLanguagefacialexpressions,gestures,postures
SoundsVoiceTone,Volume,Speechrate
TypesofCommunicationBasedonPurposeandStyle
Basedonstyleandpurpose,therearetwomaincategoriesofcommunicationandtheyboth
bearstheirowncharacteristics.Communicationtypesbasedonstyleandpurposeare:
FormalCommunication
InformalCommunication
FormalCommunication
Informalcommunication,certainrules,conventionsandprinciplesarefollowedwhile
communicatingmessage.Formalcommunicationoccursinformalandofficialstyle.Usually
professionalsettings,corporatemeetings,conferencesundergoesinformalpattern.
Informalcommunication,useofslangandfoullanguageisavoidedandcorrectpronunciationis
required.Authoritylinesareneededtobefollowedinformalcommunication.
InformalCommunication
Informalcommunicationisdoneusingchannelsthatareincontrastwithformalcommunication
channels.Itsjustacasualtalk.Itisestablishedforsocietalaffiliationsofmembersinan
organizationandfacetofacediscussions.Ithappensamongfriendsandfamily.Ininformal

communicationuseofslangwords,foullanguageisnotrestricted.Usually.informal
communicationisdoneorallyandusinggestures.
Informalcommunication,Unlikeformalcommunication,doesntfollowauthoritylines.Inan
organization,ithelpsinfindingoutstaffgrievancesaspeopleexpressmorewhentalking
informally.Informalcommunicationhelpsinbuildingrelationships.
Communication(fromLatin"communis",meaningtoshare)istheactivityofconveying
informationthroughtheexchangeofthoughts,messages,orinformation,asbyspeech,visuals,
signals,writing,orbehavior.
Communicationrequiresasender,amessage,andarecipient,althoughthereceiverneednotbe
presentorawareofthesender'sintenttocommunicateatthetimeofcommunicationthus
communicationcanoccuracrossvastdistancesintimeandspace.Communicationrequiresthat
thecommunicatingpartiesshareanareaofcommunicativecommonality.Thecommunication
processiscompleteoncethereceiverhasunderstoodthemessageofthesender.
Humancommunication
Humanspokenandpictorallanguagescanbedescribedasasystemofsymbols(sometimes
knownaslexemes)andthegrammars(rules)bywhichthesymbolsaremanipulated.Theword
"language"alsoreferstocommonpropertiesoflanguages.Languagelearningnormallyoccurs
mostintensivelyduringhumanchildhood.Mostofthethousandsofhumanlanguagesuse
patternsofsoundorgestureforsymbolswhichenablecommunicationwithothersaroundthem.
Languagesseemtosharecertainpropertiesalthoughmanyoftheseincludeexceptions.Thereis
nodefinedlinebetweenalanguageandadialect.ConstructedlanguagessuchasEsperanto,
programminglanguages,andvariousmathematicalformalismsarenotnecessarilyrestrictedto
thepropertiessharedbyhumanlanguages.Communicationisthefloworexchangeof
informationwithinpeopleorgroupofpeople.
Avarietyofverbalandnonverbalmeansofcommunicatingexistssuchasbodylanguage,eye
contact,signlanguage,hapticcommunication,chronemics,andmediasuchaspictures,
graphics,sound,andwriting.
ManipulativeCommunicationswasstudiedandreportedbyBryentonin2011.Theseare
intentionalandunintentionalwaysofmanipulatingwords,gestures,etc.to"getwhatwewant",
bydemeaning,discounting,attackingorignoringinsteadofrespectfulinteraction.Sarcasm,
criticism,rudenessandswearingareexamples.
ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesalsodefinesthecommunicationtoinclude
thedisplayoftext,Braille,tactilecommunication,largeprint,accessiblemultimedia,aswellas
writtenandplainlanguage,humanreader,augmentativeandalternativemodes,meansand
formatsofcommunication,includingaccessibleinformationandcommunicationtechnology.
Nonverbalcommunication
Nonverbalcommunicationdescribestheprocessofconveyingmeaningintheformofnonword
messages.Researchshowsthatthemajorityofourcommunicationisnonverbal,alsoknownas
bodylanguage.Infact,6393%ofcommunicationisnonverbal.[citationneeded]Someofnon
verbalcommunicationincludeschronemics,haptics,gesture,bodylanguageorposturefacial
expressionandeyecontact,objectcommunicationsuchasclothing,hairstyles,architecture,
symbolsinfographics,andtoneofvoiceaswellasthroughanaggregateoftheabove.
