Basics of Generator
Protection
Topic Outline
I.
Generator in a view of an Protection Engineer
II.
Typical Generator Protection
Generator Configuration
Generator Configuration
Generator Configuration
Generator Configuration
Generator Connections
Direct Connected
Unit Connected
Sample Nameplate
Generator Grounding
Generator Grounding
10
Generator Grounding
11
Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
Excitation Control Basics
A generator excitation system provides the energy for the
magnetic field that keeps the generator in synchronism with the
power system.
Two types: those using ac generators as power source and
those using transformers.
12
Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
Excitation Control Basics
13
Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
Excitation Control Basics
Aside from maintaining synchronism of the generator, the
generator also:
Affects the amount of reactive power that the generator may
absorb or produce.
Increasing the excitation current results in increase reactive
power output.
Decreasing the excitation current results in decrease
reactive power output, extreme case loss of synchronism
will occur.
14
Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
Generator Watt/VAR Capability
15
Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
P-Q
Curve
16
Protection Requirements
To detect faults on the generator
To protect generator from the effects of abnormal
power system operating conditions
To isolate generator from system faults not cleared
remotely
17
Faults and Abnormal Conditions
18
Sample Generator Protection
19
Stator Phase Protection
20
Stator Phase Protection
This is achieved by:
Differential Relaying (87)
Turn Fault Protection (for split-phase generators)
Overcurrent (thermal)
RTDs
21
Differential Protection
High-Speed protection that can detect three-phase, phase to
phase and double-phase to ground faults.
Single-line to ground faults are not normally detectable unless its
neutral is solidly or low-impedance grounded.
Will not detect a turn-to-turn fault within the same phase
Both sides of the generator should be of the same ratio, rating,
connected burden, and preferably have the same manufacturer.
It could be high-impedance type, low-impedance type and selfbalancing differential schemes.
22
Differential Protection
23
Differential Protection
24
Overcurrent Protection
For small generators this may be the only protection applied.
With solid earthing, it will provide some protection against earth
faults
For a single generator, CTs must be connected to neutral end of
stator winding.
Generator
3
50/51
25
Overcurrent Protection
Some helpful points in setting overcurrent relays:
From C37.102-2005:
Use IOC and TOC unit having an EI characteristic.
IOC is set to 115% FLC and is used to torque-control TOC unit
TOC unit is set to 75%-100% FLC and a time settings operating
7sec @ 218% FLC or coordinate with downstream relay.
From ABCs of Overcurrent Protection:
Set protection above FLC and above decrement curve in the
lowest decade.
Set protection below overload curve.
Set protection to intersect with the decrement curve in the second
lowest decade.
26
Overcurrent Protection
27
Stator Ground Protection
28
Stator Ground Protection
This is achieved by (depends on the grounding method):
Differential Relaying (87N)
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection using voltage relays
Overcurrent
29
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Stator grounding determines the generator performance
during fault conditions.
If solidly grounded, it will deliver very high current to a
SLG fault at its terminals with no neutral voltage shift,
therefore equipment damage is severe.
If ungrounded, it will deliver a negligible amount current
during a SLG fault at its terminals with fill neutral voltage
shift which could cause failure of generation equipment
insulation.
30
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Because of this, stator windings on major generators are
grounded in a manner that will reduce fault current and
overvoltages and yet provide a means of detecting the
ground fault condition quickly enough to prevent burning
of core iron.
31
Low-Impedance Stator Grounding
32
Low-Impedance Stator Grounding
33
Low-Impedance Grounding
The grounding resistor or reactor is selected to limit the
generator contribution to an SLG fault to range of
currents between 200A and 150% of rated load current.
Supplementary protection is provided by using 87N
34
Low-Impedance Grounding
35
High-Impedance Grounding
High-resistance generator neutral grounding uses a
distribution transformer with a primary rating greater than
or equal to the line-to-neutral voltage rating of the
generator and a secondary rating of 120 or 240V.
Power dissipated in the resistor is approximately equal to
the reactive volt-amperes in the zero-sequence capacitive
reactive of the generators, windings of any transformers
connected to generator terminals.
36
High-Impedance Grounding
An SLG fault is generally limited to 3 to 25 primary
amperes.
Others only uses resistor aside from transformers but the
fault current is limited to 5A.
