Dark matter

Not to be confused with antimatter, dark energy, dark ity of astronomers[14] argue for various modications of
uid, or dark ow. For other uses, see Dark Matter the standard laws of general relativity, such as MOND,
(disambiguation)
TeVeS, and conformal gravity[15] that attempt to account for the observations without invoking additional
matter.[16]
Dark matter is an unidentied type of matter distinct
from dark energy, baryonic matter (ordinary matter), and Many experiments to detect proposed dark matter parneutrinos. It comprises approximately 27% of the mass ticles through non-gravitational means are under way.[17]
and energy in the observable universe.[1][2] The name On 25 August 2016, astronomers reported that Dragony
refers to the fact that it does not emit or interact with 44, an ultra diuse galaxy (UDG) with the mass of the
electromagnetic radiation, such as light, and is thus invis- Milky Way galaxy, but with nearly no discernable stars or
ible to the entire electromagnetic spectrum.[3] Although galactic structure, may be made almost entirely of dark
dark matter has not been directly observed, its existence matter.[18][19][20]
and properties are inferred from its gravitational eects
such as the motions of visible matter, gravitational lensing, its inuence on the universes large-scale structure,
and its eects in the cosmic microwave background. 1 History
Dark matter is transparent to electromagnetic radiation
and/or is so dense and small that it fails to absorb or emit Nature timeline
enough radiation to be detectable with current imaging view discuss
technology.
13
Estimates of masses for galaxies and larger structures via
dynamical and general relativistic means are much greater 12
than those based on the mass of the visible luminous
11
matter.[4]

The standard model of cosmology indicates that the to- 10

tal massenergy of the universe contains 4.9% ordinary
matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy.[5][6] 9
Thus, dark matter constitutes 84.5%[note 1] of total mass,
while dark energy plus dark matter constitute 95.1% of 8
total massenergy content.[7][8][9][10] The great majority
of ordinary matter in the universe is also unseen, since 7
visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account
for less than 10% of the ordinary matter contribution to 6
the mass-energy density of the universe.[11]

The dark matter hypothesis plays a central role in cur- 5

rent modeling of cosmic structure formation and galaxy
formation and evolution and on explanations of the 4
anisotropies observed in the cosmic microwave back-
ground (CMB). All these lines of evidence suggest that 3
galaxies, galaxy clusters, and the universe as a whole con-
tain far more matter than that which is observable via 2

electromagnetic signals.[12]
1
The most widely accepted hypothesis on the form for dark

matter is that it is composed of weakly interacting mas0

sive particles (WIMPs) that interact only through gravity
cosmic expansion
and the weak force.[13]
Earliest light

Although the existence of dark matter is generally ac- cosmic speed-up

cepted by most of the astronomical community, a minor- Solar System
1

1 HISTORY

water

Axis scale: billions of years.

Single-celled life

Also see: Human timeline & Life timeline

photosynthesis

Multicellular
life
Land life

The rst to suggest the existence of dark matter (using

stellar velocities) was Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn
in 1922.[21][22] Fellow Dutchman and radio astronomy pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark
matter in 1932.[22][23][24] Oort was studying stellar motions in the local galactic neighborhood and found that
the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what
was observed, but this measurement was later determined
to be erroneous.[25]

Earliest gravity
Dark energy
Dark matter

Earliest universe (13.8)

Earliest galaxy

Earliest quasar

In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky, who studied galactic clusters while working at the California Institute of Technology, made a similar inference.[26][27][28]
Zwicky applied the virial theorem to the Coma galaxy
cluster and obtained evidence of unseen mass that he
called dunkle Materie 'dark matter'. Zwicky estimated
its mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge
and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness
and number of galaxies. He estimated that the cluster
had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable. The gravity eect of the visible galaxies was far too
small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from
view. Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred that
some unseen matter provided the mass and associated
gravitation attraction to hold the cluster together. This
was the rst formal inference about the existence of dark
matter.[29] Zwickys estimates were o by more than an
order of magnitude, mainly due to an obsolete value of
the Hubble constant;[30] the same calculation today shows
a smaller fraction, using greater values for luminous mass.
However, Zwicky did correctly infer that the bulk of the
matter was dark.[29]

Omega Centauri forms

Andromeda Galaxy forms

Milky Way Galaxy

spiral arms form

NGC 188 star cluster forms

Alpha Centauri forms

Earliest Earth
(4.54)

Earliest life

Earliest oxygen

Atmospheric oxygen

Earliest sexual reproduction

Cambrian explosion

Earliest humans

L
i
f
e
P
r
i
m
o
r
d
i
a
l

The rst robust indications that the mass to light ratio

was anything other than unity came from measurements
of galaxy rotation curves. In 1939, Horace W. Babcock reported the rotation curve for the Andromeda nebula, which suggested that the mass-to-luminosity ratio increases radially.[31] He attributed it to either light absorption within the galaxy or modied dynamics in the outer
portions of the spiral and not to missing matter.
Vera Rubin and Kent Ford in the 1960s1970s provided further strong evidence, also using galaxy rotation
curves.[32][33] Rubin worked with a new spectrograph to
measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies with
greater accuracy.[33] This result was independently conrmed in 1978.[34] An inuential paper presented Rubins
results in 1980.[35] Rubin found that most galaxies must
contain about six times as much dark as visible mass;[36]
thus, by around 1980 the apparent need for dark matter
was widely recognized as a major unsolved problem in
astronomy.
A stream of independent observations in the 1980s indicated its presence, including gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters,[37] the temperature dis-