Speechalsocontainsnonverbalelementsknownasparalanguage.Theseincludevoicelesson
quality,emotionandspeakingstyleaswellasprosodicfeaturessuchasrhythm,intonationand

stress.Likewise,writtentextsincludenonverbalelementssuchashandwritingstyle,spatial
arrangementofwordsandtheuseofemoticonstoconveyemotionalexpressionsinpictorial
form.
Oralcommunication
Oralcommunication,whileprimarilyreferringtospokenverbalcommunication,canalso
employvisualaidsandnonverbalelementstosupporttheconveyanceofmeaning.Oral
communicationincludesspeeches,presentations,discussions,andaspectsofinterpersonal
communication.Asatypeoffacetofacecommunication,bodylanguageandchoicetonality
playasignificantrole,andmayhaveagreaterimpactuponthelistenerthaninformational
content.Thistypeofcommunicationalsogarnersimmediatefeedback.
Businesscommunication
Abusinesscanflourishwhenallobjectivesoftheorganizationareachievedeffectively.For
efficiencyinanorganization,allthepeopleoftheorganizationmustbeabletoconveytheir
messageproperly.[citationneeded]
Writtencommunicationanditshistoricaldevelopment
Overtimetheformsofandideasaboutcommunicationhaveevolvedthroughthecontinuing
progressionoftechnology.Advancesincludecommunicationspsychologyandmedia
psychologyanemergingfieldofstudy.Researchersdividetheprogressionofwritten
communicationintothreerevolutionarystagescalled"InformationCommunication
Revolutions".[citationneeded]Duringthefirststage,writtencommunicationfirstemerged
throughtheuseofpictographs.Thepictogramsweremadeinstone,hencewritten
communicationwasnotyetmobile.
Duringthesecondstage,writingbegantoappearonpaper,papyrus,clay,wax,etc.Common
Thethirdstageischaracterisedbythetransferofinformationthroughcontrolledwavesand
electronicsignals.
Communicationisthusaprocessbywhichmeaningisassignedandconveyedinanattemptto
createsharedunderstanding.Thisprocess,whichrequiresavastrepertoireofskillsin
interpersonalprocessing,listening,observing,speaking,questioning,analyzing,gestures,and
evaluatingenablescollaborationandcooperation.
Misunderstandingscanbeanticipatedandsolvedthroughformulations,questionsandanswers,
paraphrasing,examples,andstoriesofstrategictalk.Writtencommunicationcanbeclarifiedby
planningfollowuptalksoncriticalwrittencommunicationaspartoftheeverydaywayof
doingbusiness.Afewminutesspenttalkinginthepresentwillsavevaluabletimelaterby
avoidingmisunderstandingsinadvance.Afrequentmethodforthispurposeisreiteratingwhat
oneheardinone'sownwordsandaskingtheotherpersonifthatreallywaswhatwasmeant.
EffectiveCommunication
Effectivecommunicationoccurswhenadesiredeffectistheresultofintentionalor
unintentionalinformationsharing,whichisinterpretedbetweenmultipleentitiesandactedonin
adesiredway.Thiseffectalsoensuresthemessageisnotdistortedduringthecommunication
process.Effectivecommunicationshouldgeneratethedesiredeffectandmaintaintheeffect,
withthepotentialtoincreasetheeffectofthemessage.Therefore,effectivecommunication
servesthepurposeforwhichitwasplannedordesigned.Possiblepurposesmightbetoelicit
change,generateaction,createunderstanding,informorcommunicateacertainideaorpointof

view.Whenthedesiredeffectisnotachieved,factorssuchasbarrierstocommunicationare
explored,withtheintentionbeingtodiscoverhowthecommunicationhasbeenineffective.
