Gard Guidance on Freight Containers

Jeroen de Haas

Gard Guidance on Freight Containers

Jeroen de Haas

PREFACE

Preface
Knowledge and learning are key factors to achieve Gards core purpose, which is to help
our Members and clients in the marine industries to manage risk and its consequences.
I am very pleased to present our latest publication, the Gard Guidance on Freight
Containers, which provides comprehensive information about containers as a means of
cargo consolidation and effective transportation.
About 90% of international trade is moved by ocean-going ships and the vast majority of
consumer and semi-finished goods are shipped in containers at sea. The suitability and
quality of the containers themselves, as well as the knowledge and systems to ensure proper
handling, stowage and securing of them on board, is crucial to achieve safe and efficient
transportation. This has become even more pronounced with the tremendous growth in
containership size and corresponding changes in container terminal operations and other
parts of the logistical chain over the past two decades.
I am delighted that Mr. Jeroen de Haas, Managing Director of BMT Surveys (Rotterdam)B.V.
Published by Gard AS

accepted to be the lead author a task for which he was found to be extremely well suited.

Head office: P.O. Box 789 Stoa, NO-4809 Arendal, Norway

Mr. de Haas holds, inter alia, an honors degree in Maritime Sciences from the University

Telephone: +47 37 01 91 00

of Antwerp and is also a qualified maritime officer with combined qualifications as a deck

Facsimile: +47 37 02 48 10

officer and marine engineer. He has been active in the international surveying business

Website: www.gard.no

for more than 25 years and has specialist knowledge in the safe and secure transport of

Email: [email protected]

containers. Apart from applying this knowledge in consultancy work, Mr. de Haas has
provided expert evidence for tribunals and courts in several countries, as well as written

Cover design: Randi Gaughan

Graphic design: Ria van der Graaf, Gerard s-Gravendijk for strictly personal
Printed in The Netherlands by NPN Drukkers, Breda

Copyright
Every effort has been made to contact/obtain approval from the copyright owners of the images used in
this publication and Gard cannot be held liable for any errors and/or omissions in this respect.
Any queries regarding copyright should be forwarded to Gard AS, Arendal, Norway.

numerous expert reports, loss prevention articles and given lectures and practical training
courses to a wide array of stakeholders in the international shipping industry.
Again, this is a publication which is the result of a genuinely collaborative effort between
external experts and Gard staff. I wish to thank all contributors that made this publication
possible. A special mention to Geir Kjebekk and Alf Martin Sandberg who shared the vision
of such a publication and have been deeply involved in seeing it through.
I hope this Guidance will be useful to those involved in the handling of containers, whether
on board or ashore, as well as insurance practitioners who need a good understanding of

2016Gard AS

the risks related to the carriage of containerised goods.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,

Arendal, January 2016

electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise

without the permission of the copyright owner.

Rolf Thore Roppestad

Chief Executive Officer, Gard AS

ISBN 978-82-90344-35-6

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Acknowledgments

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Nico Blaauw, consultant and owner of Blaauw Container Service, for his advice on container
regulations and his time spent in proof reading Chapter 6.

I have received a significant amount of help and advice from many people in writing this
Guidance. The result of their hard work is that the final text is significantly better than it

Onno van Rijswijk of the Dutch Customs Authority, for his advice on container security.

otherwise would have been and I am very grateful for all their input and effort in sharing
their knowledge, time and professional experience with me:

Furthermore, Im grateful for the assistance and valuable advice of my colleagues at BMT
who provided advice within their own particular areas of expertise:

Geir Kjebekk, Master Mariner and Senior Adviser at Gard chaired the project and
coordinated the review of the contents by many other experts at Gard, and provided

Carlos Maenhout of BMT Surveys (Antwerp), MSc. in Naval Architecture and Marine

invaluable input and advice. Geir is also the author of the books last chapter on

Engineering from the University of Ghent and President of the Technical Commission of the

Container Insurance.

International Association for Inland Navigation (IVR) for reviewing the chapters on inland
navigation, ships stability and naval architecture.

Alf Martin Sandberg, Senior Technical Adviser at Gard gave the manuscript a detailed,
critical once-over based on his background as a former class surveyor and his time at Gard

David Hurdle, of BMT Argoss and MSc in Fluid Dynamics from the University of Bristol, for

dealing with a wide range of technical and safety related matters spanning an impressive

reviewing the chapters on waves and ship motions.

career with over 40 years in the maritime industry. Alf is a person who does not take
information at face value and through his attention to detail and challenging questions, he

Rob van Uffelen, Master Mariner and former manager of the dangerous cargo department at

often found some of my errors and made me rethink what I was trying to explain.

P & O Nedlloyd, and later Maersk Line, for reviewing the sections dealing with hazardous cargo.

Gert Uitbeijerse, Master Mariner and retired head of the Global Cargo Care and Research

In addition to the technical assistance that I have received, I would also like to thank the

department at P & O Nedlloyd and later Maersk Line, and currently owner and consultant

following people for their support and assistance and with whom I have worked very closely

at Global Cargo Consultancy Management. Gert brought with him more than 40 years

during the entire period of preparing this Guidance:

of unique experience from container shipping, which cannot be replaced by any form of
written reference material. Gert not only conducted a critical review of the manuscript,

Special thanks go to Randi Gaughan of Gard (UK) Limited, who has proved absolutely

but also provided unlimited access to his files and often pointed to additional sources and

invaluable in editing this manuscript specifically with regard to the language, style and

references.

consistency of the finished product.

The management and supervisors of ECT Delta terminal Rotterdam, in particular Philip

Gerard s-Gravendijk and Ria van der Graaf of strictly personal, who have done

Beesemer, Wim Luck and Jan Theeuwen. With no working experience from a container

a splendid job in improving the readability of this book by creating clear illustrations and

terminal, I felt extremely privileged being able to spend considerable time at the terminal to

a professional layout.

learn in detail about container operations. I was given the rare opportunity, as an external
consultant, to be guided through every corner of the terminal and to carry out in-depth

Lastly, my sincere thanks to Gard for their patience, continued support and confidence in

interviews with many of their professional staff. As a result, I have been able to complete the

this project. I have a learned much and feel privileged to have been surrounded by so many

chapter on container operations with what, I believe, to be a rather unique insight and up to

knowledgeable people who have a real concern for their Members and genuinely care for

date information on the day-to-day operations at a modern container terminal.

safety and people, whether working on board a vessel or ashore.

Raymond Westdorp, planner at APM terminals who kindly read through the chapter on
container terminal operations, providing valuable feedback from the point of view of a major
terminal operator.
Mark van Kins, Operations Manager at CMA CGM (Holland) who provided much inside
information on container operations from a container carriers point of view.

Rotterdam, January 2016

Jeroen de Haas

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

CONTENTS

Contents
The Gard Guidance on Freight Containers covers intermodal transport and the handling
of containers in its widest form, both in terms of operations, geographical differences and
the underlying technology. Although every attempt has been made to be as complete and
correct as possible, there will be occasions or circumstances when containers are being
handled or transported differently to that described in this book.
The first two chapters deal with the historical development of container shipping. This is a
summary of information obtained from various books and articles published on this topic.
For those interested in further reading and in learning the full story of container shipping,
some very interesting and worthwhile books are listed in the Bibliography.
Chapter 3 looks at transport networks and the various ways of shipping containers, which in
addition to seagoing transport also includes barge, rail and road transport.
Container terminals are the pivotal points in container transport and hence a significant part
of this book covers these operations. Particularly the chapters on Planning and Operations
give an insight into the interaction between terminals and vessel operations, and how the
planning is carried out.
Chapter 5 starts with a basic description of a container vessel. Today, many people working
in the container business have little or no seagoing experience, and safety rules make it
almost impossible to show people around a working vessel. Particular focus has further been
placed on explaining what is meant by the vessels operational envelope and the factors
which play a role in determining this operational framework which is particularly important
for containerships. Towards the end of Chapter 5 is a summary as well as a discussion of the
possible causes of typical containership related casualties.
Any Guidance on containers must contain a summary of the regulations covering transport,
design and maintenance of containers. This is covered in Chapter 6.
This Guidance concludes with a chapter on container insurance and gives an understanding
of the terms and conditions used in the insurance of the container box itself.
Throughout this Guidance you will also find side stories, or box-stories. These are sections
which discusses a particular topic in more depth, outlines an individuals particular
achievements or are anecdotal in nature.

Rotterdam, January 2016

Jeroen de Haas

10

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
17

INTRODUCTION

21

26
28
29
32
34

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Introduction of the intermodal container concept in the United States
(1956-1960)
1.2 Standardisation of the size of the container (1960-1965)
1.3 Introduction of ISO corner castings (1965-1967)
1.4 Adoption and integration into global distribution systems (1967-1990)
1.5 Exponential growth and entry of China into the global economy (1990-2008)
1.6 Global crisis and shift in thinking (2008-2015)

37
38
39
39
40
41
41
44
44

CHAPTER 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS

First generation (1956-1966)
Second generation (1966-1972)
Third generation (1972-1980)
Fourth generation Panamax Max (1980-today)
Fifth generation Post Panamax (1988-today)
Sixth generation Post Panamax Plus (1996-today)
Seventh generation Post New Panamax (2006-today)
Eight generation Ultra Large Container Ship (2008-today)

49
49
52
52
53
53
53
55
55
57
58
61
65
67
67
72
73
74
76
82
86

CHAPTER 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Introduction and terminology
Hinterland
Modal split
On-time delivery
Logistics management
Carrier
3.1 Deep sea transport
Shipping networks and port connections
Container trade routes
Important maritime passages
Deep sea container ports
Inland ports and terminals
3.2 Short sea container transport
European short sea shipping
Short sea container shipping in North America
Short sea shipping in other areas
3.3 Container transport by barge
Europe
North America
China

22

88
90
91
95
98
98
98
101
101
104
106

Other areas
3.4 Container transport by rail
United States
Europe
India
China
Technology
3.5 Road transport of containers
History and development
Technology
Road accidents