3
tribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters, and the pat- (or equivalently, the Hubble constant), the initial uctuatern of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. tion amplitude and their scale dependence.
According to consensus among cosmologists, dark matter
is composed primarily of a not yet characterized type of
subatomic particle.[13][38] The search for this particle, by 2 Observational evidence
a variety of means, is one of the major eorts in particle
physics.[17]

1.1

Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB)

In cosmology, the CMB is explained as relic radiation

which has travelled freely since the era of recombination,
around 375,000 years after the Big Bang. The CMBs
anisotropies are explained as the result of small primordial density uctuations, and subsequent acoustic oscillations in the photon-baryon plasma whose restoring force
This artists impression shows the expected distribution of dark
is gravity.[39]
The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite
found the CMB spectrum to be a very precise blackbody
spectrum with a temperature of 2.726 K. In 1992, COBE
detected CMB uctuations (anisotropies) at a level of
about one part in 105 .[40]

matter in the Milky Way galaxy as a blue halo of material surrounding the galaxy.[46]

Much of the evidence comes from the motions of

galaxies.[47] Many of these appear to be fairly uniform,
so by the virial theorem, the total kinetic energy should
be half the galaxies total gravitational binding energy.
Observationally, the total kinetic energy is much greater.
In particular, assuming the gravitational mass is due to
only visible matter, stars far from the center of galaxies have much higher velocities than predicted by the
virial theorem. Galactic rotation curves, which illustrate the velocity of rotation versus the distance from the
galactic center, show the excess velocity. Dark matter is the most straightforward way of accounting for this
discrepancy.[48]

In the following decade, CMB anisotropies were investigated by ground-based and balloon experiments. Their
primary goal was to measure the angular scale of the
rst acoustic peak of the anisotropies power spectrum,
for which COBE had insucient resolution. During the
1990s, the rst peak was measured with increasing sensitivity, and in 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment[41] reported that the highest power uctuations occur at scales
of approximately one degree, showing that the Universe
is close to at. These measurements were able to rule out
cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure The distribution of dark matter in galaxies required to exformation, and suggested cosmic ination was the correct plain the motion of the observed matter suggests the prestheory.
ence of a roughly spherically symmetric, centrally conGround-based interferometers provided uctuation mea- centrated halo of dark matter with the visible matter con[49]
surements with higher accuracy, including the Very Small centrated in a central disc.
Array, the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) Low surface brightness dwarf galaxies are important
and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI rst de- sources of information for studying dark matter. They
tected the CMB polarization,[42][43] and CBI provided the have an uncommonly low ratio of visible to dark matter,
rst E-mode polarization spectrum with compelling evi- and have few bright stars at the center that would otherdence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum.[44] wise impair observations of the rotation curve of outlying
COBEs successor, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy stars.
Probe (WMAP) provided the most detailed measurements of (large-scale) anisotropies in the CMB in 2003
2010.[45] ESAs Planck spacecraft returned more detailed
results in 2013-2015.
WMAPs measurements played the key role in establishing the Standard Model of Cosmology, namely
the Lambda-CDM model, which posits a dark energydominated at universe, supplemented by dark matter
and atoms with density uctuations seeded by a Gaussian, Dark matter map of KiDS survey region (region G12).[50]
adiabatic, nearly scale invariant process. Its basic properties are determined by six adjustable parameters: dark Gravitational lensing observations of galaxy clusters almatter density, baryon (atom) density, the universes age low direct estimates of the gravitational mass based on its

2 OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE

eect on light coming from background galaxies, since

large collections of matter (dark or otherwise) gravitationally deect light. In clusters such as Abell 1689,
lensing observations conrm the presence of considerably more mass than is indicated by the clusters light.
In the Bullet Cluster, lensing observations show that
much of the lensing mass is separated from the X-rayemitting baryonic mass. In July 2012, lensing observations were used to identify a lament of dark matter
between two clusters of galaxies, as cosmological simulations predicted.[51]

contributions to the rotation curves.[17]

Rotation curves for some elliptical galaxies do display low
velocities for outlying stars (tracked for example by the
motion of embedded planetary nebulae). A dark-matter
compliant hypothesis proposes that some stars may have
been torn by tidal forces from disk-galaxy mergers from
their original galaxies during the rst close passage and
put on outgoing trajectories, explaining the low velocities of the remaining stars even in the presence of a
halo.[17][53]

In August 2016, astronomers reported that Dragony

44, an ultra diuse galaxy (UDG) with the mass of the 2.2 Velocity dispersions of galaxies
Milky Way galaxy, but with nearly no discernable stars or
galactic structure, may be made almost entirely of dark
Velocity dispersion estimates of elliptical galaxies,[54]
matter.[18][19][20]
with some exceptions, generally indicate a relatively high
dark matter content.