Barrierstoeffectivehumancommunication
Barrierstoeffectivecommunicationcanretardordistortthemessageandintentionofthe
messagebeingconveyedwhichmayresultinfailureofthecommunicationprocessoraneffect
thatisundesirable.Theseincludefiltering,selectiveperception,informationoverload,emotions,
language,silence,communicationapprehension,genderdifferencesandpoliticalcorrectness
Thisalsoincludesalackofexpressing"knowledgeappropriate"communication,whichoccurs
whenapersonusesambiguousorcomplexlegalwords,medicaljargon,ordescriptionsofa
situationorenvironmentthatisnotunderstoodbytherecipient.
Physicalbarriers
Physicalbarriersareoftenduetothenatureoftheenvironment.Anexampleofthisisthe
naturalbarrierwhichexistsifstaffarelocatedindifferentbuildingsorondifferentsites.
Likewise,poororoutdatedequipment,particularlythefailureofmanagementtointroducenew
technology,mayalsocauseproblems.Staffshortagesareanotherfactorwhichfrequentlycauses
communicationdifficultiesforanorganization.Whilstdistractionslikebackgroundnoise,poor
lightingoranenvironmentwhichistoohotorcoldcanallaffectpeople'smoraleand
concentration,whichinturninterferewitheffectivecommunication.
Systemdesign
Systemdesignfaultsrefertoproblemswiththestructuresorsystemsinplaceinanorganization.
Examplesmightincludeanorganizationalstructurewhichisunclearandthereforemakesit
confusingtoknowwhotocommunicatewith.Otherexamplescouldbeinefficientor
inappropriateinformationsystems,alackofsupervisionortraining,andalackofclarityinroles
andresponsibilitieswhichcanleadtostaffbeinguncertainaboutwhatisexpectedofthem.
Attitudinalbarriers
Attitudinalbarrierscomeaboutasaresultofproblemswithstaffinanorganization.Thesemay
bebroughtabout,forexample,bysuchfactorsaspoormanagement,lackofconsultationwith
employees,personalityconflictswhichcanresultinpeopledelayingorrefusingto
communicate,thepersonalattitudesofindividualemployeeswhichmaybeduetolackof
motivationordissatisfactionatwork,broughtaboutbyinsufficienttrainingtoenablethemto
carryoutparticulartasks,orjustresistancetochangeduetoentrenchedattitudesandideas.
Ambiguityofwords/phrases
Wordssoundingthesamebuthavingdifferentmeaningcanconveyadifferentmeaning
altogether.Hencethecommunicatormustensurethatthereceiverreceivesthesamemeaning.It
isbetterifsuchwordsareavoidedbyusingalternativeswheneverpossible.
Individuallinguisticability
Theuseofjargon,difficultorinappropriatewordsincommunicationcanpreventtherecipients
fromunderstandingthemessage.Poorlyexplainedormisunderstoodmessagescanalsoresultin
confusion.However,researchincommunicationhasshownthatconfusioncanlendlegitimacy
toresearchwhenpersuasionfails.
Physiologicalbarriers
Thesemayresultfromindividuals'personaldiscomfort,causedforexamplebyillhealth,
pooreyesightorhearingdifficulties.
Presentationofinformation

Presentationofinformationisimportanttoaidunderstanding.Simplyput,thecommunicator
mustconsidertheaudiencebeforemakingthepresentationitselfandincaseswhereitisnot
possiblethepresentercanatleasttrytosimplifyhis/hervocabularysothatthemajoritycan
understand.
Nonhumancommunication
Everyinformationexchangebetweenlivingorganismsi.e.transmissionofsignalsthat
involvealivingsenderandreceivercanbeconsideredaformofcommunicationandeven
primitivecreaturessuchascoralsarecompetenttocommunicate.Nonhumancommunication
alsoincludecellsignaling,cellularcommunication,andchemicaltransmissionsbetween
primitiveorganismslikebacteriaandwithintheplantandfungalkingdoms.
Animalcommunication
Thebroadfieldofanimalcommunicationencompassesmostoftheissuesinethology.Animal
communicationcanbedefinedasanybehaviorofoneanimalthataffectsthecurrentorfuture
behaviorofanotheranimal.Thestudyofanimalcommunication,calledzoosemiotics
(distinguishablefromanthroposemiotics,thestudyofhumancommunication)hasplayedan
importantpartinthedevelopmentofethology,sociobiology,andthestudyofanimalcognition.
