Taking on the

Technical
Challenges of Sour
Gas Processing
Pam Boschee, Oil and Gas Facilities Senior Editor

Gassco operates the Norsea gas terminal along the North Sea coast and a network of gas pipelines that transport the
associated gas from North Sea oil platforms to onshore processing plants. Photo courtesy of Gassco.

December 2014 Oil and Gas Facilities

21

evelopments in the processing of sour gas were

the topics of several papers presented at the 2014
Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition
and Conference (ADIPEC) last month. Sour
gas reserves, historically left undeveloped because of the
technical challenges and cost involved in their extraction
and processing, are being revisited as potential sources of
supply in areas with high demand for natural gas. Only
in recent years has technology advanced to an extent that
makes processing of sour gas with high carbon dioxide
(CO2) andhydrogen sulfide (H2S) feasible.
The Middle East region is particularly interested in
tapping its challenging gas reserves, of which 60% are
sour. The United Arab Emirates annual rate of natural
gas consumption is expected to increase from the current
2.8Tcf to 5.2 Tcf by 2015, and 6.3 Tcf by 2020. The areas
swift demographic and economic growth in the past
decades has resulted in a rapidly expanding electricity grid
that relies on power generated by natural gas-fired facilities.
The demand for electricity is also outpacing the natural gas
supplies in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
The USD 10 billion Shah field gas project in UAE, the
largest sour gas project in the world, is nearing completion
with approximately 98% of the development done. The
field was discovered in the 1960s, but was not considered
technically feasible to develop.
Abu Dhabi Gas Development Company (Al Hosn
Gas), a joint venture partnership between ADNOC and
Occidental Petroleum, aims to extract 1 billion scf/D of well
fluid containing 23% H2S and 10% CO2 from the Shah field.
The plant will provide approximately 500 million scf/D of
clean natural gas for the Abu Dhabi market, 4,400 tons per
day of natural gas liquids, 33,000 B/D of condensate, and
9,200 tons per day of elemental sulfur for agricultural and
industrialuses.
Other sour gas fields are also being evaluated or
developed. The Bab sour gas field in the UAE is expected to
start production in 2020. The Hail field in the UAE is being
evaluated, and ongoing projects include the South Gas field
in Iraq, the Mabrouk field in Oman, and the Manifa field in
Saudi Arabia.

Technical Challenges

H2S in the gas stream is toxic and flammable. Safety training

for personnel is a critical requirement to prevent injuries and
deaths. It can damage drilling equipment, and during the
production and transportation of the natural gas, H2S and
CO2 can cause corrosion in the pipelines. Also, the removal
of CO2 from the gas stream is necessary because high
concentrations decrease the energy yielded in combustion.
For transportation of liquefied natural gas, the concentrations
of CO2 must be less than 50 parts per million volume (ppmv)
to prevent blockage of flowlines and other operational
problems that result when CO2 freezes during the chilling of
the gas to approximately 160.

22

Oil and Gas Facilities December 2014

Gas out
Vent

Gas in

Sodium
hydroxide
Nutrients

Water

Flash gas

Bleed

Air
Absorption Flash vessel
section
(optional)

Reactor
section

Sulfur
Sulfur recovery
section

Fig. 1The Thiopaq O&G desulfurization process uses naturally

occuring Thiobacillus bacteria to oxidize hydrogen sulfide to
elemental sulfur. Source: Paqell.

Sulfur Removal and Recovery

Generally, H2S removal from natural gas with subsequent

sulfur recovery is performed in amine and Claus plants.
These processes are considered economical for quantities
of sulfur greater than 50 ton/day. In a paper presented at
ADIPEC, Hauwert (2014) reviewed processes for small-scale
sulfur recovery from sour associated gas, including liquid
reduction/oxidation (redox), Thiopaq O&G, CrystaSulf,
and direct catalytic oxidation. He described the processes as
being applicable for removal of sulfur quantities ranging from
1ton per day to 20 tons per day, for direct treatment of highpressure natural gas and low-pressure associated petroleum
gas, and for sulfur recovery from low-pressure acid gas.
Liquid Redox. The liquid redox processes are traditionally
selected for recovery when the sulfur load is too small for the
Claus process.
Redox methods use an alkaline solution with highvalent metal ions, such as vanadium (Stretford process)
and iron (LoCat and SulFerox processes). The metal ions
convert the dissolved H2S into elemental sulfur and are
then regenerated by oxidation with air. The sulfur content is
generally 80% weight (dry) and can be upgraded to 99.5%
by washing and smelting, Hauwert said. Because the process
solution is aqueous with hydrophobic (i.e., repel water) solid
sulfur particles, plugging and foaming may occur and cause
operational problems.
Thiopaq O&G. The process (Fig. 1) uses naturally occurring
bacteria (Thiobacillus) to oxidize H2S to elemental sulfur.
The bacteria consume sodium bisulfide ions formed after the
feed gas is scrubbed with a mildly alkaline sodium hydroxide
solution and excrete elemental sulfur, which is separated
from the circulating solution.
The H2S is removed to ppmv levels, and the produced
sulfur is hydrophilic (i.e., it has an affinity for water) and is
not sticky, which reduces operational issues, such as plugging
of process piping and equipment.

