Energy & Society
Combustion
Toolkit 3:
Combustion
Energy & Society
Combustion
Table of Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Energy Sources & Use
2.1. Energy use worldwide
2.2. Energy use in the United States
2.3. Sources of energy data
4
4
6
8
3.
Types of Fuels
3.1. Solid fuels
Gas and liquid fuels
9
9
11
4.
Combustion Stoichiometry
4.1. Combustion in an idealized atmosphere
4.2. Combustion in air
4.3. Real combustion
Incomplete combustion
Air-fuel ratios
NOx formation
Fuel impurities
12
12
15
17
20
18
21
21
5.
Air Pollution
22
6.
References
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1. INTRODUCTION
What do we do with fossil fuels? Burn em! Just how much fuel do we burn? Quite a lot, it turns out.
Our first focus in this Toolkit will be to look at the types and amounts of fuels used globally and in
the United States.
The energy content of many fuels, including wood, coal, natural gas, and petroleum, is made useful
through combustion. In some cases, the heat and light resulting from combustion are the primary
goals, as is the case with wood-fired cookstoves, natural-gas ovens, and kerosene lamps. In other
cases, the heat resulting from combustion is utilized to generate steam, which turns a turbine, which
produces electricity, which may be used for any number of uses. We will look much more closely at
how power plants work in Toolkit 4, but for now we will set the stage by focusing on combustion.
Energy & Society
Combustion
2. ENERGY SOURCES & USE
Comment [AK1]: Add spreadsheet from EIA
and IEA
This section provides an overview of the energy sources that fuel our world and our country. In the
context of this Toolkit, this overview should provide a clear sense of why understanding the basics
of combustion is important for understanding energy.
The purpose of this section is to set the stage of what our energy landscape looks like.
What are the main energy sources in use today globally, in the United States, in California?
What are some of the key trends in energy use over time?
What energy sources are used for what purposes?
Becoming familiar with some of these high-level energy statistics, and where to find them, will help
you be a more critical consumer of energy data.
Although the emphasis of this section is simply to provide an overview, it is still worthwhile to pay
attention to what is (and is not!) being represented by the table, graph, or chart in question. As you
do so, you will begin to notice that there are many ways for data about energy to be collected,
categorized, and displayed. For example, do the data represent primary energy or delivered energy?
All energy consumption or just electricity? Being attuned to what the data do and do not represent
allows you to be a more critical user of energy data.
2.1.
Energy use worldwide
Lets begin by taking a look at the global energy supply. Figures 1-3 each highlight a different aspect
of global energy. Figure 1 shows how the global primary energy supply has changed over time in
terms of fuel. What trends can you identify? At about what rate has the global energy supply been
increasing in recent decades?
Energy & Society
Combustion
Figure 1 Global primary energy supply by fuel (Mtoe), 1971-2009
Notes: * Other includes geothermal, solar, wind, heat, etc.
Source: IEA, 2011, Key World Energy Statistics. International Energy Agency: Paris.
Figure 2 also depicts the global primary energy supply, but divides the data by region rather than fuel
source. What trends do notice in this figure? Do population levels appear to explain regional
variations in energy supply?
Figure 2 Global primary energy supply by region (Mtoe), 1971-2009
Notes: * Asia excludes China; ** Bunkers includes international aviation and marine bunkers.
Source: IEA, 2011, Key World Energy Statistics. International Energy Agency: Paris.
Finally, Figure 3 focuses solely on trends in global electricity generation by energy source. The
category of fossil thermal includes coal, natural gas, and oil. What trends emerge from these data? At
about what rate has global electricity generation been increasing in recent decades?
Energy & Society
Combustion
Figure 3 Global electricity generation by energy source (TWh), 1971-2009
Notes: ** Other includes geothermal, solar, wind, biofuels and waste, and heat.
Source: IEA, 2011, Key World Energy Statistics. International Energy Agency: Paris.
2.2.