37
High-Impedance Grounding
38
Overvoltage/Overcurrent Schemes
59G works on fundamental
frequency (3V0)
Typically set at 5V
Measures maximum at
terminal fault and decreases
at faults moves toward the
neutral
Must be coordinated with
other protection that works
on ground faults
39
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
59G can provide protection for only about 80% to 95% of
the stator windings.
This is due to generator construction imperfections and
subsequent small amounts of zero-sequence current that
will flow in the generator ground.
This small amount of zero-sequence current makes it
impossible for conventional ground fault detection relays to
remain selective when set too low.
Additional ground fault protection is required.
40
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Protection can be done using:
Third-harmonic voltage-based techniques
Neutral or residual subharmonic voltage injection
Third-harmonic voltages components are present at the
terminals of nearly every machine to varying degrees; they
arise due to the nonsinusoidal nature of rotor flux and vary
based in machine design and manufacturer.
These voltages are used in detecting faults on the
generator to provide protection.
41
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
3rd-harmonic voltage is dependent
on operating conditions of the
generator.
There is a point where the 3rdharmonic is zero.
For a ground fault at the neutral, 3rd
harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to neutral
For a ground fault at the terminal,
3rd harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to the terminals.
The 3rd harmonic levels should be
measured with the generator
connected and disconnected from
the transformer before enabling 3rd
harmonic protection.
42
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
43
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of thirdharmonic voltage at the neutral decreases.
Therefore undervoltage relay at the neutral could be used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.
Set to overlap with 59G settings.
Sometimes, it is supervised with OC relay, real or reactive
power and breaker contact.
44
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third-Harmonic Overvoltage
45
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third-Harmonic Overvoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of thirdharmonic voltage at the terminal increases.
Therefore overvoltage relay (59T) at the terminal could be
used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.
Set to overlap with 59G settings.
46
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third-Harmonic Comparator Technique
47
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Subharmonic Injection Schemes
48
Field Fault Protection
49
Field Fault Protection
Field circuit is an isolated DC system.
Insulation failure at a single point:
No fault current, therefore no danger
Increase chance of second fault occurring
Insulation failure at a second point:
Shorts out part of field winding
Heating
Flux distortion causing violent vibration of rotor
Desirable to detect presence of first earth fault and give
an alarm.
50
Field Fault Protection
51
Field Fault Protection
52
System Backup Protection
53
System Backup Protection
Backup protection is divided into:
Phase-fault protection
(21) Distance relays
(51V) Voltage controlled/restraint overcurrent
relays
Earth fault protection
(51G) Ground OC Relays
Sometimes (46) is also used as backup which provides unbalanced fault
protection backup.
54
System Backup Protection
55
System Backup Protection
51V
Use of simple OC relay is not recommended.
Voltage Restrained
Operating characteristics is continuously varied.
depending on measured volts.
Voltage Controlled
Relay switches between fault characteristic and load
characteristic depending on measured volts.
56
System Backup Protection
Distance Phase Backup Protection
Most common type of phase system backup protection.
Two zones are applied with mho characteristic.
If the generator is connected where there is no phase
shift ( wye-wye transformer or directly connected), the
relay will accurately measure the impedance
If the generator is connected to delta-wye transformer,
where there is phase shift, auxiliary PT is required to
compensate the phase shift.
If no aux. PT, use compensator distance relay.
57
System Backup Protection
Distance Phase Backup Protection Setting Guidelines
Set the impedance relay to the smallest of the three following
criteria:
120 percent of longest line (with infeed). If the unit is
connected to a breaker-and-a-half bus, this percent is
calculated using the length of the adjacent line.
50 to 66.7 percent of load impedance (200 to 150 percent
of the generator capability curve) at the machine-rated
power factor.
80 to 90 percent of load impedance (125 to 111 percent of
the generator capability curve) at the relay maximum
torque angle (MTA).
58
System Backup Protection
59
System Backup Protection
Backup Ground Protection
Backup ground protection is set to pickup for ground
faults at the end of all lines out of the station
Set to coordinate with the slowest ground fault protection
on the system.
60
Abnormal Frequency
Protection (81)
61
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Stable system is when Power Input = Power of all loads
+ Losses in the system
When there is a change between the this relationship,
abnormal system frequency arises.
Underfrequency condition occurs as a result of sudden
reduction in input power
Overfrequency condition occurs as a results sudden loss
of load or key interties exporting power.