111
113
117
120
120
121
123
127
127
131
132
134
137
139
144

CHAPTER 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS

4.1 History and development
4.2 Terminal owners and operators
4.3 The function of a container terminal
Handling and storage
Administrative functions
4.4 Layout of a modern container terminal
4.5 Terminal equipment
Quay cranes
Transport equipment at the terminal
Terminal storage equipment
Automated container handling in the storage yard
4.6 Planning and operations
Ship planning berth allocation, crane and resource planning
Preparation of the stowage plan

153
155
156
157
158
159
160
162
162
162
164
166
169
169
171

CHAPTER 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS

5.1 The construction and layout of a modern container vessel
Cargo holds
Deck / hatch covers
Engine room
Accommodation
Bow and stern thrusters
5.2 Owners and operators
Non-operating shipowners
Container shipping lines
NVOCC
5.3 Registration and classification
5.4 Strength loads acting on containerships
Bending moments
Shear forces

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

171
173
173
175
179
182
182
183
184
184
185
185
186
187
189
194
197
197
200
208
212
215
217
217
220
222
223
224

Torsional stresses
5.5 Navigation and ship handling
Waves and swell
Excessive ship motions
Notorious areas
5.6 Stowage
The bay-row-tier numbering system
Point load line load
Russian stow
Stowage limitations
5.7 Determination of forces
Mass, weight, force and acceleration
Forces acting on container stows
Stability
Design criteria
Limitations
5.8 Lashing and securing
Methods of lashing and securing container stows
Container lashing equipment and systems
Container lashing routines
The Cargo Securing Manual (CSM)
Container lashing software
5.9 Major containership incidents
Major cargo related fires and explosions
Major grounding incidents
Major capsizing incidents
Major hull failure incidents
Container collapse and loss of containers

227
228
228
229
230
230
231
233
235
235
238
240
243
243
243
245
246

CHAPTER 6 THE CONTAINER

6.1 Definitions
ISO container
6.2 Container owners
6.3 Regulations governing the transport of freight containers
The International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) 1972
Other IMO regulations
Other requirements
6.4 Certification and testing of containers
Approval and certification of new containers
Maintenance requirements and in-service examinations
6.5 ISO standards
6.6 Requirements on the design and construction of containers
Dimensions
Length
Width
Height

TABLE OF CONTENTS

247
249
254
254
260
265
267
267
269
270
270
271
272
272
273
277
277
278
280
281
282
282
282
282
283
283

Weight
Strength and structural requirements
6.7 Container types and their main features
General purpose containers
Thermal containers
Tank containers
Bulk containers
Platform containers
6.8 The labelling and marking of containers
Identification system
Size and type codes
Other markings
6.9 In-service inspections of containers
Statutory inspections (CSC)
Routine operational inspections
6.10 Maintenance and repair
Repair facilities
Repair standards and procedures
6.11 Container security
The Container Security Initiative (CSI)
The Customs Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT)
The SAFE Framework
The Global Container Control Programme (CCP)
The IMO International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code
Container security measures
ISO Security Standards

287
287
287
288
288
288
289
290

CHAPTER 7 CONTAINER INSURANCE (by Geir Kjebekk, Gard)

Container and Equipment Insurance
Amounts recoverable
Conditions
Special exclusions
Limit and deductible
Comprehensive Carriers Liability Cover
Providing the widest range of risk solutions

293
315
318
321
325

Glossary of Terms
Abbreviations
Bibliography
Photo Credits
Index

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

23
25
27
30
39
45
47
56
69
73
81
92
93
96
107
115
131
136
138
151
161
190
204
221
224
241
248
263
276
279

BOXTEXT / INSERTS
How the (container) seed was planted
Ideal X sets sail
Why are 20 foot and 40 foot the standard lengths?
Ready for take-off
Sea-Lands SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships ever built
Forward visibility requirements
Container capacity, what you see is not what you get
Service routes
The success of Europes 45 foot intermodal container
Cabotage laws and the Jones Act
Stability requirements for inland navigation vessels carrying containers
Deregulation of the US transport system
McLean on his way to the White House
Swap body
Jane Mansfield and trailer safety
Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal;
leaders in the development of container terminal operations
Bigger ships call for bigger and smarter cranes
Container terminal equipment, for those who like abbreviations
UN / EDIFACT
The cost of calling at a container terminal
Gross tonnage and containership design: a topic of considerable discussion
IACS recommendation 34 Standard Wave Data
Keith Tantlinger, the inventor of the twistlock
The grounding of the RENA
The loss of the MOL COMFORT
The International Organization for Standarization (ISO)
Container weights and new IMO requirements on weighing
Frederick McKinley (Fred) Jones,
the inventor of the refrigerated transport unit
Container repair terminology
Technical Reference for Freight container equipment interchange
receipt TR39:2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

INTRODUCTION

Introduction
The container could be described

unemployment and nations descending

as a simple steel box designed to

into war over food and resources. In fact,

accommodate or carry cargo. However,

the economic fate and destiny of mankind

the container conceals countless secrets

could be said to rest with one single piece

unknown to many people. The types and

of transport equipment, and that is the

sizes of the containers moving on our

container. An article in The Economist

roads, railways and oceans are the results

on 18 May 2013 states that the container

of a clever design, years of negotiations

has been more of a driver of globalisation

to reach an agreed standard and many

than all trade agreements in the past 50

decades of evolution to meet particular

years. In fact, it is more than that. Through

business needs.

a constant process of expansion with a

corresponding reduction in the cost of

In these days of truly globalised trade,

transportation, the container has become

it would be difficult to imagine how the

a self-accelerating machine which can no

world would look like if container shipping

longer be stopped and which has

stopped tomorrow. Our lives would change

become an indispensable part of our

dramatically; factories would close in a

economy today.

matter of weeks, some even days, due to a

lack of supplies. Supermarkets and shops

Containerisation has made the shipping

would be empty within a couple of days and

of goods affordable and whole industries

modern economies would spiral into the

have been able to relocate their factories

deepest depression in recent history.

to locations far from their customers.

The end result would be massive

New types of cargo such as semi-finished

17

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

INTRODUCTION

...

ships
larger and more
increased demand

for container cap

acity

increased volum

es of existing pro
ducts
new economies (pr
oducts / geograp
hies)

reduction in trans

port costs

economies of sca

le

ships
larger and more
increased demand

acity

for container cap

products for assembly in low-cost countries

Definition

in Asia entered the transportation chain.

A container or cargo transport unit (CTU)

At the same time, shipping lines added new

is an article of transport equipment that

ports to their sailing schedules, which again

is designed to be transported by various

fuelled the growth in transport volumes.

modes of transportation in such a way that

no intermediate handling of the contents is

As a result, there was a need for increased

required when being transferred from one

capacity and with the assistance of new

mode of transport to the other and that at

construction technology containerships

the same time meets certain size criteria

became ever bigger. Through economies

and internationally accepted and

of scale, transportation costs could be

agreed standards.

reduced, which promoted further growth in

new economies (pr
oducts / spread)
inc rea se d vo lum
es of ex ist ing pr
od uc ts

reduction

in transport costs

As most container standards have

geographical spread.

been developed by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO),

In this way, over a period of 60 years, the

the formal term for a shipping container

container transport system has become to

is an ISO Freight Container. In this book,

world trade what the circulatory system is

where reference is made to a container,

to the human body. It is difficult to imagine

this will always be an ISO Freight Container.

the present level of international exchanges

economies of sca

le

larger and more

ships
increased demand

acity

for container cap

inc rea se d vo lum

e ex ist ing pr od
uc ts
new economies (pr
oducts / spread)

reduction in trans

port costs

le

economies of sca

The self-accelerating container machine

volume, types of products transported and

without a functioning intermodal container

There are also many containers in

transport sytem. This system has proven to

circulation which are not ISO-classified.

be a highly efficient and relatively safe and

These are mainly used for domestic or

reliable means of transporting goods across

regional purposes.

the globe.

19

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1

History and development

The role of the container in todays

transportation has evolved over a period

1956
1960

of more than six decades and passed a

number of milestones:

Introduction of the intermodal container

concept in the USA (1956-1960)

1960
1965

Standardisation of the size of the

container (1960-1965)

Introduction of ISO corner castings

1965
1967

(1965-1967)

Adoption and integration into global

distribution systems (1967-1990)

1967
1990

Exponential growth and entry of China in

the global economy (1990-2008)

Global crisis and shift in thinking

(2008-2015)

China

1990
2008

2008
2015

21

22 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 23

How the (container) seed was planted

1.1

Introduction of the intermodal container

concept in the United States (1956-1960)

The idea that the big box could be used economically

and efficiently on a massive scale came from a once
disparaged trucker from North Carolina, named
Malcolm Mclean. The idea that revolutionised cargo
handling worldwide, and forever changed the nature
of shipping, came to him one day back in 1937 at an

The birth of container shipping and its

McLean, being more focussed on in moving

American Export Lines pier in Hoboken, New Jersey.

initial development in the 1950s and 60s

road trailers by sea, called his company Sea-

I had driven my trailer up from Fayetteville, North

were mainly an American affair, led by two

Land, later becoming the largest container

Carolina with a load of cotton bales that were to go on

self-made businessmen, Graham Brush and

shipping company in the world.

an American Export ship tied up at the dock.

Malcolm McLean.

Malcolm McLean at railing, Port Newark, 1957

For one reason or another I had to wait most of the day

In their book The Box That Changed

to deliver the bales, and as I sat there, I watched all those people muscling each crate and bundle off the trucks

Back in 1929, Brush founded a company

The World, Arthur Donovan and Joseph

and into the slings that would lift them into the hold of the ship. On board the ship, every sling would have to be

called Seatrain to develop the carriage of

Bonney provide a fine tribute to these

unloaded by the stevedores and its contents put in the proper place in the hold. What a waste of time and money!

railway freight cars overseas on specially

American entrepreneurs: It is clear that

Suddenly it occurred to me: Would it not be great if my trailer could simply be lifted up and placed in the ship

designed ships. McLean, a trucking

containerisation as we know it today was

without its contents being touched?

entrepreneur from North Carolina built

being seriously considered well before

If you want to know, that is when the seed was planted

his own motor freight company (McLean

Malcolm McLean was biding his time on

Trucking) and, after the Second World War,

the dock in Jersey City. But as Brush and

concentrated on the shipment of road

McLean would have reminded anyone who

trailers overseas, an idea which already

is prone to stay in the world of ideas and

came to him during his early days working

abstract thinking, the people who actually

before. Brush and McLean fit that category.