Sweet gas
Lean solution
Absorber

Sour gas

2H2S+SO2

3S+2H2O

Flash gas

Flash
vessel

Slurry
tank

Heated
surge tank

SO2

Sulfur filter
system

Scraped-surface crystallizer

Sulfur

Fig. 2The CrystaSulf process uses a nonaqueous solvent that contains sulfur dioxide. When the solution comes into contact with
hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur and water are formed. Source: GTC Technology.

Developed in the 1990s by Paques for desulfurization

of biogas, the Thiopaq O&G process was modified by
collaboration with Shell Global Solutions for application
at high pressure in oil and gas environments. The first
commercial Thiopaq O&G unit for natural gas was built
in 2002. The process is licensed by Paqell, a joint venture
company of Shell Global Solutions and Paques.

Direct Catalytic Oxidation. TDA Research developed the

process (Fig. 3), which is licensed by GTC Technology.
Applicable to lean acid gas streams, the process converts H2S
directly into sulfur by using a catalyst. The company said it is
effective for sulfur recovery ranging from 0.1 ton per day to
200 tons per day and that the sulfur conversion efficiency is
approximately 90% in a single pass.

CrystaSulf. The Gas Research Institute developed the

process (Fig. 2) in the 1990s for H2S removal from
highpressure gas. Operating similarly to a liquid-phase
Claus process, it uses a nonaqueous hydrocarbon solvent
which contains sulfur dioxide. When the solution comes
into contact with the gas containing the H2S, elemental
sulfur and water are formed, Hauwert said. The sulfur
dissolves in the solvent and is precipitated in a scrapedsurface crystallizer to decrease plugging and foaming.
H2S is reduced to ppmv levels, and for associated
gas applications, no foaming or negative effects from
hydrocarbon condensation are expected. However, for
large,low-pressure gas flows with limited H2S content,
thesolvent can becostly.
Hauwert noted a commercial application of the process
in Germany, where Gassco operates the Norsea gas terminal
along the North Sea coast and a network of gas pipelines
that transport the associated gas from North Sea oil
platforms to onshore processing plants. In 2005, CrystaSulf
was installed at the facility so that the sales gas could meet
a total sulfur specification of 3.3 ppmv and reduce the
amount of scavenger injected for control of H2S on an
offshore platform in the network.

Testing Materials in High

and Ultrahigh Pressures

The presence of acid gases (CO2, H2S, and sulfur) in

production fluids can cause general and localized corrosion,
depending upon the physical and chemical properties of
the fluids. Materials selection for facilities that process the
fluids is generally determined by experience and guidance
bystandards and regulations.
The predication of corrosion rates is better understood
for CO2 than for high-pressure H2S, according to Gabetta
et al. (2014). The authors cite the difficulties in performing
laboratory tests in high-pressure conditions as a contributing
factor for this difference.
As a testing standard, NACE water-based solutions
Aand B are used to simulate production fluids in equilibrium
with H2S gas at 1 bar to assess the sulfide stress cracking
susceptibility of steels. The authors said that the low pH and
chloride in the solutions and the 1 bar testing conditions may
not represent the actual environment in which the materials
are used.
For example, gas mixtures are treated at high pressure
and high temperature at reinjection plants in production
fields that contain high H2S and/or CO2 content. Although

December 2014 Oil and Gas Facilities

23

Recycle for select cases

Treated Gas

Sour gas

Reactor

Condenser

Air

Steam
Sulfur

Boiler feedwater
H2S+O2

S+H2O

Fig. 3The direct catalytic oxidation process is applicable to lean acid gas streams and converts hydrogen sulfide directly into sulfur
by using a catalyst. Source: GTC Technology.