Energy use in the United States
Three fossil fuels figure prominently in both the United States energy supply: coal, natural gas, and
petroleum. Each of these fossil fuels has a different history and pattern of use. In the United States,
coal is primarily used to generate electricity; natural gas is used to generate electricity, as well as for
residential, commercial, and industrial use; and petroleum is primarily used for transportation fuels,
see Figure 4.
Figure 4 Primary U.S. energy consumption by source and sector in Quadrillion Btus, 2010
Energy & Society
Notes:
Combustion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Does not include biofuels that have been blended with petroleum.
Excludes supplemental gaseous fuels.
Includes less than 0.1 quadrillion Btu of coal coke net exports.
Conventional hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar/PV, wind, and biomass, including biofuels.
Includes industrial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and industrial electricity-only plants.
Includes commercial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and commercial electricity-only plants.
Electricity-only and combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,
or electricity and heat, to the public. Includes 0.1 quadrillion Btu of electricity net imports not shown
under source.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2011, Annual Energy Review 2010, Figure 2.0.
Importantly, Americas energy landscape has changed dramatically over time. These changes can be
seen across a variety of metrics, including the types of energy sources in use, the magnitude of
annual energy consumption, and per capita energy use. Changes in the energy landscape often follow
social and technological shifts, such as those associated with technical innovations, e.g., the internal
combustion engine, and new policies or regulations, e.g., clean energy standards. Consider what
social and technological shifts might be associated with some of the trends seen in Figure 4.
Throughout this course, we will discuss and explore some of the factors that have contributed to
these shifts.
Figure 5 U.S. primary energy consumption estimates by source, 1775-2010
45
40
Quadrillion Btu
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Petroleum
Coal
Natural Gas
Hydroelectric Power
Nuclear Electric Power
Wood
Other Renewable Energy
Notes: 1 Includes wind, solar, and geothermal.
Source: U.S. EIA, Annual Energy Review. Tables 1.3, 10.1, and E1.U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information
Administration: Washington, DC.
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Combustion
Sources of energy data
2.3.
Energy statistics are updated regularly by various agencies and organizations. A few of the most
useful sources of energy data include:
The International Energy Agency, especially for international data: www.iea.org
The U.S. Energy Information Administration, especially for U.S. data: www.eia.gov
The California Energy Commission, especially for California data: www.energy.ca.gov
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Combustion
3. TYPES OF FUELS
Fuels have typically been defined as substances that can be combusted to produce heat energy,
which in turn can be used for any number of practical applications, ranging from cooking to
electricity generation to transportation. Nuclear power has added a wrinkle to this standard
definition, which has been expanded to include fissionable material, but for the purposes of this
section, we will focus solely on fuels used in combustion.
Fuels can be naturally occurring substances, e.g., wood, or manufactured substances, e.g., gasoline.
Although many things can be burned to produce heat, good fuels share certain characteristics:
A high calorific value,
Low ignition temperature,
Low moisture content,
Low non-combustible matter content,
By-products of combustion that are not be toxic to people or the environment,
Combustion is controllable,
Readily available at low cost,
Safe to handle,
Easy and safe to transport. i
Our fuel choices involve balancing the attributes and availability of different fuel types, as well as the
constraints of existing infrastructure and policies.
Fuels are often classified based on whether they occur naturally, referred to as primary fuels, or they
are manufactured, referred to as secondary fuels. In addition, fuels are often organized based on their
state of matter: solid, liquid, or gas.
Table 1 Examples of primary and secondary fuels, by state of matter
Primary fuels
Secondary fuels
Solid
Coal
Charcoal
Peat
Coke
Wood
Dung
Liquid
Crude oil
Gasoline
Diesel
Kerosene
Gaseous
Natural gas
Biogas
3.1.
Solid fuels
Solid fuels are used extensively around the world. In the United States, coal plays a central role in
electricity generation. In many developing countries, biomass wood, dung, and other materials is
collected daily and burned in a cookstove to meet household heating and cooking needs.