2.1

Galaxy rotation curves

Velocity

Diuse interstellar gas measurements of galactic edges

indicate missing ordinary matter beyond the visible
boundary, but those galaxies are virialized (i.e., gravitaMain article: Galaxy rotation curve
A galaxy rotation curve is a plot of the orbital veloci- tionally bound and orbiting each other with velocities that
correspond to predicted orbital velocities of general relativity) up to ten times their visible radii.[55] This has the
B
eect of pushing up the dark matter as a fraction of the
total matter from 50% as measured by Rubin to the now
accepted value of nearly 95%.
Dark matter seems to be a small component or absent
in some places. Globular clusters show little evidence of
A
dark matter.[56] Star velocity proles seemed to indicate
a concentration of dark matter in the disk of the Milky
Way. It now appears, however, that the high concentration of baryonic matter in the disk (especially in the inDistance
terstellar medium) can account for this motion. Galaxy
Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and ob- mass and light proles appear to not match. The typical
served (B). Dark matter can explain the 'at' appearance of the model for dark matter galaxies is a smooth, spherical disvelocity curve out to a large radius
tribution in virialized halos. This avoids small-scale (stellar) dynamical eects. A 2006 study explained the warp
ties (i.e., the speeds) of visible stars or gas in that galaxy in the Milky Ways disk by the interaction of the Large
versus their radial distance from that galaxys center. and Small Magellanic Clouds and the 20-fold increase in
The rotational/orbital speed of galaxies/stars does not de- predicted mass from dark matter.[57]
cline with distance, unlike other orbital systems such as In 2005, astronomers claimed to have discovered a galaxy
stars/planets and planets/moons that also have most of
made almost entirely of dark matter, 50 million light
their mass at the centre. In the latter cases, this reects years away in the Virgo Cluster, which was named
the mass distributions within those systems. The mass VIRGOHI21.[58] Unusually, VIRGOHI21 does not apobservations for galaxies based on the light that they emit pear to contain visible stars: it was discovered with radio
are far too low to explain the velocity observations. The frequency observations of hydrogen. Based on rotation
dark matter hypothesis accounts for the missing mass, ex- proles, scientists estimate that this object contains applaining the anomaly.[31]
proximately 1000 times more dark matter than hydrogen
A universal rotation curve can be expressed as the sum of
an exponential distribution of visible matter that tapers to
zero with distance from the center, and a spherical dark
matter halo with a at core of radius r0 and density 0 =
4.5 102 (r0 /kpc)2/3 Mpc3 .[52]

and has a mass of about 1/10 that of the Milky Way. The
Milky Way is estimated to have roughly 10 times as much
dark matter as ordinary matter. Models of the Big Bang
and structure formation suggested that such dark galaxies
should be very common, but VIRGOHI21 was the rst to
Low-surface-brightness (LSB) galaxies have a much be detected.
larger visible mass decit than others. This property sim- The velocity proles of some galaxies such as NGC 3379
plies the disentanglement of the dark and visible matter indicate an absence of dark matter.[59]

2.3

2.3

Galaxy clusters and gravitational lensing

Galaxy clusters and gravitational lensing

Dark matter is invisible. Based on the eect of gravitational

lensing, a ring of dark matter has been inferred in this image
of a galaxy cluster (CL0024+17) and has been represented in
blue.[61]
Strong gravitational lensing as observed by the Hubble Space
Telescope in Abell 1689 indicates the presence of dark matter
enlarge the image to see the lensing arcs.

Gravity acts as a lens to bend the light from a more distant

source (such as a quasar) around a massive object (such
as a cluster of galaxies) lying between the source and the
Clusters of galaxies are particularly important for dark observer in accordance with general relativity.
matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three
Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background
independent ways:
galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such
From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many
distant clusters including Abell 1689.[62] By measuring
within clusters
the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening clus From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. ter can be obtained. In the dozens of cases where this
From the X-ray energy spectrum and ux, the gas has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained corretemperature and density can be estimated, hence spond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of
giving the pressure: assuming pressure and grav- clusters.[63]
ity balance determines the clusters mass prole.
Many Chandra X-ray Observatory experiments use Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions
this technique to independently determine cluster of galaxies, using statistical analyses from vast galaxy surmasses. These observations generally indicate that veys. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the
baryonic mass is approximately 1215 percent, in adjacent background galaxies, astrophysicists can characreasonable agreement with the Planck spacecraft terize the mean distribution of dark matter. The mass-tolight ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted
cosmic average of 15.516 percent.[60]
by other large-scale structure measurements.[64]
Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on
observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity). There are
two types of lensing: strong lensing produces multiple images or giant arcs near the cluster core, while
weak lensing is observed as small shape distortions
around the outer regions. Multiple Hubble space
telescope projects have used this method to measure
cluster masses.

Galaxy cluster Abell 2029 comprises thousands of galaxies enveloped in a cloud of hot gas and dark matter equivalent to more than 1014 M. At the center of this cluster
is an enormous elliptical galaxy likely formed from many
smaller galaxies.[65]

The most direct observational evidence comes from the

Bullet Cluster. In most regions dark and visible matter are
found together,[66] due to their gravitational attraction.
In the Bullet Cluster however, the two matter types split
apart, due to a past collision between two smaller clusGenerally, these three methods are in reasonable agree- ters. Electromagnetic interactions between gas particles
ment that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approx- has caused the gas to slow and concentrate near the point
imately 5 to 1.
of impact. The galaxies, stars and dark matter continued

2 OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE

The cosmic microwave background by WMAP

forms of matter have dierent eects.

The Bullet Cluster: HST image with overlays. The total projected
mass distribution reconstructed from strong and weak gravitational lensing is shown in blue, while the X-ray emitting hot gas
observed with Chandra is shown in red.