What was new in the revolutionary

as a truck driver (see How the container

make history are the doers, those who built

They were innovators and entrepreneurs,

ideas presented by Malcolm McLean

seed was planted).

things newer and better than what came

men who earned a place in history by

was the belief that efficiency could be

building more efficient systems for moving

vastly improved through a system of

goods over land and sea.

intermodalism through containerisation

From: Reminiscences on Malcolm Mclean by Capt. Richard T. Soper, Father of the modern containership and former operations manager at
Sealand, during the Kinney Lectures in honor of Admiral Sheldon Kinney, February 2011. World Maritime University Inc.

and his preseverance in taking these

Boxes similar to modern containers

ideas into reality. He was by no means the

had been used for rail and horse drawn

inventor of the shipping container but his

transport in England as early as 1792.

concept of containerisation as a means of

Small containers with a standard size were

reducing the cost of transport was very

also being used by the US government

radical back in the mid 1950s.

during the Second World War, which proved

to be a quick and efficient way to load and
distribute supplies. Also Seatrain used
a system with boxcars as standard units.
Intermodalism

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1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 25

Note

orders to ship goods back to Port Newark

Intermodalism is a system where one

in containers. McLean tried to sell the

container and its cargo can be transported

idea of container shipping to established

On 26 April 1956, one hundred dignitaries enjoyed lunch at Port Newark and watched the crane place a container

with minimum interruption by different

shipowners in the United States, but they

on the IDEAL X every seven minutes. The ship was loaded in less than eight hours and set sail the same day.

modes of transport from an initial place of

were more than a little sceptical to his ideas.

McLean and his executives flew to Houston to watch its arrival at that port. They were all waiting on Wharf II for

receipt to a final place of delivery, without

This prompted him to become a shipowner

the ship to arrive and as she came up the channel, all the longshoremen and everybody else came over to look

limitations as to the distance carried.

himself and he, very appropriately named

one witness recalled. They were amazed to see a

In practice this means that containers move

his company Sea-Land. Initially the

tanker with all these boxes on deck. We had seen

seamlessly between ships, trucks, barges

containers were loaded together with a

thousands of tankers in Houston, but never one like this.

and trains. However, before achieving an

chassis. Later the chassis were left off,

So everybody looked at this monstrosity and they

intermodal transport system, ships, port

enabling the containers be stacked in

couldnt believe their eyes.

terminals, trucks and trains had to be

multiple tiers.

adapted to handle the containers.

Ideal X sets sail

For McLean, though, the real triumph came only when the

Other companies such as Matson

costs were tallied. Loading loose cargo on a medium sized

Malcolm McLean converted the Second

Navigation Company soon adopted the

cargo ship cost USD 5,83 per tonne in 1956. McLeans

World War tanker POTRERO HILLS to a

same approach and started a container

experts calculated that the cost of loading

ship capable of handling containers. He

service in the Pacific. The first vessel

the IDEAL X at 15,7 cents per tonne. With numbers

rechristened the vessel IDEAL X and on

specifically converted to carry containers

like that, the container seemed to have a future.

26 April 1956, the vessel made its maiden

only was Sea-Lands GATEWAY CITY, which

voyage from Port Newark to Houston in the

had its maiden voyage on 4 October 1957.

United States. The vessel had a reinforced

spardeck carrying 58 metal container boxes

However, the container concept was only

as well as 15,000 tonnes of petroleum in

intermodal as long as it was shipped under

bulk and is known as the very first ship

the umbrella of one shipping company.

to carry standard size containers. By the

Due to differences in size and construction,

time the ship had unloaded its cargo at

the boxes were not interchangeable

Houston, the company was already taking

between different shipping companies

and not compatible with the port handling
equipment. As each company would need
a large fleet of containers exclusively for its
own customers, the next logical step was to
standardise the container sizes.

Containership SS MAYAGUEZ IMO number: 2245546

Type of ship: Containership (previously GATEWAY CITY)
Year of build: 1944

IDEAL X (ships model) to indicate containers stowed on

a spar deck above the on-deck tanker arrangement, here
shown with 58 containers on deck

From: Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Why are 20 foot and 40 foot the standard lengths?

1.2

Standardisation of the size of the

container (1960-1965)

The idea of standardising container lengths at 10, 20, 30 and 40 feet was introduced by Herbert Hall, the chairman
of the Material Handling Section Committee (MH-5) during a presentation to an engineering society in 1957.
Hall knew little about the economics of using containers, but he was fascinated by the concept of arithmetic
relationships preferred numbers as he called it. He believed that making containers in 10, 20, 30 and 40 foot
lengths would create flexibility. A truck equipped to carry 40 foot containers could also pick up two 20 foot
containers, or one 20 foot and two 10 foot containers.*

As early as 1960, international bodies

eight foot, so as not to conflict with height

recognised the potential of container

limits on United States highways.

Today, the two most commonly used sizes are the 20 foot and 40 foot container lengths.

shipping and they began discussions

The container width was mainly governed

The 20 foot container, referred to as a Twenty foot Equivalent Unit (TEU) became the industry standard with

as to what the standard container size

by the restrictions on the railways and was

cargo volumes and vessel capacity now measured in TEUs. The 40 foot container literally 2 TEUs, became

should be. The first containers used by

finally set at eight foot as well.

known as the Forty foot Equivalent Unit (FEU). The 10 foot container appeared economically inefficient and was

Sea-Land were 35 foot ASA containers,

mainly used by the US Military and for off shore purposes. The 30 foot container also became less polular. These

i.e. containers constructed according to

Years of negotiations took place on the

days, 30 foot containers are used mainly in the short sea trade for the carriage of bulk cargoes, owing to its

American Standards. Other companies

most appropriate container size and finally

optimal length, volume and weight ratio.

had their own standard sizes, varying not

on 14 April 1961, 10, 20, 30 and 40 foot

only in length but also in width and height.

boxes were announced as the standard

Various US industry committees were

lengths. Only containerships designed to

established in order to reach consensus on

carry these sizes could receive construction

container dimensions. This was a difficult

subsidies from the US government. In

process as existing shipping companies

1964, these dimensions were adopted

had already invested large sums of money

by the International Organization for

in their own equipment.

Standardization (ISO) and a world standard

was born.

Nevertheless, all recognised the need

for standardised container sizes for

Interestingly, not a single container

containerisation to reach its full potential.

operated by the two leading shipping

The maximum container height was set at

companies at that time, Sea-Land and

Matson, conformed with this new standard.

20 foot and 40 foot container

* From: Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006

27

28

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 29

1.3

1.4

Introduction of ISO corner castings

(1965-1967)

Adoption and integration into global

distribution systems (1967-1990)

The agreement on standard container

The four top corner fittings are used for

Another important milestone for ships

dimensions would promote intermodalism

lifting. The four bottom corner fittings are

carrying containers became their

only to the extent that container operators

mainly used for securing the container to

deployment on the most important

now had clarity on the important issue of

a road trailer, railway carriage or container

shipping route at that time, the North

constructing their equipment. They could

foundation pad on board a vessel.

Atlantic crossing from New York to

now consider their long-term investment

Furthermore, both the top and bottom

Europe. The first ship carrying containers

programs without the risk of having

corner fittings or castings are used for

across the Atlantic was the United States

their containers ruled out for reasons of

applying the lashing hooks.

Lines AMERICAN RACER. On 18 March

non-compliance.

1966, the ship left Chelsea piers in New

In the early days, each shipping company

York with fifty 20 foot containers on

However, before the container could

had its own patented design of container

board, all stowed in container cells below

become readily interchangeable, one

fittings. In 1965, ISO agreed the Sea-Lands

deck. Apart from containers, the ship also

the North Atlantic, FAIRLAND will likewise

further standard design had to be agreed,

design corner fitting as the international

carried other break-bulk cargo.

be identified as the first all-containership to

namely the corner fittings used for lifting

standard. It appeared, however, that the

and securing the containers.

design could not pass the necessary

One month later, on 23 April 1966,

strength tests and a new design was finally

Sea-Lands FAIRLAND left Port Elizabeth

A year later, the container proved its

approved in June 1967.

in the USA. On board were 236 containers

efficiency in the Vietnam War. Every

stacked above and below deck.

two weeks, a containership delivered

Each container is fitted with eight corners,

four at the top and four at the bottom.

M.v. FAIRLAND on her maiden call at Rotterdam,

discharging containers

link North America with Europe.

some 600 containers with supplies and

FAIRLANDs first port in Europe was

food in refrigerated containers to

Rotterdam where she arrived on 4 May

Vietnamese ports.

1966. Thereafter, the vessel called at

Bremen. Before returning to New York,

1968 and 1969 were the baby boomer years

the vessel called at Grangemouth to load

in container shipping. 43 container vessels

containers with Scottish whisky, one of the

were built each with a capacity of 1,000 TEU

first containerised export cargoes from

which was large for the time. Ship capacity

Europe to the US.

soon increased to 2,000 TEU and in 1972

the first containerships of 3,000 TEU were

While AMERICAN RACER will thus forever

hold the distinction of being the first
container carrying merchant ship to cross
ISO corner castings, top and bottom

completed at a shipyard in Germany.