Energy & Society
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Solid fuels consist of both combustible materials the organic portions, including carbon, hydrogen,
and sulfur and incombustible materials the moisture and mineral components of the fuel. The
exact composition of a particular solid fuel can vary, sometimes substantially, from one sample to
another. Thus, although we often talk about coal as though it is a uniform substance, its chemical
composition can vary quite substantially from one site to another, as well as within a single site, as a
function of various factors, including the composition of the original vegetation, the type of
inorganic material present, and the specific conditions under which it has formed.
Coal is classified into four ranks, from lignite (immature) to anthracite (mature) based on the
amount and type of carbon it contains and the amount of heat it can generate, see Table 2.
Table 2 Heating value by coal grade
Coal grade
Approximate heating values (kJ/kg coal)
Anthracite
30,240-33,730
Bituminous
27,910-34,420
Subbituminous
19,310-23,620
Lignite
13,260-17,450
Table 3 Solid fuels and their characteristics
Fuel type
Key characteristics
Peat
Wood
Moisture, volatiles, fixed carbon, ash
Coal
Moisture, volatiles, fixed carbon, ash, CH0.8
Charcoal
Devolatilized wood
Coke
Devolatilized coal or petroleum
Table 4 Hydrocarbons in fossil fuels
Name
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
Undecane
Dodecane
Eicosane
Triacontane
Fuel type
Molecular formula
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
C11H24
C12H26
C20H42
C30H62
Composition notes
Typical Use
Simplified
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Mostly CH4; may include C2H6,
C3H8, and C4H10 prior to refining.
Propane
Butane
LPG
Gasoline
Wood/Cellulose
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a
mix of C3H8 and C4H10.
Mostly C8H18, but with a mixture
ranging from C7H16 to C12H26.
Electricity; industrial use;
commercial & residential
heating and cooking.
Small tanks, especially
camping stoves, BBQs, etc.
Cigarette lighters
Rural heating and cooking,
transportation fuel.
formula
CH4
C3H8
C4H10
C6H12O6
Gas and liquid fuels
Table 5 Gas and liquid fuels and their characteristics
Fuel type
Key characteristics
Natural gas
CH4, C2H6, N2, CO2
Propane
C3
Butane
C4
LPG
A mixture of propane and
butane
Synthetic gases
From biomass and coal products
Petroleum derived fuels
~CH2
Gasoline
C4 to C10, average C8
Diesel
C12
Turbine fuels, kerosene C10
Heavy fuel oils
Shale oil derived liquids
Alcohols, ethers
Hydrogen
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4. COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY
Comment [AK2]: Watch out for graphs that
reverse rich and lean fuels.
What happens during combustion? In its simplest form, combustion involves the mixing of a fuel
and an oxidizer and converts them into combustion products. Combustion is an exothermic process,
which means it also releases energy, which can be used directly or converted into another form for
some other use.
Equation 1
Fuel + Oxidizer Combustion Products + Energy
In the following sections, we will draw upon some chemistry basics to explore the types and
amounts of combustion products released when fossil fuels are combusted under idealized
conditions. Then well look briefly at some of the complexities and messiness associated with
combustion under real circumstances.
Handy tip: Learning the atomic weights of a few common elements (H, C, O, N, and S) will be useful
for your homework assignments, see Table 6, although you can always look these up in the
Appendix.
Table 6 Atomic weights of common elements in combustion
Element
Symbol
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Hydrogen
H
1
1.008
Carbon
C
6
12.01
Nitrogen
N
7
14.01
Oxygen
O
8
16.00
Sulfur
S
16
32.06
4.1.
Combustion in an idealized atmosphere
First, lets consider what combustion looks like in an idealized atmosphere consisting only of oxygen.
To do this, well work through several examples in order to understand the basic form of
combustion equations, the method for balancing combustion equations, and the set-up for
calculating the amount of carbon dioxide associated with combustion of various fuels.
Example 1
Write the balanced equation for the combustion of cellulose (C6H12O6) in an
oxygen-only (O2) environment.