The spectrum shows a large rst peak and smaller successive peaks.[45] The rst peak mostly shows the density of
baryonic matter, while the third peak relates mostly to the
density of dark matter, measuring the density of matter
and the density of atoms.

through with negligible collisions. Lensing observations

show two dark matter peaks near the galaxy peaks, as expected in dark matter theory. Since the gas peaks contain 2.5 Sky surveys and baryon acoustic oscilmore ordinary matter than the stars, modied-gravity thelations
ories should show the lensing peaks near the gas peaks,
contrary to the observations.
Main article: Baryon acoustic oscillations
X-ray observations show that much of the luminous matter (in the form of 107 108 Kelvin[67] gas or plasma) The early universes acoustic oscillations in the photonis concentrated in the clusters center. Weak gravita- baryon uid are observed as the prominent acoustic peaks
tional lensing observations show that much dark matter in the CMB spectrum. This set up a preferred length scale
resides outside the central region. Unlike galactic rota- for baryons in the early universe which is determined as
tion curves, this evidence is independent of the details 147 megaparsec (comoving) by the Planck spacecraft.
of Newtonian gravity, directly supporting dark matter.[67] As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after
Dark matters observed behavior constrains whether and recombination, the eect is much weaker in the galaxy
how much it scatters o other dark matter particles, quan- distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as
tied as its self-interaction cross section. If dark mat- a subtle (~ 1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to
ter has no pressure, it can be described as a perfect be separated by 147 Mpc, rather than 130 or 160 Mpc,
uid that has no damping.[68] The distribution of mass called the BAO feature. This feature was predicted thein galaxy clusters has been used to argue both for[69][70] oretically in the 1990s and then discovered in 2005, in
and against[71] the signicance of self-interaction.
two large galaxy redshift surveys, the Sloan Digital Sky
[74]
ComAn ongoing survey using the Subaru Telescope uses weak Survey and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.
bining
the
CMB
observations
with
BAO
measurements
lensing to analyze background light, bent by dark matter,
to determine the statistical distribution of dark matter in from galaxy redshift surveys provides a precise estimate
the foreground. The survey studies galaxies more than a of the Hubble constant and the average matter density in
[39]
billion light-years distant, across an area greater than a the Universe.
thousand square degrees (about one fortieth of the entire
sky).[72][73]

2.6 Redshift-space distortions

2.4

Cosmic microwave background

Main article: Cosmic microwave background

Angular CMB uctuations provide evidence for dark
matter. The typical angular scales of CMB oscillations, measured as the power spectrum of the CMB
anisotropies, reveal the dierent eects of baryonic and
dark matter. Ordinary matter interacts strongly via radiation whereas dark matter particles (WIMPs) do not; both
aect the oscillations by way of their gravity, so the two

Large galaxy redshift surveys may be used to make a

three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution. These
maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed redshifts; the redshift contains a
contribution from the galaxys so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term.
On average, superclusters are expanding but more slowly
than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are
expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities

7
towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster
have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This eect
causes superclusters to appear squashed in the radial
direction, and likewise voids are stretched"; angular positions are unaected. The eect is not detectable for any
one structure since the true shape is not known, but can
be measured by averaging over many structures assuming
we are not at a special location in the Universe.
The eect was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in
1987, and rst decisively measured in 2001 by the 2dF
Galaxy Redshift Survey.[75] Results are in agreement with
the Lambda-CDM model.

2.7

Type Ia supernova distance measurements

Main article: Type Ia supernova

Type Ia supernovae can be used as "standard candles" to
measure extragalactic distances. Extensive data sets of
these supernovae can be used to constrain cosmological
models.[76] They constrain the dark energy density =
~0.713 for a at, Lambda CDM universe and the parameter w for a quintessence model. The results are roughly
consistent with those derived from the WMAP observations and further constrain the Lambda CDM model and
(indirectly) dark matter.[39]

2.8

Lyman-alpha forest

Main article: Lyman-alpha forest

3D map of the large-scale distribution of dark matter, reconstructed from measurements of weak gravitational lensing with
the Hubble Space Telescope.[78]

gin to light up as baryonic matter heats up through gravitational contraction and approaches hydrostatic pressure
balance.
CMB anisotropy measurements x models in which most
matter is dark. Dark matter also closes gaps in models of
large-scale structure. The dark matter hypothesis corresponds with statistical surveys of the visible structure and
precisely to CMB predictions.
Initially, baryonic matters post-Big Bang temperature
and pressure were too high to collapse and form smaller
structures, such as stars, via the Jeans instability. The
gravity from dark matter increases the compaction force,
allowing the formation of these structures.
Computer simulations of billions of dark matter
particles[79] seem to conrm that the cold dark matter
model of structure formation is consistent with the
structures observed through galaxy surveys, such as
the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and 2dF Galaxy Redshift
Survey, as well as observations of the Lyman-alpha
forest.