Animalcommunication,andindeedtheunderstandingoftheanimalworldingeneral,isa
rapidlygrowingfield,andeveninthe21stcenturysofar,agreatshareofpriorunderstanding
relatedtodiversefieldssuchaspersonalsymbolicnameuse,animalemotions,animalculture
andlearning,andevensexualconduct,longthoughttobewellunderstood,hasbeen
revolutionized.
Plantsandfungi
Communicationisobservedwithintheplantorganism,i.e.withinplantcellsandbetweenplant
cells,betweenplantsofthesameorrelatedspecies,andbetweenplantsandnonplant
organisms,especiallyintherootzone.Plantrootscommunicateinparallelwithrhizome
bacteria,withfungiandwithinsectsinthesoil.Theseparallelsignmediatedinteractionsare
governedbysyntactic,pragmatic,andsemanticrules,andarepossiblebecauseofthe
decentralized"nervoussystem"ofplants.Theoriginalmeaningoftheword"neuron"inGreek
is"vegetablefiber"andrecentresearchhasshownthatmostoftheintraorganismicplant
communicationprocessesareneuronallike.Plantsalsocommunicateviavolatileswhen
exposedtoherbivoryattackbehavior,thuswarningneighboringplants.Inparalleltheyproduce
othervolatilestoattractparasiteswhichattacktheseherbivores.Instresssituationsplantscan
overwritethegenomestheyinheritedfromtheirparentsandreverttothatoftheirgrandor
greatgrandparents.[citationneeded]
Fungicommunicatetocoordinateandorganizetheirgrowthanddevelopmentsuchasthe
formationofmyceliaandfruitingbodies.Fungicommunicatewiththeirownandrelatedspecies
aswellaswithnonfungalorganismsinagreatvarietyofsymbioticinteractions,especiallywith
bacteria,unicellulareukaryotes,plantsandinsectsthroughsemiochemicalsofbioticorigin.The
semiochemicalstriggerthefungalorganismtoreactinaspecificmanner,whileifthesame
chemicalmoleculesarenotpartofbioticmessages,theydonottriggerthefungalorganismto
react.Thisimpliesthatfungalorganismscandifferentiatebetweenmoleculestakingpartin
bioticmessagesandsimilarmoleculesbeingirrelevantinthesituation.Sofarfivedifferent
primarysignallingmoleculesareknowntocoordinatedifferentbehavioralpatternssuchas
filamentation,mating,growth,andpathogenicity.Behavioralcoordinationandproductionof

signallingsubstancesisachievedthroughinterpretationprocessesthatenablestheorganismto
differbetweenselfornonself,abioticindicator,bioticmessagefromsimilar,related,ornon
relatedspecies,andevenfilterout"noise",i.e.similarmoleculeswithoutbioticcontent.
Bacteriaquorumsensing
Communicationisnotatoolusedonlybyhumans,plantsandanimals,butitisalsousedby
microorganismslikebacteria.Theprocessiscalledquorumsensing.Throughquorumsensing,
bacteriaareabletosensethedensityofcells,andregulategeneexpressionaccordingly.Thiscan
beseeninbothgrampositiveandgramnegativebacteria.ThiswasfirstobservedbyFuquaet
al.inmarinemicroorganismslikeV.harveyiandV.fischeri.
Communicationcycle
ShannonandWeaverModelofCommunication
Communicationmajordimensionsscheme
Communicationcodescheme
LinearCommunicationModel
InteractionalModelofCommunication
Berlo'sSenderMessageChannelReceiverModelofCommunication
TransactionalModelofCommunication
ThefirstmajormodelforcommunicationwasintroducedbyClaudeShannonandWarren
WeaverforBellLaboratoriesin1949Theoriginalmodelwasdesignedtomirrorthefunctioning
ofradioandtelephonetechnologies.Theirinitialmodelconsistedofthreeprimaryparts:sender,
channel,andreceiver.Thesenderwasthepartofatelephoneapersonspokeinto,thechannel
wasthetelephoneitself,andthereceiverwasthepartofthephonewhereonecouldhearthe
otherperson.ShannonandWeaveralsorecognizedthatoftenthereisstaticthatinterfereswith
onelisteningtoatelephoneconversation,whichtheydeemednoise.