Balancing this equation begins with identifying all of the chemical species on both sides. In this case,
the left side of the equation has the fuel (C6H12O6) and the oxidizer (O2); the right side has just two
chemical combustion products, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
6 12 6 + 2 2 + 2
The next step requires balancing the equation, which we tackle one element at a time. To help
highlight the steps taken to balance equations, the examples in this section will use colors to indicate
the numbers (coefficients and subscripts) associated with the element being balanced. The
underlined value indicates the coefficient added to balance the element of interest.
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First, balance the carbon. A balanced equation should have the same number of each element on
both sides of the equation. In this case, there are 6 carbons on the left, so we also need 6 carbons on
the right. Remember, only the coefficients in front of the chemical species can be changed:
6 12 6 + 2 2 + 2
6=
6 12 6 + 2 62 + 2
Next, balance the hydrogen working from the partially balanced equation:
6 12 6 + 2 62 + 2
12 = 2
6=
6 12 6 + 2 62 + 62
Finally, the oxygen, which requires a little bit of simple algebra:
6 12 6 + 2 62 + 62
6 + ( 2) = (6 2) + 6
6 + 2 = 12 + 6
2 = 12
=6
6 12 6 + 62 62 + 62
This gives us the balanced equation:
6 12 6 + 62 62 + 62
Being able to balance the equations is only the first step. Once balanced, we can start asking more
interesting questions.
Example 2
How much CO2 is produced when 1 tonne of methane (CH4) is combusted in
an oxygen-only atmosphere?
Solving this problem takes several steps, which we will tackle one step at a time.
Step 1. Write out the equation.
4 + 2 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
4 + 2 2 + 2
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4 + 2 2 + 22
4 + 22 2 + 22
Step 3. Calculate CO2 emissions. To do this, we need a few additional pieces of information: the
molar ratio of CO2 and CH4, which can be gleaned from the balanced equation, and the molar
masses of CO2 and CH4:
Molar ratio =
=
Moles of CO2 2
=
Moles of CH4 4
1 2
1 4
Molar mass of CO2 = 2 = 12.01 / + 2 16.00 /
= 44.01 2 /
Molar mass of CH4 = 4 = 12.01 / + 4 1.008 /
= 16.042 4 /
Now we can easily set up our calculation for determining CO2 emissions:
CO2 =
1 2
1 2 44.01 2
1 4
[106 4 ] 6
1 4 1 2 16.042 4
10 2
= 2.74 2
So for every tonne of methane combusted, almost 3 tonnes of carbon dioxide are emitted. How do
CO2 emissions from other fossil fuels compare? Lets look at another example.
Example 3
How much CO2 is produced when 1 tonne of benzene (C6H6) is combusted in
an oxygen-only atmosphere?
Step 1. Write out the equation.
6 6 + 2 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
6 6 + 2 62 + 2
6 6 + 2 62 + 32
Step 3. Calculate CO2 emissions.
6 6 + 7.52 62 + 32
Molar ratio =
6 2
1 6 6
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Molar mass of C6 H6 = (6 12.01) + (4 1.008)
= 76.668 /
6 2 44.01 2
1 6 6
1 2
[106 4 ] 6
CO2 =
1 6 6 1 2 76.668 6 6
10 2
= 3.44 2
Now that we have worked through balancing the combustion equations for several specific fuels,
lets look at the general form used for balancing combustion equations using an unspecified
hydrocarbon, CxHy, where x indicates the number carbon atoms and y indicates the number of
hydrogen atoms.
Example 4
Write the balanced combustion equation for a general hydrocarbon (CxHy)
burned in an oxygen-only atmosphere.
Step 1. Write out the equation.
+ 2 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
+ 2 2 + 2
+ 2 2 + 22
Final balanced equation:
+ + 4 2 2 + 22
+ + 4 2 2 + 22
Note that the ratio of carbon to hydrogen (x:y) determines the ratio of carbon dioxide to water
produced during combustion.
4.2.
Combustion in air
In Section 4.1, combustion was assumed to take place in an oxygen-only environment. However,
most combustion takes place in air. The following calculations assume that air consists of 21%
oxygen (O2) and 79% nitrogen (N2).
How does the assumption of combustion in air affect the stoichiometry? Lets take a look.