In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is

the sum of the absorption lines arising from the Lymanalpha transition of neutral hydrogen in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars. Lyman-alpha forest observations can also constrain cosmological models.[77] These Tensions separate observations and simulations. Obserconstraints agree with those obtained from WMAP data. vations have turned up 90-99% fewer small galaxies than
permitted by dark matter-based predictions.[80][81] In addition, simulations predict dark matter distributions with
2.9 Structure formation
a dense cusp near galactic centers, but the observed halos
are smoother than predicted.
Main article: Structure formation
Structure formation refers to the serial transformations
of the universe following the Big Bang. Prior to structure
formation, e.g., Friedmann cosmology solutions to gen- 3 Composition
eral relativity describe a homogeneous universe. Later,
small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the ho- Warning: Page using Template:No footnotes with
mogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger struc- unknown parameter reason (this message is shown
only in preview).
tures.
Observations suggest that structure formation proceeds
hierarchically, with the smallest structures collapsing The composition of dark matter remains uncertain. Posrst, followed by galaxies and then galaxy clusters. As sibilities include dense baryonic (interacts with electrothe structures collapse in the evolving universe, they be- magnetic force) matter and non-baryonic matter (inter-

3 COMPOSITION

acts with its surroundings only through gravity).

3.1

Baryonic vs. nonbaryonic matter

Fermi-LAT observations of dwarf galaxies provide new insights

on dark matter.

3.1.1

Baryonic matter

Baryonic matter is made of baryons (protons and

neutrons) that make up stars and planets. It also encompasses less common black holes, neutron stars, faint old
white dwarfs and brown dwarfs, collectively known as
massive compact halo objects (MACHOs).[82]
Multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark
matter is not made of baryons:
Sucient diuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars.
The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed abundance of the chemical elements;[83][84] agreement with observed abundances
requires that baryonic matter makes up between 4
5% of the universes critical density. In contrast,
large-scale structure and other observations indicate
that the total matter density is about 30% of the critical density (with dark energy providing the remaining 70%).

3.1.2 Non-baryonic matter

Candidates for nonbaryonic dark matter are hypothetical
particles such as axions or supersymmetric particles. The
three neutrino types already observed are indeed abundant, and dark, and matter, but because their individual
masses however uncertain they may be are almost certainly tiny, they can only supply a small fraction of dark
matter, due to limits derived from large-scale structure
and high-redshift galaxies.[91]
Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic matter did not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe ("Big Bang nucleosynthesis")[13] and so its presence
is revealed only via its gravitational eects. In addition,
if the particles of which it is composed are supersymmetric, they can undergo annihilation interactions with themselves, possibly resulting in observable by-products such
as gamma rays and neutrinos (indirect detection).[91]

3.2 Classication: cold/warm/hot

Dark matter can be divided into cold, warm and hot
categories.[92] These categories refer to velocity rather
than an actual temperature, indicating how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the
early universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion this is an important distance called the "free
streaming length" (FSL). Primordial density uctuations
smaller than this length get washed out as particles spread
from overdense to underdense regions, while larger uctuations are unaected; therefore this length sets a minimum scale for later structure formation. The categories
are set with respect to the size of a protogalaxy (an object that later evolves into a dwarf galaxy): dark matter
particles are classied as cold, warm, or hot according as
their FSL; much smaller (cold), similar (warm), or much
larger (hot) than a protogalaxy.[93][94]
Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of mixed
dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy.

Cold dark matter leads to a bottom-up formation of

structure while hot dark matter would result in a toplatter is excluded by high Astronomical searches for gravitational microlens- down formation scenario; the
[17]
redshift
galaxy
observations.
ing in the Milky Way found that at most a small
fraction of the dark matter may be in dark, compact,
conventional objects (MACHOs, etc.); the excluded
3.2.1 Alternative denitions
range of object masses is from half the Earths mass
up to 30 solar masses, which covers nearly all the
These categories also correspond to uctuation spectrum
plausible candidates.[85][86][87][88][89][90]
eects and the interval following the Big Bang at which
each type became non-relativistic. Davis et al. wrote in
Detailed analysis of the small irregularities
1985:
(anisotropies) in the cosmic microwave background
observed by WMAP and Planck shows that around
ve-sixths of the total matter is in a form that
Candidate particles can be grouped into
interacts signicantly with ordinary matter or
three categories on the basis of their eect on
photons only through gravitational eects.
the uctuation spectrum (Bond et al. 1983). If

3.4

Warm dark matter

the dark matter is composed of abundant light
particles which remain relativistic until shortly
before recombination, then it may be termed
hot. The best candidate for hot dark matter is a neutrino ... A second possibility is
for the dark matter particles to interact more
weakly than neutrinos, to be less abundant, and
to have a mass of order 1 keV. Such particles
are termed warm dark matter, because they
have lower thermal velocities than massive neutrinos ... there are at present few candidate
particles which t this description. Gravitinos
and photinos have been suggested (Pagels and
Primack 1982; Bond, Szalay and Turner 1982)
... Any particles which became nonrelativistic
very early, and so were able to diuse a negligible distance, are termed cold dark matter
(CDM). There are many candidates for CDM
including supersymmetric particles.[95]

9
The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown. Possibilities range from large objects like MACHOs (such as
black holes[96] ) or RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown
dwarfs), to new particles such as WIMPs and axions.
Studies of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and gravitational
lensing convinced most cosmologists[17][97][98][99][100][101]
that MACHOs[97][99] cannot make up more than a small
fraction of dark matter.[13][97] According to A. Peter: "...
the only really plausible dark-matter candidates are new
particles.[98]
The 1997 DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor
DAMA/LIBRA in 2013, claimed to directly detect dark
matter particles passing through the Earth, but many researchers remain skeptical, as negative results from similar experiments seem incompatible with the DAMA results.