30 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Ready for take-off

containers also arrived in the Middle East,

In contrast to conventional break-bulk

India, East and West Africa.

cargo ships, most containerships did not

have onboard cranes. Container terminal

After 1966, as truckers, shipping lines, railroads, container manufacturers and governments reached
compromises on issue after issue, a fundamental change took place in the shipping world. The plethora of

Containerisation was further boosted by

facilities had to provide cranes as well

different container shapes and sizes that had blocked the development of containerisation in 1965 gave way to

several initiatives, mainly by connecting the

as sufficient space to stack and store the

the internationally approved standard sized containers.

ports and terminals to the hinterland.

containers on the dockside. Finger piers

In the US, land bridges were constructed at

were no longer adequate and berths were

Leasing companies were now confident in investing large sums of money in containers and moved into this field

a height to allow double high stacking on

redesigned to accommodate quick ship

in a big way, soon owning more boxes than the shipping lines themselves. Apart from Sea-Land which still used

railway carriages. In Europe, it was mainly

turnaround and more efficient dockside

mainly 35 foot containers and Matson, which was gradually reducing its fleet of 24 foot containers, nearly all of

the move to fast and scheduled container

operations between the crane and the

the worlds major shipping lines used compatible containers. Finally, it was becoming possible to fill a container

services in inland navigation which gave

container storage areas.

with freight in Kansas City confident that almost any truck, train, port or ship would be able to move it smoothly

impetus to the containerisation process.

On the European mainland, the port of

all the way to Kuala Lumpur. International container shipping could now become a reality.
Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006
From: Marad International Container Services Offered by US Flag Operators, January 1973

Containerisation also started to dramatically

Rotterdam emerged as a major gateway

change the location and character of ports

to serve the European hinterland, mainly

worldwide. Some of the established ports

because of its access to the hinterland

declined, whilst new emerged. The port of

and ability to receive deep draft traffic.

Hamburg and Antwerp followed in its wake.

However, the container was still an unknown

Swiss based Mediterranean Shipping

San Francisco, for instance, lost its position

entity in global shipping and business, risks

Company (MSC) was founded in 1970 and

at the expense of the neighbouring port of

were relatively high as the technology was

has developed into one of the worlds

Oakland, which became one of the largest

Prior to highly mechanised container

still unproven.

major container carriers as has the Marseille

ports in the US. In the United Kingdom, a

transfers, crews of 20 / 22 longshoremen

based, Compagnie Martime DAfrettement

similar fate was met by the ports of London

would be needed to stow break-bulk

(CMA) which was founded in 1978.

and Liverpool. Meanwhile, the port of

cargoes into the hold of a ship.

Between 1970 and 1980 container shipping

grew exponentially, both in terms of volume

Felixstowe gained in importance. Complete

After containerisation, large crews of

and geographical reach. Connections were

A dominating player in the Asia to US West

new ports were built at strategic locations

longshoremen were no longer necessary at

established between Japan and the US

coast trade was Evergreen, who turned to

on north-south / east-west junctions.

port facilities, and the profession changed

West Coast and Europe and the US East

container liner services in 1975. However,

dramatically. With intermodal containers,

Coast. Still, the container business was

with 63 vessels in operation, capable of

the job of sorting and packing containers

mainly operated from the US. However,

carrying 70,000 TEU, Sea-Land was still the

could be performed far from the point of

as from the mid-70s onwards, European

largest shipping company in 1980.

loading onto the ships.

shipping companies started to integrate

container shipping into their business

By 1980, containerisation had been fully

model as well. Indeed, one of the giants

integrated in trade between Europe, South

among todays largest container operators

America and South East Asia, South Africa,

Maersk, only established the dedicated

Australia and New Zealand. In 1973, US and

Maersk Container Lines in 1973. The 1,400

European containership operators carried

TEU fully cellular containership ADRIAN

some 4 million TEU. Ten years later, this

MAERSK was the first in a series of nine new

had risen to 12 million TEU at which time

vessels which made its first voyage in 1975.

31

32

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 33

1.5

Exponential growth and entry of China

into the global economy (1990-2008)

In 1998 the first 8,000 TEU vessels entered

Containerships and terminals were used to

the market with the delivery of the

full capacity during the period 2000 to 2008

Sovereign class series of containerships.

in order to meet the demand for container

In 2005, the EMMA MAERSK set a new

space. Shipping capacity even turned out

landmark by raising the bar to 12,500 TEU.

to be insufficient on some trade routes and

containers had to be left behind waiting

In the period 1995-2008, considerable

for the next shipment. Freight and charter

consolidation took place among

rates were rocketing and the revenues of

With the development of China into a

distances apart, large quantities of semi-

containership operators which significantly

shipowners and operators followed a

global economy, a further boost was given

finished products were carried in containers

changed the competitive landscape.

similar path.

to containerisation and to trade patterns

to be assembled elsewhere. For example,

The most notable mergers were Maersks

as a whole. Freight costs, particularly when

an assembly site in China would receive

acquisition of Malcolm McLeans Sea-Land

In order to meet the increasing demand,

looking at the transport cost per unit, no

Japanese hair, Taiwanese plastics and

in 1999 followed by Royal P&O Nedlloyd in

large new building orders were placed with

longer represented the most significant

American colourants in order to produce

2005. Through these acquisitions, Maersk

shipyards in Asia, which were soon fully

cost aspect. As a result, factories could

Barbie Dolls for shipment all over the world.

Line became one of the major containership

booked for years to come. No one at that

be located far from their customers. This

In the carriage of food stuffs, a shift took

operators in the world today. Similarly,

time expected that, by 2008 the global

paved the way for the container to become

place from the shipment of perishable

through a number of acquisitions, French

economy would have collapsed and that

goods in specialised reefer vessels to

liner company CMA CGM became a

for the first time since the introduction of

refrigerated containers. Whereas more

global force in container shipping whilst,

the container in 1956, there would be a

than 60 per cent was carried in specialised

remarkably, Mediterranean Shipping

worldwide drop in container volumes.

reefer vessels in 1990, this had decreased to

Company (MSC) of Geneva acquired its

around than 30 per cent in 2015.

position through organic growth only.

New techniques used to increase the shelf

1996

Royal Nedlloyd (Netherlands) merges with P&O (UK)

life of fresh produce saw supermarkets

develop into global streetmarkets.
Advanced refrigeration techniques in containers have
made tropical products globally available, throughout
the year

CMA (France) acquires previously state-owned CGM (France)

1997

APL ( Singapore) acquires NOL (Singapore)

Hanjin (Korea) acquires DSR Senator Lines (Germany)

With the increasing volume of containers

1998

CMA CGM acquires ANL (Australia)

being carried by sea, the size of

1999

Maersk Line (Denmark) acquires SafMarine (South Africa)

the preferred mode of transport in the

containerships also increased. In 1988, the

development of Asia into the workshop

first post-PANAMAX container vessels were

2002

CMA CGM acquires MacAndrews (UK)

of the world and to deliver to customers

delivered to APL. Until then, construction

2005

CMA CGM acquires Delmas (France)

around the world a variety of new

of containerships was mainly restricted by

products.

the width of the locks on the Panama Canal

2006

CMA CGM acquires OT Africa Line (UK)

which were some 32.2 m wide. Once the

2007

CMA CGM acquires Comanav (Morocco)

The shipping sector had to deal with a

PANAMAX restrictions had been broken,

far larger variety of cargoes being carried

developments in ship size moved fast.

overseas than ever before. With production

The first 5,000 TEU ship was delivered in

and assembly locations considerable

1995 and the first 6,000 TEU ship in 1997.

Maersk Line acquires Sea-Land.

Maersk Lines acquires Royal P&O Nedlloyd (UK Netherlands)

CMA CGM acquires US Lines (USA)

Major acquisitions in the container shipping sector 1995-2008

34 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 35

1.6

Global crisis and shift in thinking

(2008-2015)

By 2014 / 15, the international trade had

to this new situation by reducing (and

to face yet another shake up the global

cancelling) their newbuilding orders and,

economy, the slow down of the Chinese

yet again, looking for further consolidation

economy. Container shipping lines adapted

and mergers.

600

Slow steaming not only reduced the

topic at trade and container conferences

carrying capacity, which had a positive

was the failure of terminals to keep pace

effect on freight rates, but also positively

with the growth in the container trade

influenced the ever increasing fuel costs

which was doubling in volume every ten

due to a lower consumption of fuel. Slow

years. This picture had radically changed

steaming also improved a companys

by September 2008 when a financial crisis

carbon footprint, a new area of competition

in the Lehmann Brothers bank heralded

for shipping lines and associated modes

the complete collapse of the international

of transport.

banking sector followed by global trade

shortly thereafter.

10 per cent year on year growth.

volumes had dropped dramatically and

the same container terminals were now

The new worlds leading container ports

struggling to survive. In some ports such

such as Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai

as Antwerp, whole terminals were closed,

and Shenzhen were all there essentially to

waiting for better times.

serve the Chinese export market. European

or US ports would no longer appear on the

Remarkably, whereas the global economy

list of the worlds largest container ports.

remained in recession for the next 4-5

years, container volumes picked up again

In 2013, a new milestone was achieved in

and most ports saw expansion during the

container shipping with the completion

years 2010-2013. The container industry

of the first 18,000 TEU container vessel,

was facing a new problem; how to deal with

the MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER.

overcapacity and how to maintain sound

This vessel was part of a series of new

and profitable freight rates. The solutions

mega TEU carriers which would dominate

the industry came up with were larger

the Asia Europe trade.

vessels, slow steaming and new alliances.

400
300
200

45
1983
(46)

1985

1990

1995

World container throughput 1983-2015 (source Alphaliner)

While Europe and the US were dealing with

the crisis, the Chinese economy managed a

A year later, in 2009, global container

500

million TEU

At the beginning of 2008, the general

2000

2005

2009

2015
(700)

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS

Chapter 2

Evolution of containerships

The maximum size of a containership

of stages. Traditionally, containerships

has increased from 58 trailer / container

were classified as generations, of which

combined units in 1956 to nearly 20,000

literature recognizes six generations, the

TEU less than 60 years later. Building big

last one being all ships with a capacity over

and stretching the limits of shipbuilding

8,000 TEU. Later, other denominations such

have been the favoured options of the

as Super Post Panamax, Post Panamax Plus,

container shipping industry throughout

Post New Panamax, Ultra Large Container

the evolution of the containership. Today,

Ship, were used instead of generations.

new designs with even larger capacities

are finding their way on to the drawing

There appears to be no consensus in

boards and into construction at shipyards

the industry for the classification of

in Asia. The only restrictions appear to be

containerships, especially for the ships

terminal capacity, ships strength and the

built after 2005. This book has extended

size and capacity of the main bottlenecks

the generations beyond the sixth one and

of global maritime traffic, i.e. the Panama

also used the classification according to

and Suez Canal, and the Strait of Malacca.

type of ship. The term generation would

suggest the different stages of ship-size

Containerships can be grouped according

succeed one another consecutively. This is,

to either their size, type or year of built.

however, not the case. It is still well possible

When it comes to size, the evolution of

that in 2015 containerships of the fourth

containerships has taken place in a number

generation are built.