Example 5
Write the balanced equation for cellulose (C6H12O6) combusted in air (O2 +
3.76N2).
We will follow the same basic steps used for combustion in an oxygen-only atmosphere, but we
have to start with a somewhat more complicated base equation in step 1, and we will have to also
balance the nitrogen in step 2.
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Step 1. Write out the equation.
6 12 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
6 12 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 2 + 2
6 12 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 62 + 2
When you balance the oxygen and nitrogen, you have to maintain the ratio between oxygen and
nitrogen in air, so the coefficient for air goes outside of the parentheses and applies to both gases:
6 12 6 + 6(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 62 + 2
6 12 6 + 6(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 62 + 22.572
This gives us our balanced equation:
6 12 6 + 6(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 62 + 22.572
The final equation is very similar to the balanced equation from Example 1, except for the addition
of diatomic nitrogen on both sides of the equation. The importance of nitrogens presence during
combustion will become evident in Section 4.3 Real Combustion.
Lets work through balancing the equations for methane (CH4) and benzene (C6H6) combusted in air
as well, just like in Section 4.1.
Example 6
Write the balanced equation for methane (CH4) combusted in air (O2 +
3.76N2).
Step 1. Write out the equation.
4 + (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
4 + (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2 + 2
4 + (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 2
4 + 2(2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 2
4 + 2(2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 7.522
This gives us our final balanced equation:
4 + 2(2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 7.522
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Example 7
Combustion
Write the balanced equation for benzene (C6H6) combusted in air (O2 +
3.76N2).
Step 1. Write out the equation.
6 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
6 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 2 + 2
6 6 + (2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 32 + 2
6 6 + 7.5(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 32 + 2
6 6 + 7.5(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 32 + 28.212
This gives us our final balanced equation:
6 6 + 7.5(2 + 3.762 ) 62 + 32 + 28.212
Finally, we can work through the general equation for combustion in air.
Example 8
Write the balanced combustion equation for a general hydrocarbon (CxHy)
burned in air (O2+3.76N2).
Step 1. Write out the equation.
+ (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2 + 2
Step 2. Balance the equation one element at a time: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
+ (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 2 + 2
+ (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 2
+ + 4 (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 2
+ + 4 (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 3.76 + 4 2
Final balanced equation:
4.3.
+ + 4 (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 3.76 + 4 2
Real combustion
Real combustion is much messier than either of our simplified scenarios suggest. For our purposes,
these simplifications provide adequate approximations of combustion stoichiometry to solve
problems. However, some of the additional complexities associated with real combustion still merit
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discussion and conceptual understanding. One factor that influences combustion is the ratio of air
to fuel.
Air-fuel ratios
One factor that influences combustion is the ratio of air to fuel in the feed. The air-fuel (AF) ratio
can be expressed in terms of mass or moles:
Mass of air in feed mixture
= =
Mass of fuel in feed mixture
Moles of air in feed mixture
= =
Moles of fuel in feed mixture
In sections 4.1 and 4.2, we balanced the general equations for the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels
in oxygen and in air. From these equations, we can derive the stoichiometric ratio (AFstoich), the air-fuel
ratio required for complete combustion.
Recall the balanced equation for combustion in oxygen:
+ + 4 2 2 + 22
From this equation we can determine the stoichiometric ratio:
Stoichiometric ratio (oxygen) = AFstoich(2) =
=
+ 4
1
=+4
This ratio can also be expressed as a mass ratio (AFmass) by multiplying by the molecular masses:
Mass ratio (oxygen) = (2) = (2)
= + 4
=
32.00 /
(12.01 + 1.008)/
32.00 + 8.00
12.01 + 1.008
The mass ratio is thus revealed to be a function of the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the
fuel. From this, the range of possible mass ratios can be determined based on a pure carbon fuel (y
= 0) and a pure hydrogen fuel (x = 0).