Many supersymmetric models oer dark matter candidates in the form of the WIMPy Lightest Supersymmetric Particle (LSP).[102] Separately, heavy sterile neutrinos
Another approximate dividing line is that warm dark exist in non-supersymmetric extensions to the standard
matter became non-relativistic when the universe was ap- model that explain the small neutrino mass through the
proximately 1 year old and 1 millionth of its present size seesaw mechanism.
and in the radiation-dominated era (photons and neutrinos), with a photon temperature 2.7 million K. Standard physical cosmology gives the particle horizon size 3.4 Warm dark matter
as 2ct (speed of light multiplied by time) in the radiationdominated era, thus 2 light-years. A region of this size Main article: Warm dark matter
would expand to 2 million light years today (absent structure formation). The actual FSL is roughly 5 times the
above length, since it continues to grow slowly as parti- Warm dark matter refers to particles with an FSL comcle velocities decrease inversely with the scale factor af- parable to the size of a protogalaxy. Predictions based
ter they become non-relativistic. In this example the FSL on warm dark matter are similar to those for cold dark
would correspond to 10 million light-years or 3 Mpc to- matter on large scales, but with less small-scale density
day, around the size containing an average large galaxy. perturbations. This reduces the predicted abundance of
dwarf galaxies and may lead to lower density of dark matThe 2.7 million K photon temperature gives a typical pho- ter in the central parts of large galaxies; some researchers
ton energy of 250 electron-volts, thereby setting a typi- consider this to be a better t to observations. A challenge
cal mass scale for warm dark matter: particles much for this model is the lack of particle candidates with the
more massive than this, such as GeV TeV mass WIMPs, required mass ~ 300 eV to 3000 eV.
would become non-relativistic much earlier than 1 year
after the Big Bang and thus have FSLs much smaller than No known particles can be categorized as warm dark
a protogalaxy, making them cold. Conversely, much matter. A postulated candidate is the sterile neutrino: a
lighter particles, such as neutrinos with masses of only a heavier, slower form of neutrino that does not interact
few eV, have FSLs much larger than a protogalaxy, thus through the weak force, unlike other neutrinos. Some
modied gravity theories, such as scalar-tensor-vector
qualifying them as hot.
gravity, require warm dark matter to make their equations work.

3.3

Cold dark matter

Main article: Cold dark matter

3.5 Hot dark matter

Cold dark matter oers the simplest explanation for

most cosmological observations. It is dark matter composed of constituents with an FSL much smaller than a
protogalaxy. This is the focus for dark matter research,
as hot dark matter does not seem to be capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle
candidates slowed early.

Main article: Hot dark matter

Hot dark matter consists of particles whose FSL is
much larger than the size of a protogalaxy. The neutrino
qualies as such particle. They were discovered independently, long before the hunt for dark matter: they were
postulated in 1930, and detected in 1956. Neutrinos

10

4 DETECTION (OF WIMPS OR AXIONS)

mass is less than 106 that of an electron. Neutrinos interact with normal matter only via gravity and the weak
force, making them dicult to detect (the weak force
only works over a small distance, thus a neutrino triggers
a weak force event only if it hits a nucleus head-on). This
makes them 'weakly interacting light particles (WILPs),
as opposed to WIMPs.

These experiments mostly use either cryogenic or noble liquid detector technologies. Cryogenic detectors operating at temperatures below 100mK, detect the heat
produced when a particle hits an atom in a crystal absorber such as germanium. Noble liquid detectors detect scintillation produced by a particle collision in liquid xenon or argon. Cryogenic detector experiments
include: CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, EURECA.
Noble liquid experiments include ZEPLIN, XENON,
DEAP, ArDM, WARP, DarkSide, PandaX, and LUX,
the Large Underground Xenon experiment. Both of these
techniques distinguish background particles (that scatter o electrons) from dark matter particles (that scatter o nuclei). Other experiments include SIMPLE and
PICASSO.

The three known avours of neutrinos are the electron,

muon, and tau. Their masses are slightly dierent. Neutrinos oscillate among the avours as they move. It is hard
to determine an exact upper bound on the collective average mass of the three neutrinos (or for any of the three
individually). For example, if the average neutrino mass
were over 50 eV/c2 (less than 105 of the mass of an electron), the universe would collapse. CMB data and other
methods indicate that their average mass probably does The DAMA/NaI, DAMA/LIBRA experiments detected
not exceed 0.3 eV/c2 . Thus, observed neutrinos cannot an annual modulation in the event rate[106] that they claim
explain dark matter.[103]
is due to dark matter. (As the Earth orbits the Sun, the
Because galaxy-size density uctuations get washed out velocity of the detector relative to the dark matter halo
by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies that the rst will vary by a small amount). This claim is so far ununreconciled with negative results of other
objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, conrmed and
[107]
experiments.
which then fragment into galaxies. Deep-eld observations show instead that galaxies formed rst, followed by Directional detection is a search strategy based on the
clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together.
motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center.[108][109][110][111]

Detection (of WIMPS or Axions)

A low pressure time projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain
WIMP-nucleus kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun is travelling (roughly towards
Cygnus) may then be separated from background, which
should be isotropic. Directional dark matter experiments
include DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC.