37

38 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS

First generation (1956-1966)

cranes to precisely lift and lower the

The very first containerships were mainly

containers in and out of the cell guides.

converted break bulk ships or tankers.

Sea-Lands SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships ever built

In 1972-73, Sea-Land took delivery of a series of eight 1,900 TEU containerships built at the RDM shipyard in

The very early containerships only

Keith Tantlinger, an engineer from Toledo,

the Netherlands, at a cost of USD 32 million each. The ships were equipped with two steam turbines, capable of

could carry containers on deck; in the

Ohio played an important role in McLeans

delivering 120,000 bhp. They had a service speed of 33 knots (61 km / hr), fast enough to sail around the world in

case of converted tankers, a spar deck

company on the design of cell guides,

56 days, from New York to Rotterdam

was constructed. Shortly thereafter the

cranes and locking systems; or as McLean

in 4.5 days, and from Oakland to Yokohama

tankers were replaced by former general

said Tantlinger was the one who did the

in just 5.5 days. The SL-7 series became the

cargo ships. Malcolm McLean acquired six

most to get containers on board ships.

fastest cargo ships ever built.

from the US Navy and converted these

Later in the 1960s, more American shipping

These ships were designed at a time when fuel cost

to carry 226 containers, stowed in cell

companies entered the container business

around USD 20 per barrel in 1980. When fuel prices

guides below deck and on hatchcovers

and ships increased in size. A good example

skyrocketed and reached some USD 100 per barrel,

above deck.

of the later first generation containership

they became financially unviable and were eventually

was the ELBE EXPRESS class series of

sold to the US military.

SEALAND McLean from SL-7 series

of these vessels (known as C-2 freighters)

The first vessel of that series was the

containerships built at Blohm & Voss

GATEWAY CITY which made its maiden

and deployed on the first North Atlantic

voyage on 4 October 1957. These vessels

service for Hapag-Lloyd-Container Linie.

Second generation (1966-1972)

Third generation (1972-1980)

were equipped with specially designed

These ships generally had a capacity in the

Second generation ships had cell guides

From 1972 onwards a new series of

range of 700 to 1,000 TEU and a draught of

under deck and were the first purpose built

containerships entered the market. These

approximately nine metres. The containers

containerships. The first such ship, was the

ships were generally 32.2 m wide, the

were carried to a maximum height of three

KOORINGA, built in Adelaide, Australia in

maximum width of the Panama Canal,

tiers on deck and four tiers under deck.

1964 and deployed in a container service

hence the name Panamax containerships.

between Melbourne and Fremantle,

The first Panamax containership was the

the same year. The first purpose-built

LIVERPOOL BAY owned by Overseas

containership crossing the North Atlantic

Container Ltd. (OCL), whith a capacity of

was the United States Lines AMERICAN

2,961 TEU.

LANCER, delivered in 1966 and known to

ALSTER EXPRESS;
built 1968, 170 x 24.6 m, 736 TEU

ENCOUNTER BAY;
built 1969, 227 x 30.6 m, 1,578 TEU

SELANDIA;
built 1972, 274 x 32.3 m, 2,272 TEU

be first such ship bringing containers to

The accommodation unit on third

Europe. The capacity of these vessels

generation containerships had been moved

increased over the years and ranged

further forward on the ships superstructure.

between 1,000 and 2,500 TEU, mainly as a

This meant that containers could now also

result of increased vessel length and width.

be stowed aft of the accommodation.

Maximum stowage height on deck was

Some ships came on the market with

three to four tiers. Typical containerships

huge power plants and multiple screws.

of this generation were the turbine vessels

The SELANDIA and JUTLANDIA of the

of the ENCOUNTER BAY class, owned by

Danish East India Company were renowned

Overseas Containers Ltd., and built at the

for their speed and were equipped with

Howaldtswerke shipyard in Hamburg.

three screws and three diesel engines,

39

40 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS

Fourth generation Panamax Max

(1980-today)

Fifth generation Post Panamax

(1988-today)

Fourth generation containerships were

A new era began in containership design

built with the largest dimensions capable

in 1988 when American President Lines

of passing through the Panama Canal

(APL) ordered five C-10 class ships with a

before its extension, but with an increased

length of 260 m and a width of 39.4 m. The

container capacity. The capacity of

first ships delivered had a capacity of 4,300

Panamax containerships increased in

TEU. Containers were stowed 15 across

the mid-1980s and rose to some 4,000

the deck and five tiers high. In the early

TEU. Panamax-sized containerships have

1990s, TEU capacity of these post-Panamax

remained in favour with many shipping

vessels rose to around 5,000-5,500 TEU.

delivering a total of 78,605 bhp thus

lines and increased load capacities have

During this period, particular attention was

achieving a maximum speed of 30 knots.

been achieved.

paid to the efficiency of the loading and

NEDLLOYD DELFT;
built 1982, 290 x 32.2 m, 2,952 TEU

Early 6th generation container vessel, SOUVEREIGN

MAERSK; built 1997, 347 x 44 m, 6,600 TEU

unloading operation and shipping lines

The largest containerships at this time were

the NEDLLOYD DEJIMA and NEDLLOYD

The ultimate fourth generation container

such as Nedlloyd and Norasia, deployed

DELFT, each equipped with steam turbines

class vessels, which are still being built

open-top (hatch-less) containerships, where

capable of delivering a speed of up to 28

today, can accommodate up to 4,950 TEU.

containers could be stowed 13 tiers high

knots, although normal service speed was

With a beam of some 32.3 m, containers can

from the cargo hold. This system did not

generally 20-23 knots. Even faster was

be stowed in 13 rows across the deck.

retain the interest from the market in the

Sea-lands SL-7 series of which eight were

The higher container volumes were

long term, but is still in use today in the

built in the early 1970s (see insert Sea-

achieved by stretching the vessels length

short-sea and barge trade.

Lands SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships

to the Panama Canal limit of 294 m, and by

ever built). The number of containers

decreasing the steel weight and increasing

on deck was relatively low compared to

Late 6th generation container vessel, OOCL SX Class,

OOCL EUROPE; built 2003, 323 x 42.8 m, 8,160 TEU

In order to optimise the stacking of

the deck stowage. The later versions

Sixth generation Post Panamax Plus

(1996-today)

modern standards and the stacking height

of Panamax container vessels stowed

It was not until 1996 that a further new

special lashing bridges. These bridges

was limited to three tiers.

containers up to seven to eight tiers high,

standard was introduced in container

allowed the lashing to be anchored one or

making containers stowed on deck 70 per

shipping with the launch of Maersk Lines

two tiers above main deck level.

cent of the total capacity. These ships have

REGINA MAERSK. The ship had a capacity

typically a draught of 12.5 m.

of 6,000 TEU and a beam of 42.8 m allowed

Ship capacity continued to increase and by

17 containers to be stowed across the deck.

2003, OOCL had breached the 8,000 TEU

For many years, a beam of 42.8 m remained

barrier with the SX Class series, of which

the standard and ship capacity was mainly

12 vessels were built. Interestingly, these

increased by extending the length of

vessels had a length of 323 m, some 44 m

vessels to 350 m and increasing the stacking

less than the SOVEREIGN MAERSK

height of the containers on deck to seven to

although it has an identical beam of 42.8 m.

eight tiers. Subsequently, in 1997 / 1998,

The increased capacity was mainly achieved

a series of 19 Sovereign Class vessels

through increased deck carrying capacity.

were launched, each with a capacity of

Modern 4th generation (Panamax) container vessel,
STADT COBURG;
built 2010, 247 x 32.2 m, 4,380 TEU

5th generation Post Panamax container vessels,

APLs PRESIDENT TRUMAN and PRESIDENT KENNEDY;
built 1988, 275 x 39.4 m, 4,400 TEU

6,600 TEU.

containers on deck, ships were fitted with

41

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 43

speed

stowage

< 7/10 > number of rows across

1956

length x width x draft

First generation

Early containership

170/200 x 25 x 9

18.5 knots

stowage height on deck

under-deck

max 1,000 TEU

1966

< 10 >

3/4
5
Second generation

First cellular ship

220 x 30 x 10

18.5 knots

1.000 - 2,500 TEU

1972

< 12 >

3/4
8/9
Third generation

Panamax range

290 x 32 x 12

23 - 28 knots

2,500 - 4,000 TEU

1980

< 13 >

7/8
8/9
Fourth generation

Panamax Max range

290 x 32 x 12

24.3 knots

4,000 - 5,000 TEU

1988

< 16/17 >

5/6
8/9
Fifth generation

Post Panamax range

275/320 x 40/43 x 14.5

24.2 knots

4,000 - 6,000 TEU

1996

< 17 >

7/8
8
Sixth generation

Post Panamax-Plus

350 x 44 x 14.5

25 knots

6,000 - 10,000 TEU

2006

< 22 >

9
10

Seventh generation

Super Post Panamax

390 x 56 x 15.5

24.5 knots

14,500 TEU
< 23 >

2008

still being built today

42

9/11
10
Eight generation Ultra Large Container Ship

395/400 x 54/59 x 16

19 knots

16,000 - 19,000 TEU

44 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 45

Seventh generation Post New

Panamax (2006-today)

Forward visibility requirements

A new generation of containerships arrived

such as those for the Panama Canal etc. Measures such as reducing the vessels trim or, alternatively, changing

in 2006 when Maersk Line introduced the

the deck cargo stowage may be required to reduce the blind sector to within the stipulated limits.