(2 ) ( ) =
32.00 /
= 2.664
12.01 /
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(2 ) ( ) =
8.00 /
= 7.937
1.008 /
From this we see that for complete combustion in oxygen the air-fuel ratios by mass range from
about 2.7 to 7.9. Of course, since most fuels are burned in air, it is also important to know the airfuel ratios associated with combustion in air. Recall the general formula for combustion in air:
+ + 4 (2 + 3.762 ) 2 + 22 + 3.76 + 4 2
In this case, the stoichiometric ratio represents the ratio of moles of air to moles of fuel, which
remains the same:
Stoichiometric ratio (air) = () =
=
+ 4
1
=+4
The mass ratio in air can then be calculated as above or, since the stoichiometric ratios are
equivalent, by multiplying the mass ratio in oxygen by the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of
oxygen.
Mass ratio (air) = () = ()
= (2 )
=
32.00 + 8.00 137.32
12.01 + 1.008 32.00
= 4.29
32.00 + 8.00
12.01 + 1.008
Note that the air-fuel ratio can also sometimes expressed as a fuel-air (FA) ratio.
Fuel-air ratio = () =
1
=
()
The stoichiometric ratio gives the ratio of air to fuel necessary for complete combustion. The
stoichiometric ratio serves as a reference against which actual air-fuel ratios can be compared. When
a feed mixture has more fuel than necessary, it is called a rich mixture. When a feed mixture has
more air than necessary, it is called a lean mixture.
Rich mixture: <
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Lean mixture: >
The equivalence ratio () provides a measure of the deviation of the actual air-fuel ratio and the
stoichiometric ratio:
Equivalence ratio = =
Most combustion systems operate under lean conditions. Consider Figure 6, which illustrates how
power, fuel consumption, and various chemical products vary as a function of the air-fuel ratio.
Based on this graph, what advantages are there to using a lean mixture rather than a stoichiometric
or rich mixture?
Figure 6 Combustion products, fuel consumption, and power as a function of air-fuel ratios
Source: Unknown taken from lecture slides.
Incomplete combustion
To this point, we have assumed complete oxidation of the fuel during combustion. Without
complete oxidation, the products of combustion become messier, including not just H2O, CO2, and
N2, but also a variety of other trace products, such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide
(NO), and hydrocarbons (HC). Incomplete combustion might more accurately be described by
Equation 2.
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Equation 2
+ 2 + 2 mostly(2 + 22 + 2 ) + traces( + + + )
Incomplete oxidation can occur under a variety of circumstances, including when:
There is poor mixing fuel and air,
The temperature is too low,
Oxygen levels are insufficient,
Combustion occurs too rapidly.
NOx and CO formation
At higher temperatures, atmospheric nitrogen begins to react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides
(NOx), also known as thermal NOx when formed at high temperatures. Oxidation of atmospheric
nitrogen is governed by two equations:
2 + 2 + 2
1
+ 22 2
In addition to the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, NOx can also form during combustion when
nitrogen compounds in the fuel are oxidized.
Carbon monoxide can also be formed during incomplete combustion at high temperature:
1
2 + 22
Fuel impurities
Up to this point, we have assumed that the fuels themselves are pure, consisting only of carbon and
hydrogen. However, this is rarely the case. Fossil fuels can contain a variety of different impurities,
including sulfur, mercury (Hg), and ash. These impurities can have significant impacts on the
environment and public health, so we will return to them again throughout the course. For now,
however, we will only consider them in terms of increasingly complex chemistry. Among the
products that result from these impurities are volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Equation 3
Fuel(, , , , ) + air(2 + 2 ) (2 , 2 , , , , , ) +
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5. AIR POLLUTION
Figure 7 Combustion products as a function of the air-fuel ratio
Source: Seinfeld, J. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution.
In 1800 London, the dominant fossil fuel in use was coal. About 1 ton of coal was burned per
person. With a population of one million, how much was released annually?
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6. REFERENCES
i Chatwal, Gurdeep R., and Madhu Arora. 2008. Analytical chemistry. Mumbai [India]: Himalaya Pub. House.
http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=588240.
Kaur, H. 2008. Analytical chemistry. Meerut: Pragati Prakashan. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10417456.
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