If dark matter is made up of WIMPs, then millions, possibly billions, of WIMPs must pass through every square
centimeter of the Earth each second.[104][105] Many experiments aim to test this hypothesis. Although WIMPs
are popular search candidates,[17] the Axion Dark Matter
eXperiment (ADMX) searches for axions. Another can4.1.1 Results
didate is heavy hidden sector particles that only interact
with ordinary matter via gravity.
In 2009, CDMS researchers reported two possible WIMP
These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct candidate events. They estimate that the probability that
detection experiments, which search for the scattering of these events are due to background (neutrons or misidendark matter particles o atomic nuclei within a detec- tied beta or gamma events) is 23%, and conclude this
tor; and indirect detection, which look for the products analysis cannot be interpreted as signicant evidence for
of WIMP annihilations.[91]
WIMP interactions, but we cannot reject either event as
signal.[112]
In 2011, researchers using the CRESST detectors presented evidence of 67 collisions occurring in detector
crystals from subatomic particles.[113] They calculated the
For more details on this topic, see Weakly interacting probability that all were caused by known sources of inmassive particles Experimental detection.
terference/contamination was 1 in 105 .

4.1

Direct detection

Direct detection experiments operate deep underground

to reduce the interference from cosmic rays. Detectors
include the Stawell mine, the Soudan mine, the SNOLAB
underground laboratory at Sudbury, the Gran Sasso National Laboratory, the Canfranc Underground Laboratory, the Boulby Underground Laboratory, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory and the
Particle and Astrophysical Xenon Detector.

4.2 Indirect detection

Indirect detection experiments search for the products
of WIMP annihilation/decay. If WIMPs are Majorana
particles (their own antiparticle) then two WIMPs could
annihilate to produce gamma rays or Standard Model
particle-antiparticle pairs. If the WIMP is unstable,

11
4.2.1 Results
The EGRET gamma ray telescope observed more gamma
rays in 2008 than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded that this was most likely due to incorrect
estimation of the telescopes sensitivity.[122]

Collage of six cluster collisions with dark matter maps. The clusters were observed in a study of how dark matter in clusters of
galaxies behaves when the clusters collide.[114]

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for

similar gamma rays.[123] In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from its Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the
Milky Way.[124] WIMP annihilation was seen as the most
probable explanation.[125]
At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes
have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf
spheroidal galaxies[126] and in clusters of galaxies.[127]
The PAMELA experiment (launched 2006) detected excess positrons. They could be from dark matter annihilation or from pulsars. No excess antiprotons were
observed.[128]
In 2013 results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess
high-energy cosmic rays that could be due to dark matter
annihilation.[129][130][131][132][133][134]

Video about the potential gamma-ray detection of dark matter

annihilation around supermassive black holes. (Duration 3:13,
also see le description.)

WIMPs could decay into standard model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly
through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons
emanating from high density regions. The detection of
such a signal is not conclusive evidence, as the sources of
gamma ray production are not fully understood.[17][91]
A few of the WIMPs passing through the Sun or Earth
may scatter o atoms and lose energy. Thus WIMPs
may accumulate at the center of these bodies, increasing the chance of collision/annihilation. This could
produce a distinctive signal in the form of high-energy
neutrinos.[115] Such a signal would be strong indirect
proof of WIMP dark matter.[17] High-energy neutrino
telescopes such as AMANDA, IceCube and ANTARES
are searching for this signal.[116]
WIMP annihilation from the Milky Way galaxy as a
whole may also be detected in the form of various annihilation products.[117] The Galactic Center is a particularly
good place to look because the density of dark matter may
be higher there.[118]
The detection by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves, opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way. Dark matter seems to have no effects except gravitational, and so the actual observation
of gravitational waves provides scientists with a new way
of observing the phenomenon.[119][120][121]

5 Synthesis
An alternative approach to the detection of WIMPs in
nature is to produce them in a laboratory. Experiments
with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to
detect WIMPs produced in collisions of the LHC proton
beams. Because a WIMP has negligible interaction with
matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts
of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected.[135] These experiments could show that
WIMPs can be formed, but a direct detection experiment
must still show that they exist in sucient numbers to account for dark matter.

6 Alternative theories
6.1 Mass in extra dimensions
In some multidimensional theories, the force of gravity is
the only force with eect across all dimensions.[136] This
explains the relative weakness of gravity compared to the
other forces of nature that cannot cross into extra dimensions. In that case, dark matter could exist in a Hidden
Valley in other dimensions that only interact with the
matter in our dimensions through gravity. That dark matter could potentially aggregate in the same way as ordinary matter, forming other-dimensional galaxies.[12][137]

12

6.2

9 NOTES

Topological defects

Dark matter could consist of primordial defects (birth

defects) in the topology of quantum elds, which would
contain energy and therefore gravitate. This hypothesis
may be investigated by the use of an orbital network of
atomic clocks that would register the passage of topological defects by changes to clock synchronization. The
Global Positioning System may be able to operate as such
a network.[138]

6.4 Spacetime fractality

Applying relativity to fractal, non-dierentiable spacetime, Nottale suggests that potential energy may arise
due to the fractality of spacetime, which would account
for the missing mass-energy observed at cosmological
scales.[143][144]