Inasimplemodel,oftenreferredtoasthetransmissionmodelorstandardviewof
communication,informationorcontent(e.g.amessageinnaturallanguage)issentinsomeform
(asspokenlanguage)fromanemisor/sender/encodertoadestination/receiver/decoder.This
commonconceptionofcommunicationsimplyviewscommunicationasameansofsendingand
receivinginformation.Thestrengthsofthismodelaresimplicity,generality,andquantifiability.
SocialscientistsClaudeShannonandWarrenWeaverstructuredthismodelbasedonthe
followingelements:
Aninformationsource,whichproducesamessage.
Atransmitter,whichencodesthemessageintosignals
Achannel,towhichsignalsareadaptedfortransmission
Areceiver,which'decodes'(reconstructs)themessagefromthesignal.
Adestination,wherethemessagearrives.
ShannonandWeaverarguedthattherewerethreelevelsofproblemsforcommunicationwithin
thistheory.
Thetechnicalproblem:howaccuratelycanthemessagebetransmitted?
Thesemanticproblem:howpreciselyisthemeaning'conveyed'?
Theeffectivenessproblem:howeffectivelydoesthereceivedmeaningaffectbehavior?
DanielChandlercritiquesthetransmissionmodelbystating:
Itassumescommunicatorsareisolatedindividuals.
Noallowancefordifferingpurposes.

Noallowancefordifferinginterpretations.
Noallowanceforunequalpowerrelations.
Noallowanceforsituationalcontexts.
In1960,DavidBerloexpandedonShannonandWeaver's(1949)linearmodelof
communicationandcreatedtheSMCRModelofCommunication.TheSenderMessage
ChannelReceiverModelofcommunicationseparatedthemodelintoclearpartsandhasbeen
expandeduponbyotherscholars.
Communicationisusuallydescribedalongafewmajordimensions:Message(whattypeof
thingsarecommunicated),source/emisor/sender/encoder(bywhom),form(inwhichform),
channel(throughwhichmedium),destination/receiver/target/decoder(towhom),and
Receiver.WilburSchram(1954)alsoindicatedthatweshouldalsoexaminetheimpactthata
messagehas(bothdesiredandundesired)onthetargetofthemessage.Betweenparties,
communicationincludesactsthatconferknowledgeandexperiences,giveadviceand
commands,andaskquestions.Theseactsmaytakemanyforms,inoneofthevariousmanners
ofcommunication.Theformdependsontheabilitiesofthegroupcommunicating.Together,
communicationcontentandformmakemessagesthataresenttowardsadestination.Thetarget
canbeoneself,anotherpersonorbeing,anotherentity(suchasacorporationorgroupof
beings).
Communicationcanbeseenasprocessesofinformationtransmissiongovernedbythreelevels
ofsemioticrules:
Syntactic(formalpropertiesofsignsandsymbols),
Pragmatic(concernedwiththerelationsbetweensigns/expressionsandtheirusers)and
Semantic(studyofrelationshipsbetweensignsandsymbolsandwhattheyrepresent).
Therefore,communicationissocialinteractionwhereatleasttwointeractingagentssharea
commonsetofsignsandacommonsetofsemioticrules.Thiscommonlyheldruleinsome
senseignoresautocommunication,includingintrapersonalcommunicationviadiariesorself
talk,bothsecondaryphenomenathatfollowedtheprimaryacquisitionofcommunicative
competenceswithinsocialinteractions.
Inlightoftheseweaknesses,Barnlund(2008)proposedatransactionalmodelof
communication.Thebasicpremiseofthetransactionalmodelofcommunicationisthat
individualsaresimultaneouslyengaginginthesendingandreceivingofmessages.
Inaslightlymorecomplexformasenderandareceiverarelinkedreciprocally.Thissecond
attitudeofcommunication,referredtoastheconstitutivemodelorconstructionistview,focuses
onhowanindividualcommunicatesasthedeterminingfactorofthewaythemessagewillbe
interpreted.Communicationisviewedasaconduitapassageinwhichinformationtravelsfrom
oneindividualtoanotherandthisinformationbecomesseparatefromthecommunicationitself.