Visibility from the navigation bridge must conform with IMO requirements in addition to any local requirements

15,500 TEU capacity, E-Class series. These

vessels were generally described as Post-

A Panama Canal Authority (ACP) minimum forward visibility requirements

New Panamax class, as they were bigger

Vessels transiting the Panama Canal must comply with the following minimum visibility requirements for the

than the expanded Panama Canal. With

a width of 56 m, containers could now be
stowed in 22 rows across the deck. The

navigation bridge, as established in the Maritime Regulations for the Panama Canal in OP Notice to Shipping
7th generation container vessel, ELLY MAERSK;
built 2006, 388 X 56.4 m, 15,550 TEU

stacking height on deck increased to nine

No. N-1-2009,
1 for laden vessels, the view of the waters surface from any conning position on the navigation bridge shall not
be obscured more than one (1) ship length forward of the bow, under all conditions of draught and trim.

tiers and lashing bridges were raised to the

2 for vessels in ballast (not laden), the view of the waters surface from any conning position on the navigation

second tier from the deck.

bridge shall not be obscured more than one and one half (1.5) ship lengths forward of the bow, under all
conditions of draught and trim.

The accommodation structure on these

Vessels that fail to comply with the ACPs minimum visibility requirements due to the presence of cargo, cargo

ships is located approximately amidships,

gear, structures, or for any other reason, must inform the ACP of this visibility impairment at least 48 hours prior

allowing containers to be stacked higher

to arrival in order to properly schedule the transit and minimize any delays.

just forward and aft of the accommodation

structure, whilst not conflicting with the
IMO forward visibility regulations from the
wheelhouse (see page 45).

B Extract from SOLAS 1974 (as amended in 1998) Chapter V Regulation 22 navigation bridge visibility
Early 8 th generation container vessel, MSC DANIELA;
built 2008, 366 x 51 m, 13,800 TEU

Ships of not less than 45 m in length, as defined in SOLAS regulation II /.12, and constructed on or after 1 July
1998, shall meet the following requirements:
From the conning position, the view of the sea surface shall not be obscured forward of the bow by more than

Eight E-Class vessels were delivered to

the containers forward of the bridge to

the lesser of two ship lengths or 500 m (1,640 feet) from dead ahead to 10 degrees on either side of the vessel.

Maersk Line in total. Considerations such as

be stacked higher whilst still maintaining

Within this arc of visibility the blind sector caused by cargo, cargo gear, or other permanent obstructions must not

the length of the propeller shafting system,

sufficient forward visibility. Aft of the

exceed five degrees.

hull stress and overall efficiency led to the

bridge, containers could now be stowed

development of yet another generation of

to the maximum height over approximately

containerships, built according to the two

2 / 3 of the vessels length, leading to

island configuration.

a considerable improvement in
container capacity.

Eight generation Ultra Large

Container Ship (2008-today)

The first container vessel built according to

A complete new ship type was achieved

this new principle was the MSC DANIELA

by building containerships according to

(13,800 TEU) which was delivered in 2008.

the two-island configuration: these ships

In 2012, CMA CGM launched its Explorer

were arranged with the navigation bridge

Class with the CMA CGM MARCO POLO

deck forward of amidships and the after

(16,020 TEU) which became the largest

house located above the engine room aft

container vessel in the world at that time.

of amidships. This configuration allowed

1 ship length
A Panama Canal

B IMO

1.5 ship length

2 ship lengths or 500 m (which is less)

sea surface laden

sea surface ballast

46 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS

In 2013, a new landmark was set by Maersk

Container capacity, what you see is not what you get

with the delivery of the m.v. MAERSK

MCKINNEY MOLLER (18,270 TEU).

Container capacity figures should be treated with some caution as the numbers may change quite considerably
depending on the method of calculation used. Contrary to deadweight (DWT) capacity, which is regulated by

The MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER

specific rules, there are no strict rules for calculating TEU capacity.

stretched limits which had previously been

Nominal TEU capacity. This is the container capacity usually listed on fleet data sheets and related statistics.

deemed unbreakable. The launch of the

This is also the number usually referred to in charterparties. Nominal TEU capacity is the maximum capacity

vessel in August 2013 was the first in the

series of so-called Triple-E class vessels,
all with identical design and capacity.

of the ship according to its geometric capacity and is governed by the ships dimensions, design, lashing and
CMA CGM MARCO POLO;
built 2012, 395 x 54 m, 16,020 TEU

stacking limitations and compliance to meet bridge visibility regulations. As a result, this number is the reasonable
maximum number of containers the vessel can carry. However, the capacity can be further increased by so-called

20 Triple-E class vessels in total were on

blind sector loading, such as castle stowage, whereby additional containers are stowed with intermediate

order at the Daewoo shipyard in Korea for

visibility gaps, in front of the bridge.

delivery in 2014-2015.

Effective TEU capacity. This number reflects the real carrying capacity of the ship, taking into account the
specifics of the trade in which the vessel is operating. For instance, if the vessel is operating in a trade dominated

The vessels beam of 59 m enabled

by heavy boxes, the effective TEU capacity will be less. The same applies in trades where the majority are high-

containers to be stowed 23 across the deck.

cube (96 high) containers or where draft restrictions apply for the ship.

Whilst the Triple-E vessels were actually

TEU capacity at 14 metric tonnes. This is a derivative of the effective TEU capacity and reflects the ability

only three metres wider and 11 metres

to load a certain number of standard high (86) 20 foot containers, each container loaded with a homogeneous

longer than the EMMA MAERSK, they can

carry some 2,500 boxes more. Included in
the improved ship design was a stacking

weight of 14 tonnes, taking into account draught limitations by freeboard rules, ship stability and a certain
MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER;
built 2013, 399 x 59 m, 18,270 TEU

capacity on deck of 11 tiers and the new

Example: EMMA MAERSK may have a nominal TEU capacity of up to 15,000 TEU.
At 14 tonne homogeneous load, the capacity is 11,000 TEU. The official figure is 12,500 TEU, which includes a

designs also provided increased cargo

a waste-heat recovery system) emissions

space under deck.

per container on the Triple-E class vessels

are 50 per cent lower than on other ships

Radically new design features of the

quantity of ballast and consumables on board.

trading on the Asia-Europe route.

Triple-E class included measures to improve

the ships energy efficiency. The capacity of

In 2014-2015 containerships with even

the main engines was reduced to optimise

greater capacity were delivered to other

their performance at a target speed of 19

container shipping lines. By the end of 2015,

knots. This not only significantly reduced

the largest containerships in service were

fuel consumption but also emissions per

those from the Olympic Class owned by

container. The company claimed that due

MSC (e.g. MSC OSCAR) with a total capacity

to these environmental measures (including

of 19,224 TEU.

certain number of empty containers but in fact the vessel could load more than that.

47

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Chapter 3

Container flows and

transport networks

Introduction and terminology

of cargoes carried in containers are almost

According to the World Shipping Council,

unlimited; from unitised commodities

approximately 90 per cent of todays global

(in general-purpose containers), to bulk

trade is carried by sea, of which some 50

cargoes (in bulk containers), liquids (in tank

per cent is carried in containers. The growth

containers), perishables (in temperature-

of container shipping in the last 60 years

controlled containers), project cargoes and

has been impressive and the volume and

yachts (on flatracks) etc.

types of cargoes carried in containers are

increasing all the time.

This chapter describes the various stages

of the journey taken by the container; from

Globalisation would have been impossible

the place of loading to its final destination,

without the full exploitation of the

together with an explanation of the most

possibilities offered by the container.

relevant terms used in the industry.

As already stated, the containers real

importance does not lie in what it is a

Deep sea, feeder and short sea services

simple steel box but in what it makes

carry containers between ports located

possible: intermodalism, or the ability of the

close to the open sea or to / from a port

container to be carried by different modes

which has a connection to the sea by way of

of transport without having to handle the

an inland waterway navigable by seagoing

cargo at an intermediate stage.

vessels. Once the container has reached

its port of destination, it will be unloaded

The cargo in the container may be a

from the vessel at a terminal and will require

finished product shipped directly to a

further transport from the port. Further

supermarket or retail store. Increasingly,

transport may involve only a short distance

however, the cargo in the container is

by road from the container terminal to a

just part of an end product and requires

warehouse. Here, the cargo is unloaded

assembly further down the line. The types

from the container and transferred onto

49

50 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

container yard
nt iner t n

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

container yard

container yard

nt iner t n

container yard
nt iner tri in nt iner tri in

e n

Most basic container transport, direct shipment from shippers premise or factory to receivers warehouse
(usually a so-called FCL/FCL-shipment)

packing station packing station

container yard
nt iner t n

container yard

container yard

container yard

container yard

container yard

container yard

nt iner t n

container
logistic
yardcentre
nt iner tri in

logistic centre
consignee

consignee

nt iner tri in

e n

Container transport, involving a container packing station and feeder vessels to connect a regional port to a container hub

train

inland terminal inland terminal

r e
nt iner t n

train

container
yard
r e

train

container yard

nt iner t n

Fully intermodal containershipment (truck, train, barge, ship) involving an inland terminal in country of origion and country
of destination and a distribution centre for logistic service and delivery to retail shops

container yard
e

e n

r e
container yard

train

retail
inland
terminal centre
distribution
distribution centre
r e terminal inland
nt iner tri in nt iner tri in

retail

51

52

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 53

a road trailer for further distribution, either

example is the Ruhr area in Germany which

Finally, carriage by road offers greater

In business, logistics management is

as a whole or in parts. Similarly, cargo to be

is served by the port of Rotterdam as well as

flexibility but is more costly and has a

the part of the supply chain that plans,

exported through the seaport undertakes

the Hamburg / Bremen port cluster and the

larger impact on traffic congestion and

implements, and controls the flow and

the same journey but in reverse.

port of Antwerp. Using the Danube

the environment.

storage of goods, services, and related

information between the point of origin

and Rhine rivers, the Ruhr area may even

Containers destined for locations further

be served by the port of Constantza

On-time delivery

and the point of consumption to meet

away from the seaport may use other means

in Romania.