62
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Major considerations associated with operating a generating
plant at an abnormal frequency:
Protection of equipment from damage that could result
from operation at an abnormal frequency.
Prevention of inadvertent tripping of the generating unit
for a recoverable abnormal frequency condition that does
not exceed the plant equipment design limits.
63
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
Some turbine generators are designed to accommodate
frequency voltage characteristics from IEC 600343:2007, Rotating Electrical Machines-Part 3.
This standard requires generators to deliver continuously
rated output at the rated power factor over the range of
5% in voltage and 2% in frequency. (61.2 Hz and
58.8Hz)
64
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
65
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
The standard recommends that operation outside the
shaded are be limited in extent, duration and frequency
of occurrence.
The manufacturer could therefore impose time
restrictions for example below 95% or above 103% of
rated frequency.
Goal of frequency protection scheme is to return the
frequency to the continuous IEC operating frequency
range (98% to 102%).
66
Abnormal Frequency Protection
67
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Protection (24 / 59)
68
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Overexcitation occurs whenever the ratio of the voltage
to frequency (V/Hz) applied to the terminal exceeds
design limits. IEEE standards have established the ff.
limits:
Generators, 1.05pu at the output terminals (generator
base)
Transformers, 1.05pu at the terminals at rated load or
1.1pu at no load
These limits apply unless manufacturers state otherwise.
69
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
When V/Hz ratios are exceeded, saturation of the
magnetic core of the generator or connected
transformers can occur, and stray flux will be induced into
non laminated components.
Note that overexcitation protection on a generator or its
connected transformer is different from field
overexcitation.
Excessive overvoltage of a generator will occur when the
level of dielectric field stress exceeds the insulation
capability.
70
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Not all overvoltage condition will be detected by V/Hz
relay.
It is general practice to provide overvoltage relaying to
alarm, or in some cases, trip the generators from these
high dielectric stress levels.
71
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
72
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
73
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
74
Loss-of-Excitation
Protection (40)
75
Loss-of-Field Protection
Causes of loss-of-field:
Accidental trip of field breaker
Field open circuit
Field short circuit
Voltage regulator system failure
Loss of supply to excitation system
For most generators, the unit will overspeed and
operate as an induction generator. It will supply power
but takes reactive power from the system.
76
Loss-of-Field Protection
On loss-of-field, apparent impedance of fully loaded machine
travels from loaded value in the 1st quadrant to the 4th quadrant
close to X axis at value just above the direct axis transient
reactance (about 2-7 seconds).
Final impedance point depends on initial load, varies between
Xd/2 at full load to direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd at no
load.
Locus of impedance trajectory depends on system impedance
77
Loss-of-Field Protection
78
Loss-of-Field Protection
For small and less important machines, a single-zone
offset mho is used to detect this condition. For larger
machines, two-zone offset mho is used.
Smaller Circle (#1)
Diameter of 1.0 pu impedance on machine base
Small almost instantaneous time delay
Offset equal to Xd/2
Larger Circle (#2)
Diamter of Xd
Time delay of 30-60 cycles
Offset equal of Xd/2
79
Loss-of-Field Protection
Two-zone Offset Mho characteristic
80
Negative-Sequence
Current(46)
81
Negative-Sequence Protection
In the real world, IA does not necessarily equal to IB and IC
Unbalances are caused by:
System asymmetries
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced system faults
Open phases
Produce negative-sequence currents-induce a double frequency
current
82
Negative-Sequence Protection
I2 crosses the air gap, appears in rotor as double-frequency
current
Flows in rotor surface, non magnetic wedges
Severe overheating, melting of wedges into air gap
Standards permits 5-10% of I2
Short-time limits expressed as 22 = , where K is a design
constant
83
Negative-Sequence Protection
84
Negative-Sequence Protection
Short-time
values apply for
120 seconds or
less. Beyond
120 seconds,
the continuous
capability
should be used.
85
Negative-Sequence Protection
86
Anti-motoring or Reverse
Power (32R)
87
Generator Motoring
Occurs when the energy supply to the prime mover is cut
off while the generator is still on the line. A primary
indication of motoring is the flow of real power into the
generator.