Aparticularinstanceofcommunicationiscalledaspeechact.Thesender'spersonalfiltersand
thereceiver'spersonalfiltersmayvarydependingupondifferentregionaltraditions,cultures,or
genderwhichmayaltertheintendedmeaningofmessagecontents.Inthepresenceof
"communicationnoise"onthetransmissionchannel(air,inthiscase),receptionanddecodingof
contentmaybefaulty,andthusthespeechactmaynotachievethedesiredeffect.Oneproblem
withthisencodetransmitreceivedecodemodelisthattheprocessesofencodinganddecoding
implythatthesenderandreceivereachpossesssomethingthatfunctionsasacodebook,andthat
thesetwocodebooksare,attheveryleast,similarifnotidentical.Althoughsomethinglike

codebooksisimpliedbythemodel,theyarenowhererepresentedinthemodel,whichcreates
manyconceptualdifficulties.
Theoriesofcoregulationdescribecommunicationasacreativeanddynamiccontinuousprocess,
ratherthanadiscreteexchangeofinformation.CanadianmediascholarHaroldInnishadthe
theorythatpeopleusedifferenttypesofmediatocommunicateandwhichonetheychooseto
usewillofferdifferentpossibilitiesfortheshapeanddurabilityofsociety(Wark,McKenzie
1997).HisfamousexampleofthisisusingancientEgyptandlookingatthewaystheybuilt
themselvesoutofmediawithverydifferentpropertiesstoneandpapyrus.Papyrusiswhathe
called'SpaceBinding'.itmadepossiblethetransmissionofwrittenordersacrossspace,empires
andenablesthewagingofdistantmilitarycampaignsandcolonialadministration.Theotheris
stoneand'TimeBinding',throughtheconstructionoftemplesandthepyramidscansustaintheir
authoritygenerationtogeneration,throughthismediatheycanchangeandshape
communicationintheirsociety(Wark,McKenzie1997).
Communicationnoise
Inanycommunicationmodel,noiseisinterferencewiththedecodingofmessagessentovera
channelbyanencoder.Therearemanyexamplesofnoise:
Environmentalnoise
Noisethatphysicallydisruptscommunication,suchasstandingnexttoloudspeakersataparty,
orthenoisefromaconstructionsitenexttoaclassroommakingitdifficulttoheartheprofessor.
Physiologicalimpairmentnoise
Physicalmaladiesthatpreventeffectivecommunication,suchasactualdeafnessorblindness
preventingmessagesfrombeingreceivedastheywereintended.
Semanticnoise
Differentinterpretationsofthemeaningsofcertainwords.Forexample,theword"weed"canbe
interpretedasanundesirableplantinayard,orasaeuphemismformarijuana.
Syntacticalnoise
Mistakesingrammarcandisruptcommunication,suchasabruptchangesinverbtenseduringa
sentence.
Organizationalnoise
Poorlystructuredcommunicationcanpreventthereceiverfromaccurateinterpretation.For
example,unclearandbadlystateddirectionscanmakethereceiverevenmorelost.
Culturalnoise
Stereotypicalassumptionscancausemisunderstandings,suchasunintentionallyoffendinga
nonChristianpersonbywishingthema"MerryChristmas".
Psychologicalnoise
Certainattitudescanalsomakecommunicationdifficult.Forinstance,greatangerorsadness
maycausesomeonetolosefocusonthepresentmoment.DisorderssuchasAutismmayalso
severelyhampereffectivecommunication.
DesignandOrganizationoftheCommunicationMatrix
SevenLevelsofCommunication
LevelI.PreIntentionalBehavior
LevelII.IntentionalBehavior
LevelIII.UnconventionalCommunication
LevelIV.ConventionalCommunication

LevelV.ConcreteSymbols
LevelVI.AbstractSymbols
LevelVII.Language
LevelI.PreIntentionalBehavior
Behaviorisnotundertheindividual'sowncontrol,butitreflectshisgeneralstate(suchas
comfortable,uncomfortable,hungryorsleepy).Caregiversinterprettheindividual'sstatefrom
behaviorssuchasbodymovements,facialexpressionsandsounds.Intypicallydeveloping
children,thisstageoccursbetween0and3monthsofage.