7 In popular culture
Main article: Dark matter in ction

6.3

Modied gravity

Some theories modify the laws of gravity. The earliest

was Mordehai Milgrom's Modied Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) in 1983, which adjusts Newtons laws to increase gravitational eld strength where gravitational acceleration becomes tiny (such as near the rim of a galaxy).
It had some success explaining the rotational velocity
curves of elliptical and dwarf elliptical galaxies that it was
designed to match, but fails on galaxy cluster gravitational
lensing. MOND was not relativistic: it was an adjustment of the Newtonian account. Attempts were made
to bring MOND into conformity with general relativity; this spawned competing MOND-based hypotheses
including TeVeS, MOG or STV gravity, and the phenomenological covariant approach.[139]
In 2007, John Moat proposed a modied gravity hypothesis based on nonsymmetric gravitational theory
(NGT) that claims to account for the behavior of colliding galaxies.[140] This model requires the presence of nonrelativistic neutrinos or other cold dark matter, to work.
Another proposal uses a gravitational backreaction from
a theory that explains gravitational force between objects
as an action, a reaction and then a back-reaction. Thus,
an object A aects an object B, and the object B then reaects object A, and so on, creating a feedback loop that
strengthens gravity.[141]
In 2008, a group proposed "dark uid", a modication of
large-scale gravity. It hypothesized that attractive gravitational eects are instead a side-eect of dark energy.
Dark uid combines dark matter and dark energy in a
single energy eld that produces dierent eects at different scales. This treatment is a simplication of a previous uid-like model called the generalized Chaplygin gas
model in which the whole of spacetime is a compressible
gas.[142] Dark uid can be compared to an atmospheric
system. Atmospheric pressure causes air to expand and
air regions can collapse to form clouds. In the same way,
the dark uid might generally disperse, while collecting
around galaxies.[142]

Mention of dark matter is made in works of ction. In

such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical
or magical properties. Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in
physics and cosmology.

8 See also
Chameleon particle
Conformal gravity
Dark electromagnetism
DEAP, a dark matter experiment
DAMPE, a space mission
General Antiparticle Spectrometer
Illustris project, astrophysical simulations
Light dark matter
Mirror matter
Multidark, a research program
Scalar eld dark matter
Self-interacting dark matter
SIMP, hypothetical particles of dark matter
Unparticle physics

9 Notes
[1] Since dark energy, by convention, does not count as matter, this is 26.8/(4.9 + 26.8)=0.845

13

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External links

Dark matter at DMOZ

Dark matter (Astronomy) at Encyclopdia Britannica
What is dark matter? at cosmosmagazine.com
The Dark Matter Crisis 18 August 2010 by Pavel
Kroupa, posted in General
The European astroparticle physics network
Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics
NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter (Press
release). NASA. 21 August 2006.
Tuttle, Kelen (22 August 2006). Dark Matter Observed. SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) Today.
Astronomers claim rst 'dark galaxy' nd. New
Scientist. 23 February 2005.
Sample, Ian (17 December 2009). Dark Matter
Detected. London: Guardian. Retrieved 1 May
2010.
Video lecture on dark matter by Scott Tremaine,
IAS professor
Science Daily story Astronomers Doubts About
the Dark Side ...
Gray, Meghan; Merrield, Mike; Copeland, Ed
(2010). Dark Matter. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran
for the University of Nottingham.

20

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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Wiki62838351936, MoneyMonkey112, Aidos the great, Trefoily+, ZeroDaVinci, FabulousFerd, EeeveeeFrost, Kuey, RichardLewis41,
Bender the Bot, J.Kaesser, Grigorii-Torkel, Davidfpaul, PowerLien, Stevejb904, Magicmesh48 and Anonymous: 1364

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File:1e0657_scale.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/1e0657_scale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Chandra X-Ray Observatory: 1E 0657-56 Original artist: NASA/CXC/M. Weiss
File:Artists_impression_of_the_expected_dark_matter_distribution_around_the_Milky_Way.ogv
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_the_expected_dark_matter_distribution_
around_the_Milky_Way.ogv License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: ESO Original artist: ESO/L. Calada
File:CL0024+17.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/CL0024%2B17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2007/17/image/a/ (direct link) Original artist: NASA, ESA, M.J. Jee and H.
Ford (Johns Hopkins University)
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Original artist: NASA/ESA/Richard Massey (California Institute of Technology)
File:Collage_of_six_cluster_collisions_with_dark_matter_maps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/
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images/heic1506a/ Original artist: NASA, ESA, D. Harvey (cole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Switzerland), R. Massey (Durham
University, UK), the Hubble SM4 ERO Team, ST-ECF, ESO, D. Coe (STScI), J. Merten (Heidelberg/Bologna), HST Frontier Fields,
Harald Ebeling(University of Hawaii at Manoa), Jean-Paul Kneib (LAM)and Johan Richard (Caltech, USA)
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File:Dark_matter_map_of_KiDS_survey_region_(region_G12).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/
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domain Contributors: Goddard Multimedia Original artist: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
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File:Gravitationell-lins-4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Gravitationell-lins-4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2003/01/image/a Original artist: NASA, N. Benitez
(JHU), T. Broadhurst (Racah Institute of Physics/The Hebrew University), H. Ford (JHU), M. Clampin (STScI),G. Hartig (STScI), G.
Illingworth (UCO/Lick Observatory), the ACS Science Team and ESA
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File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_
model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based o of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan.
Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute.
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