One of the most important requirements

customer requirements.

of on-carriage, such as transport by rail or

by barge using inland waterways (barging).

in transport today is on-time delivery of the

Modal split

shipped goods. Transport is considered

Distribution centres form an essential

The percentage of freight using a particular

an intrinsic part of the entire supply chain.

part of supply chain management and

Hinterland

type of transportation, e.g. ship, barge,

Container transport operators have made

containerised shipments. A distribution

The inland region located behind a port

train, truck is generally referred to as modal

on-time delivery possible through a system

centre is located where a vast number

and served by that port through a network

split. In container transport, cost is often an

of fixed sailing schedules and berthing

of products are stocked. A typical retail

of road, rail or barge connections is

important factor in the choice of preferred

windows agreed with terminals. This has

distribution network operates with centres

generally referred to as a ports hinterland.

mode of transport. Carriage by ship or

resulted in a different manner of stock

set up across a commercial market, with

Ports with a gateway function have a

barge involves relative low transport costs

control in warehouses; whereas warehouses

each centre serving a number of stores.

competitive advantage if they can efficiently

and lower carbon footprints, but takes

would previously have had to maintain

Typical examples of such organisations

serve a large hinterland. An inland region

longer and is subject to unpredictable

large volumes of stock, most of their

are major retailers such as Wal-Mart, IKEA,

is not necessarily linked exclusively to

navigational factors such as weather and

stock is today floating at sea on board a

TESCO etc., whose distribution centres are

one seaport and more than one seaport

deviation. Transport by rail is faster, more

container carrier.

constantly supplied with tens of thousands

may serve a particular hinterland. A good

regular but does not offer flexibility.

products carried in containers from

Logistics management

suppliers all over the world.

Managing the supply chain in such a way

that the right item arrives at the right time,
at the right place, for the right price in

Baltic Sea

the right condition to the right customer

Nor th Sea

is known as logistics and the services

Rotterdam

involved are rendered by a logistic service

Bremen

provider.

Antwerp

The term logistics comes from the military.

For an army, it is an important element of

Aerial view of a large distribution centre

military strategy to maintain its supply lines

Rhine / Main / Danube

Ruhr area

Connections with the Ruhr area from Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg/Bremen and Constantza

Constantza

Blac k
Sea

in the best possible way while, at the same

Carrier

time, disrupting the supply lines of the

In container transport, the term carrier

enemy. After all, an army without resources

does not necessarily apply to the party who

and transportation is defenceless.

physically transports the goods from one

place to another. Very often, an organisation
has outsourced the transport and logistic

54 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 55

services to a freight forwarder or NVOCC

role as MTOs, accepting greater liability

(Non Vessel Operating Common Carrier).

as carriers. Examples of large freight

A freight forwarder or NVOCC does not

forwarders are Khne & Nagel, FedEx

own or operate vessels; they may own

and UPS.

3.1

Deep sea transport

containers or hire the container from a

leasing company. An NVOCC is legally

Large sea carriers have also evolved into

responsible towards the shipper for the

MTOs; they provide customers with a door-

transport of the containerised goods and

accepts all liabilities as a carrier. However,

Long-distance (or intercontinental)

to-door service as well as logistic services.

Shipping networks and

port connections

The sea carrier picks up the container at the

Intercontinental container shipping

very much along the lines of the hub and

the NVOCC acts as a virtual carrier and

senders premises, usually located inland

networks have emerged in recent

spoke network system. Within this system,

the actual transport is sub-contracted to

and delivers the same container to the

decades. This development has supported

container traffic moves along spokes

a range of sub-carriers (shipping lines,

receivers premises, also usually situated

the globalisation of production and

which are connected to hubs at the centre.

railroad organisations, trucking or barge

inland, under one transport bill. In those

consumption. From a logistics point of view,

Since the 1990s, many of these hubs have

companies). The NVOCC carrier therefore

instances, the sea carrier transports the

shippers require frequent direct services

emerged particularly along the East-West

acts as shipper towards the actual carrier.

container from a container yard at point

between their ports of preference. On the

trade lanes. Examples of such hubs are

transport of containers has developed

A to the container yard at point B and

other hand, shipping lines aim to optimise

Singapore and Tanjung Pelapas in Asia,

The carrier responsible for the entire

nominates a sub-contractor for the land

their transport networks. This is usually

Dubai and Salalah in the Middle East, and

carriage is referred to as a multimodal

transport. The term carrier haulage is a

achieved by utilising the space on board

ports such as Malta, Algeciras and Gioia

transport operator (MTO).

specific term to indicate that the shipping

vessels in the best possible way (utilisation

Tauro in the Mediterranean.

line is responsible for the land transport, as

rate) and to operate the service at the

Freight forwarders were traditionally the

opposed to merchant haulage where the

lowest possible cost.

agents of the shipper of the goods, but

shipper or the receiver is responsible for the

more and more, they have moved into a

land transport to or from the container yard.

Large liner ships call at large ports, usually

located far apart, because each ship carries

As it is both technically and economically

a huge volume of cargo. Smaller ports

impossible to establish direct shipping

are serviced by feeder ships that cater to

connections between every country,

regional and niche markets. The term small

transport hubs have been established along

in the context of ships sizes has become a

the main global trading routes, particularly

relative concept; ships that were considered

where east / west and north / south trading

very large ten years ago, now act as feeder

routes meet. At these points, containers

vessels in some trades.

can easily be transshipped from one

vessel to another. This gives shipping lines

Todays shipping networks are very complex

greater flexibility to connect a range of

and consist of many different sub-networks

ports around the world with the smallest

with regional connections. The combination

number of vessels. Efficiency can be

of shipping alliances and vessel sharing

increased further when shipping companies

agreements further promote flexibility and

participate in so-called alliances with other

diversity of hubs and ports within each

shipping lines.

shipping network.

56 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Service routes

of services, and number of companies

In terms of container volume, the most

deploying containerships in a countrys

important connections are between Asia

Generally, container shipping may operate their deep-sea itineraries according to three types of service routes:

ports. In 2004, the index value was fixed at

and North America (Transpacific Pendulum),

End to end (or shuttle) services

100 for the country with the highest index

followed by the Asia Europe connection

Pendulum services

value (China). The index for a given year

and Transatlantic Pendulum serving north-

Round the World services

shows how well connected a country is,

west Europe and the east coast of the

End to end services

compared to China. The higher the score

United States. All of these are mainly east

The container vessels are scheduled back and forth between two continents and a range of ports are called

the more active that particular country is

west freight movements.

on each continent. Examples are the Trans-Atlantic , Trans-Pacific services and Europe to Asia service. The

in the container trade. The index can give

advantage of end to end services is that ship size on these routes is only constrained by the navigational

an indication of a countrys developing

Important north south connections have

accessibility of the ports along the route. A disadvantage may be imbalance in container volumes between the

connectivity over a given number of years.

been established between the east coast

of South America and Europe, between

two directions of the service.

Pendulum services

The table below lists the 25 countries with

a range of ports in Asia Pacific but also

These services schedule vessels between three continents, with one continent acting as a central point

the highest connectivity index value in 2014.

between Australia and Asia Pacific and

between North America and the east coast

(of fulcrum), linking either side of the pendulum swing. For example, a pendulum service may involve North
America linking East Asia through Europe (or a European hub) serving as the fulcrum. The main advantage of this

Container trade routes

kind of service is better utilisation of the container space on board as container slots may be filled four times on

There are nearly 500 liner shipping services

the same voyage. Pendulum services can be arranged in many different shapes and can also be merged with end

providing regular scheduled services that

With the future opening of the expanded

to end services.

enable goods to move between ports along

Panama Canal (and possibly Nicaragua

Round the world service

the many trade routes crossing the globe.

Canal), new liner services using larger

of South America.

This service ties the worlds three trade corridors (i.e. Europe / Africa, North America and Asia) into one.
The service can move either in a westward or eastward direction or in both directions. The main disadvantage
of this type of service is that vessel size is limited by the dimensions of the Panama Canal which is included in
a round the world services.

175

2004 (China = 100)

2014 (China = 165)

150
125

The flow of containerised trade across

development of an area often starts

the globe is very much determined by the

once local ports receive regular calls by

strategies of the individual liner companies

a container liner service.

75

of services. Whether or not a port will be

The Liner Shipping Connectivity Index

50

included in a liner network depends on

(LSCI) captures how well countries are

a number of factors, such as the actual

connected to global shipping networks.

or expected density of the flow of trade,

It is compiled by the United Nations

deviation from an existing network, political

Conference on Trade and Development

stability in the region, etc. Studies have

(UNCTAD) and is based on five components

shown that connection to such networks is

of the maritime transport sector: the

important for the economic development

number of ships, container carrying

of a region or even a country. The rapid

capacity, maximum vessel size, number

25

Top 25 connectivity index (source: UNCTAD)

Malta

Oman

Poland

Turkey

Denmark

Sweden

Sri Lanka

Saudi Arabia

Egypt

Japan

Morocco

Italy

United Arab Emirates

Spain

France

Belgium

Germany

United Kingdom

USA

The Netherlands

Malaysia

Singapore

Republic of Korea

Hong Kong

0
China

and shippers demand for certain types

100

57

58 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

to container shipping as they are the

Panama Canal

New Panama Canal

chokepoints in the flow of intercontinental

Gibraltar

Panama Canal

container traffic.

Bosporus
Suez Canal Strait of Hormuz

draught
width

Panama Canal

Bab el-Mandab
Strait of Malacca

Cape of Good Hope

World chart with most important container trade routes

12.5 m
32.25 m

18 m
57 m

The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic

Ocean with the Pacific Ocean, and runs

New Panama Canal (since 2015)

from Cristobal on the Atlantic side to

New locks were constructed, which,

Balboa on the Pacific side. The canal

together with the deepening of the access

consists of artificial lakes, several

channels, allow ships with a maximum

improved and artificial channels, and

length of 366 m, a width of 57 m and a

three sets of locks.

draught of 18 m to use the canal. The ships

passing through these news locks are no

container vessels will be established, to

Important maritime passages

support higher volumes and more frequent

Maritime shipping supports some 90 per

east west connections, particularly between

cent of global trade by volume and 72 per

Asia Pacific and the east coast of North

cent of its value. Clearly, an efficient and

America. The realisation of port expansion

smooth running of this industry is very

plans in North America was necessary to

important. To connect continents around

make these ports accessible to very large

the world, maritime shipping depends

container vessels.

on relatively narrow lanes of transoceanic

passages which are of strategic significance.