LevelII.IntentionalBehaviorBehaviorisundertheindividual'scontrol,butitisnotyetusedto
communicateintentionally.Caregiversinterprettheindividual'sneedsanddesiresfrom
behaviorssuchasbodymovements,facialexpressions,vocalizationsandeyegaze.Intypically
developingchildren,thisstageoccursbetween3and8monthsofage.
LevelIII.UnconventionalCommunication
INTENTIONALCOMMUNICATIONBEGINSHERE,ATLEVELIII
Unconventionalpresymbolicbehaviorsareusedintentionallytocommunicate.Communicative
behaviorsarepresymbolicbecausetheydonotinvolveanysortofsymboltheyare
unconventionalbecausetheyarenotsociallyacceptableforustouseaswegrowolder.
Communicativebehaviorsincludebodymovements,vocalizations,facialexpressionsand
simplegestures(suchastuggingonpeople).Intypicallydevelopingchildren,thisstageoccurs
between6and12monthsofage.
LevelIV.ConventionalCommunicationConventionalpresymbolicbehaviorsareused
intentionallytocommunicate.Communicativebehaviorsarepresymbolicbecausetheydonot
involveanysortofsymboltheyareconventionalbecausetheyaresociallyacceptableandwe
continuetousethemtoaccompanyourlanguageaswemature.Themeaningsofsomegestures
maybeuniquetothecultureinwhichtheyareused.Communicativebehaviorsincludepointing,
noddingorshakingthehead,waving,hugging,andlookingfromapersontoadesiredobject.
Notethatmanyofthesegestures(andespeciallypointing)requiregoodvisualskillsandmay
notbeusefulforindividualswithseverevisionimpairment.Somevocalintonationsmayalsobe
usedatthisstage.Intypicallydevelopingchildren,thisstageoccursbetween12and18months
ofage.
LevelV.ConcreteSymbols
SYMBOLICCOMMUNICATIONSTARTSHERE,ATLEVELV(symbolsrepresent,orstand
for,somethingelse)
Concretesymbolsthatphysicallyresemblewhattheyrepresent,areusedtocommunicate.
Concretesymbolslooklike,feellike,movelikeorsoundlikewhattheyrepresent.Concrete
symbolsincludepictures,objects(suchasashoelacetorepresentshoe),iconicgestures(suchas
pattingachairtosaysitdown)andsounds(suchasmakingabuzzingsoundtomeanbee).Most
individualsskipthisstageandgodirectlytoLevelVI.Forsomeindividualsconcretesymbols
maybetheonlytypeofsymbolthatmakessensetothemforotherstheymayserveasabridge
tousingabstractsymbols.Typicallydevelopingchildrenuseconcretesymbolsinconjunction
withgesturesandwords,generallybetween12and24monthsofage,butnotasaseparate
stage.
LevelVI.AbstractSymbolsAbstractsymbolssuchasspeech,manualsigns,Brailledorprinted
wordsareusedtocommunicate.ThesesymbolsareabstractbecausetheyareNOTphysically

similartowhattheyrepresent.Theyareusedoneatatime.Intypicallydevelopingchildren,this
stageoccursbetween12and24monthsofage.
LevelVII.LanguageSymbols(concreteorabstract)arecombinedintotwoorthreesymbol
combinations('wantjuice','megoout'),accordingtogrammaticalrules.Theindividual
understandsthatthemeaningofsymbolcombinationsmaydifferdependinguponhowthe
symbolsareordered.Intypicallydevelopingchildren,thisstagebeginsaround24monthsof
age.
DifferentTypesofCommunicationSystems
Athoughtkeptinthebrainisofnouseunlessanduntilitissharedwithotherindividualsand
restoftheworld.Theidea,nomatterhoweverbrilliantitis,mustcomeoutforitssuccessful
implementationforittobenefitoneandall.Itistheprimeresponsibilityoftheindividualto
sharehisthoughtsandideaswithothers.
Howisitpossible?Howcanonesharehisideasandthoughts?