Estimated power required to motor the idling prime mover
is:
88
Out-of-Step Protection (78)
89
Out-of-Step Protection
When a fault occurs on the power system, the generator can
begin to accelerate due to differences in the mechanical power
into the generator and the electrical power at the generator
terminals.
If the fault is not cleared quickly, this acceleration will result in
the generator rotor voltage advancing beyond 90 degrees with
respect to the generator terminal voltage.
At this point, power flow into the generator and the rotor angle
will continue to advance until is aligned with the next pole. This
is known as slipping a pole or loss of synchronism.
90
Out-of-Step Protection
91
Out-of-Step Protection
Adverse Effects
High peak currents and off-frequency operation (slipping)
Winding stresses
Pulsating Torques
Mechanical resonances
Standard generator protection will not detect loss-of-sychronism
Standard transmission line protection will not detect loss-ofsynchronism
If electrical center is between the GSU into the generator, out-ofstep protection should be applied at the machine terminals
92
Out-of-Step Protection
Determination of Electrical Center
Electrical center is the point in the system where the impedance
between the sources is equal.
Electrical center = (Xd + Xt + Xs) / 2
93
Out-of-Step Protection
94
Out-of-Step Protection
95
Out-of-Step Protection
96
Inadvertent Energization
97
Inadvertent Energization
When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning gear
or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an induction motor
and can be damaged within a few seconds
Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions
98
Inadvertent Energization
When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning gear
or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an induction motor
and can be damaged within a few seconds
Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions
99
Inadvertent Energization
The following protection elements may detect or can be set to
detect inadvertent energizing:
Loss of Field Protection
Reverse Power
Negative-sequence overcurrent
Breaker Failure
System backup
100
Inadvertent Energization
Inadvertent energization protection needs to be in service when the
generator is out of service.
Dedicated protection:
Directional Overcurrent
Frequency Supervised Overcurrent
Distance Relay
Voltage Supervised Overcurrent
Auxilliary Contact-Enabled Overcurrent
Overcurrent Supervised by Multiple Elements
101
Loss-of-Potential (60)
102
Loss-of-Potential
Loss of the voltage transformer (VT) signal can occur because
of a number of cases, most commonly fuse failure.
It could be VT or wiring failure, an open circuit in the draw-out
assembly, an open contact due to corrosion or blown fuse
Such loss can cause protective relay misoperation or failure or
generator voltage regulator runaway, which can lead to
generator overexcitation
It is important to detect loss-of-potential condition, sometimes
called, fuse loss (60FL)
103
Loss-of-Potential
104
Synchronism Check and
Auto Synchronizing (25)
105
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
Synchronism Check
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
Typical parameters call for no more than 6RPM error, 2%
voltage magnitude difference, and no more than 10 deg
phase angle error before closing the breaker
106
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
Auto Synchronizing (25A)
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
It involves sending voltage and speed raise and lower
commands to the voltage regulator and prime governor.
When the system is in synchronism, the autosync relay is
sometimes designed to send a close command in
advance of the zero phase angle error to compensate for
breaker close
107
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
108
Tripping Modes
109
Tripping Modes
Simultaneous Tripping
Provides the fastest means of isolating the generator
Used for all internal generator faults and severe
abnormalities in the generator protection zone.
Generator Tripping
Does not shutdown the prime mover and is used where it
may be possible to correct the abnormality quickly,
permitting a rapid reconnection of the machine to the
system.
110
Tripping Modes
Unit Separation
Initiates only the opening of generator breakers
Recommended when maintaining the unit auxiliary loads
connected to the generator is desirable.
Sequential Tripping
Used for prime mover problems where high-speed tripping is
not a requirement.
1. turbine valves, 2. generator breakers 3. field breaker and
load transfer of loads.
111
Tripping Modes
These tripping scheme must be review and applied according to
the present generator application
Selection would depend on the ff:
Type of prime mover
Impact of the sudden loss of output power on the electrical
system and prime mover
Safety to personnel
Operating experience
Management of unit auxiliary loads during emergency
shutdown.
112
Tripping Modes
113
Sample Tripping Modes
114
Sample Logic
115
Sample Logic
116
Sample Logic
117
Sample Logic
118
References:
Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications by Blackburn
IEEE Tutorial on Synchronous Generators
Basler BE1-11g manual
IEEE Seminar on Protective Relaying by Russ Patterson
C37.101-2006
C37.102-2006
119