the gas mixture in injection wells is dry, the authors

recommend the consideration of the presence of a small
quantity of water or vapor that could be present as the result
of short periods of upset. In cases where methane, CO2,
and H2S are mixed at high pressure with a small amount of

water, a liquid phase is present and rich in H2S and/or CO2

conditions in which corrosion is likely.
To simulate high and ultrahigh gas pressures, Gabetta
et al. used a high-pressure autoclave (Fig. 4) to test
materials with H2S and gas mixtures at pressures up to

Oil
T=from +25C to +150C
pmax=1000 barg
p=0 barg
p=450 barg

Air
Water pump
Vessel

H2O (pmax=1000 barg)

H2S mixture

Fig. 4An ultrahigh pressure autoclave was used to test the corrosive effects of acid gas at high and ultrahigh pressures. The
materials tested were carbon steel, stainless steel, and corrosion-resistant alloys. Source: Gabetta et al. 2014.

24

Oil and Gas Facilities December 2014

1000bar. The equipment comprised an internal vessel with

a volume of approximately 1.6 liters. The inner volume was
adjustable by pressurization of the water contained in the
externalchamber.
The test materials were held in contact with the
pressurized mixture, with or without water. A H2S/CO2/
methane mixture was used to simulate reinjection conditions.
The autoclave operated at temperatures up to 150C.
Four-point bend beams with dimensions
100202.5mm were tested. The specimens were:
Carbon steel API 5L X52, sour service grade
Carbon steel F22, sour service grade (UNS K21590)
Low-alloy steel API 5CT grade T95 type 1, sour
servicegrade
Austenitic steel type AISI 316L (UNS 31603)
Nickel-based alloys (UNS N008825 and N006625),
including Iconel
A test condition simulated reinjection conditions
(ultrahigh pressure). A small percentage of a water solution
simulating production water was tested at 90C and total
pressure 720 bar. A test to simulate high pressure used
NACE solutions A or B pressurized with H2S gas at 50 bar
or100bar.
The surfaces of the specimens were ground to 600
grit sandpaper. Their intial conditions were examined
bystereomicroscope. Stress levels were applied based on
theactual yield strength of the specimens, except for the
Iconel material, for which the stress was based on the
percentage ofstrain.

The nickel-based alloy (with and without weld) did not

show failure or corrosion. Only a slight change in color of
the sample's surface was observed. Test conditions were at
720bar and 830 bar at 90C.
As sour gas reserves are increasingly targeted for
exploitation, the costs and efficiencies of processing
facilities are a major factor. The authors encourage further
development of testing conditions and methods to close the
gap between field conditions and laboratory tests to improve
materials selections infacilities.OGF

For Further Reading

SPE 171874 Challenges and Achievements in Safe Sampling

and Accurate Analysis of Sour Gas by U. Veerakumar,
J. Josham Al Ali, and A. Abbas, Abu Dhabi Gas Liquefaction.
SPE 171950 Tests in Ultra High Pressure of H2S
by G. Gabetta, Eni, A. Pontarollo and S. Sgorlon,
VeneziaTecnologie.
SPE 171968 Enhancing the Value of Sulphur: Using Sour-toAcid as Field Development Concept by M. Gierman,
M. Lebel, and P. Micone et al., Shell Cansolv.
SPE 172058 Sweetening and Sulfur Recovery of Sour
Associated Gas and Lean Acid Gas in the Middle East
by P. Hauwert, Frames.

Test Results

Tested only in ultrahigh pressure conditions, the carbon

steel API 5L X52 showed some shallow pits on the surface
when water was present. The pits appeared wider when larger
quantities of water were used.
The carbon steel F22 showed diffuse pitting, similar
to cracking, after testing in high pressure and ultrahigh
pressureconditions.
The low-alloy steel API 5CT grade T95 type 1 sample
failed during some high pressure tests, but showed wide
and shallow localized corrosion (no cracks) in the ultrahigh
pressure tests. The authors noted that the results suggested
the NACE solutions were too conservative to simulate highpressure H2S because field conditions are mostly dry or have
low water content.
Measurements of weight loss showed that the corrosion
increased with higher H2S pressure in the NACE solutions.
In the ultrahigh pressure tests, the weight loss was lower, but
increased with a higher content of water.
The austenitic steel type AISI 316L showed surface
cracking in ultrahigh pressure tests with water, and high
pressure tests with NACE solutions at temperatures greater
than 80C and in the presence of chlorides. No general
corrosion was observed.

December 2014 Oil and Gas Facilities

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