Thecommunicationsystemenablesthesuccessfultransmissionofideaoranyotherimportant
informationamongindividuals.Thepersonfromwhomthethoughtoriginatescarefullyencodes
hisideasintoasensiblecontentwhichisnowreadytobesharedwitheveryone.Heis
commonlyreferredtoasthesenderandtheotherpartywhoreceivestheinformationfromhim
iscalledthereceiverortherecipient.Thefreeflowofinformationbetweenthesenderandthe
receivertakesplacebecauseofthecommunicationsystem.
Theflowofinformationcanbebetweentwoindividuals.Theinformationcanflowfromthe
individualtoamachine,fromthemachinetotheindividualandevenbetweentwomachines.
Machinescoupledtogetherthroughnetworksalsoprovidesignalsfortheindividualstorespond,
thusatypeofcommunicationsystem.Intheabovecasesallthemachinesmustworkonsimilar
linesandpatterns,mustbetechnicallycompatibleandhastoprovidethesameinformation,so
thattheindividualscandecodetheinformationwell.
Letusstudythevarioustypesofcommunicationsystemforthesmoothflowofinformation
betweentwoparties.
OpticalCommunicationSystem
ThewordOpticalstandsforlight.Asthenameitselfsuggests,opticalcommunicationsystem
dependsonlightasthemediumforcommunication.Inanopticalcommunicationsystemthe
transmitterconvertstheinformationintoanopticalsignal(signalintheformoflight)andfinally
thesignalthenreachestherecipient.Therecipientthendecodesthesignalandresponds
accordingly.Inopticalcommunicationsystem,lighthelpsinthetransmissionofinformation.
Thesafelandingofhelicoptersandaeroplanesworkontheaboveprinciple.Thepilotsreceive
lightsignalsfromthebaseanddecidetheirnextmovements.Ontheroads,redlight
communicatestheindividualtoimmediatelystopwhiletheindividualmovesonseeingthe
greenlight.
Inthismodeofcommunicationlighttravelsthroughtheopticalfibre.
RadioCommunicationSystem
Intheradiocommunicationsystemtheinformationflowswiththehelpofaradio.Radio
communicationsystemworkswiththeaidofatransmitterandareceiverbothequippedwithan
antenna.
Thetransmitterwiththehelpofanantennaproducessignalswhicharecarriedthroughradio
carrierwave.Thereceiveralsowiththehelpofanantennareceivesthesignal.Some

informationisunwantedandmustbediscardedandhencetheelectronicfiltershelpinthe
separationofradiosignalsfromotherunwantedsignalswhicharefurtheramplifiedtoan
optimumlevelFinallythesignalsaredecodedinaninformationwhichcanbeeasilyunderstood
bytheindividualsforthemtorespondaccordingly.
Duplexcommunicationssystem
InDuplexcommunicationssystemtwoequipmentscancommunicatewitheachotherinboththe
directionssimultaneouslyandhencethenameDuplex.Whenyouinteractwithyourfriendover
thetelephone,bothofyoucanlistentoeachotheratthesametime.Thesendersendsthesignals
tothereceiverwhoreceivesitthenandthereandalsogivehisvaluablefeedbacktothespeaker
forhimtorespond.Hencethecommunicationactuallytakesplacebetweenthespeakerandthe
receiversimultaneously.
IntheDuplexcommunicationsystem,twodevicescancommunicatewitheachotheratthesame
time.
Atypeofcommunicationsysteminvolvesthesenderandthereceiverwherethesenderisin
chargeofsendingsignalsandtherecipientsonlylistentoitandrespondaccordingly.Such
communicationisalsocalledSimplexcommunicationsystem.
HalfDuplexCommunicationSystem
InhalfDuplexcommunicationsystem,boththetwopartiescantcommunicatesimultaneously.
Thesenderhastostopsendingthesignalstotherecipientandthenonlytherecipientcan
respond.
Awalkietalkieworksonthehalfduplexcommunicationsystem.Themilitarypersonnelwhile
interactinghastosayOverfortheotherpersontorespond.Heneedstospeakthesecurity
codecorrectlyfortheotherpersontospeak.Theotherpartywillnevercommunicateunlessand
untilthecodeiscorrectandcomplete.
TacticalCommunicationSystem
Anothermodeofcommunicationisthetacticalmodeofcommunication.Inthismodeof
communication,communicationvariesaccordingtothechangesintheenvironmentalconditions
andothersituations.