Because of global trade imbalances, a

Caribbean Sea
COSTA RICA

longer positioned by locomotives but

by tugboats.

Panama Canal
Panama

Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is an artificial waterway
COLOMBIA

Pacific Ocean

connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the

Red Sea. It is an open connection between
Port Said at the Mediterranean Sea side and

construction completed

1914

the Gulf of Suez.

current owner

Panama Canal Authority (ACP)

large number of empty containers need

Since the beginning of shipping, the unique

length of canal

82 km

to be transported by sea as well. There

features of these main maritime passages

operational / ship design restrictions:

are approximately 2.2 times more full

have also placed important limitations on

draught 12 m

waiting times as the size of certain sections

containers being transported from Asia to

the design of ships, and the location of the

width 32.25 m

of the Canal allowed for one-way traffic

Europe than from Europe to Asia. A similar

navigable route. For example, the Panama

length 295.4 m

only. The Suez Canal expansion project

situation exists in the Asia to North America

Canal imposes restrictions on the width

yes; Gatun locks

added a new 35 km long shipping lane

trade. A containership sailing from Europe

(max. 32.25 m) and draught (max.

or North America towards Asia carries half

12.04 m - upon request) of the design of

the load it carried on its way to Europe or

(container) ships.

North America. This large number of

locks

(Atlantic side, Christobal)

Miraflores and San Pedro locks
(Pacific side, Balboa)
tolls

Yes, for containerships based

on intake capacity: USD 72.00

Until July 2015, ships passing the Suez

Canal had to sail in convoys with substantial

allowing for separated passing of ships in

opposite directions. The existing section of
the Canal was also deepened.

empty containers poses significant

While ships continue to increase in size, the

per TEU, effective from 2009.

This increased capacity allows 97 ships to

challenges to the liner companies in their

limitations on ship design created by two

A new toll rate applies as from

pass the Canal every day compared to 49

logistic processes.

other important maritime passages must

April 2016.

ships before the expansion project.

also be taken into consideration, namely the

The waiting times decreased from 11 to 3

Suez Canal and the Strait of Malacca. These

hours for most ships.

three passages are of vital importance

59

60 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

The expansion project was completed in

Strait of Malacca

Deep sea container ports

Containerisation has also fundamentally

one year and the New Canal was officially

The Strait of Malacca is one of the worlds

The location of container ports is very

changed the layout of shipping terminals

inaugurated on 6 August 2015.

most important shipping lanes.

much a reflection of how containerisation

and the reasons for their location. In

has changed the commercial geography

particular the larger container vessels

of the world. Until the year 2000, the most

do not have onboard cranes, and

important container ports were New York

consequently, significant onshore

and Rotterdam, but with the emergence

investment is required to provide cranes to

of the strong economies in the Asia Pacific

load and discharge the containers. As the

region, a significant change occurred.

container itself protects the cargo from the

In less than a decade, many container ports

elements, cargo warehouses are no longer

were established or further developed

required. On the other hand, ample storage

along the Tokyo Singapore corridor.

space is required to store the containers on

Today, with the exception of Dubai and

the dockside.

Indian Ocean

Mediterranean Sea

Str

South
China
Sea

M
cc

al

Caro

MALAYSIA

of

EGYPTE

Suez Canal

ait

ISRAEL

Gul
fo

fS

Singapore

ue

INDONESIA

construction completed

1869

The majority of maritime trade between

the port of Los Angeles/Long Beach, the

2015)

Europe, India, the Middle East and Asia

worlds top ten container ports are all

Global container carriers prefer to exercise

Suez Canal Authority (SCA)

passes through this natural corridor.

located in Asia Pacific. As of 2014, the port

some control over the terminal and its

of Rotterdam, which is Europes largest

operations. Particularly in locations where

(expanded in 1980, 2001 and

current owner
length of canal

163 km

The strait measures approximately 800 km

container port is twelfth on that list and

they handle large cargo volumes, global

draught 20.0 m

in length and has a width of between 50

New York twenty third.

container carriers operate their own

air draught 68 m

and 320 km. At Phillips Channel, just south

width 50 m

of Singapore, the Strait of Malacca narrows

operational/ship design restrictions:

length unlimited

to 2.8 km (1.5 nautical miles), creating one

locks

no

of the worlds most significant maritime

tolls

yes; depending on the tonnage

(Suez Canal tonnage) and
number of container tiers on
deck. Ranging from
approximately USD 250,000

terminals or even entire ports.

traffic junctions. In naval architecture, the

term Malaccamax is used to refer to the
largest ship capable of passing through the
25 m deep Strait. The typical Malaccamax

for a 4,000 TEU vessel to

vessel used to be a bulker or a supertanker

USD 650,000, for a

with a length of 330 m, a beam of 60 m and

13,000 TEU vessel

a draught of 20.5 m.
The latest generation of containerships

Suez Canal

has been built in accordance with the

20 m

draught
width

50 m

Malaccamax size requirements, but for

reasons of safety and operational efficiency,
and to make these ships capable of
calling at several ports across the
continents, the design draught of these
ships has been limited.
Container terminal Antwerp

61

62 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 63

12 16
17
7

11 15

8 3
9

train

waterside

trucks

barge

20
19

13

4 18

14

10

1
5

landside

In terms of ownership and access by users,

area and is the area where the containers

container terminals may therefore be split

are stacked and temporarily stored.

into dedicated terminals, the use of which

1 Shanghai

35,300

6 Busan

18,700

11 Tianjin

14,100

16 Hamburg

is reserved for one single or a small

A container terminal can serve as a place

2 Singapore

33,900

7 Qingdao

16,600

12 Rotterdam

12,300

17 Antwerp

9,800
9,000

number of operators, and common

where containers are transhipped from one

3 Shenzhen

24,000

8 Guangzhou Harbor 16,600

13 Port Kelang

11,000

18 Xiamen

8,600

multi-user terminals, which are open to

vessel to another vessel (the so-called hub

4 Hong Kong

22,200

9 Dubai

15,300

14 Kaohsiung

10,600

19 Tanjung Pelepas

8,500

5 Ningbo-Zhoushan

19,500

10 L.A. / Long Beach

15,200

15 Dalian

10,100

20 Laem Chabang

6,600

any liner company with a contract with the

function). This function is usually used to

terminal operator.

link transport networks to each other. Only

Worlds top 20 container ports, measured by container throughput 2014, in 1000 TEU (source: Alphaliner)

a very limited number of the containers

The four largest operators of container

arriving at these ports are destined for

one carrier but may be less significant for

in the selection of a port site within the

terminals in terms of container throughput

the country or place where the terminal is

another carrier. For instance, Antwerp in

shipping networks.

are Hutchinson Port Holdings (HPH), China

located. This is different from the so-called

Belgium is the main hub for MSC in

Merchants Holding Int. (CMHI), APM

gateway ports, which are especially

Europe while it serves relatively fewer

The table above presents the worlds top

Terminals, Cosco Pacific, Port of Singapore

equipped to serve a hinterland.

vessels from Maersk Line. On the other

20 container ports, measured by container

hand, Algeciras is the main European hub

throughput. Container throughput is the

Authority (PSA) and DP World. The

terminals operated by these six companies

The connections to the hinterland can be in

for Maersk Line, but is relatively insignificant

amount of cargo that passes through a

handle approximately 40 per cent of the

the form of rivers, lakes, canals, and rail or

in the MSC network.

port, and is measured in units of 20 foot

worlds total container throughput.

road systems. As a result, hub ports usually

containers (TEU).

have large storage areas but limited or no

With the deployment of the very large

Container terminals are divided into the

connections with other modes of transport.

container vessels, nautical accessibility

The top three ports in the above list are

waterside area, the storage yard and the

Gateway ports place great emphasis

(water depth) and availability

highlighted below.

landside area. The waterside area consists

on providing efficient connections to

of space have become important factors

of a quay and apron for serving the vessels.

rail or barge terminals and access to

The landside area consists of the hinterland

road transport.

servicing area for connections to barges,

trucks and trains. The storage yard

The function of a terminal or port may differ

decouples the waterside from the landside

depending on the container carriers using

the site; a port or terminal can be a hub for

64 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 65

St r

MALAYSIA

ait

of

East China Sea

ala

cc

n
Ya

gt

ze

Hangzhou

Shanghai

CHINA

Kuala Lumpur

INDONESIA

Guangzhou

Singapore

Xi

Shenzhen

Hong Kong

Transport connections capable of

handling larger number of containers in
one movement are established between
an inland terminal and a seaport. For
example, one freight train can carry up to
forty truckloads, whilst one barge can carry

East China Sea

CHINA

anything up to several hundred truckloads.

The port of Shanghai

The port of Singapore

The port of Shenzen

There are many different shapes, sizes and

Shanghai is probably the best example of

Singapore became the worlds largest

Shenzhen is situated in the south of

varieties of inland (or intermodal) terminals,

how the Chinese economy established itself

container port when it took over from

the Pearl River Delta in the province of

and likewise, many different names are

as an economic power in a relatively short

Hong Kong in 2005. Singapore is a

Guangdong, China, and is one of the fastest

being used to describe this type of facility,

period of time. In 1991, when the central

typical container hub; a large majority

growing ports and cities in southern China.

such as:

government of China allowed Shanghai to

of the containers arriving at the port are

The port acts as the economic hinterland

Inland clearance depot

commence commercial activities, container

transhipped to other ports.

connection for the nearby port of

Container freight station

Hong Kong but has also developed

Inland container depot

Twenty years later, Shanghai became

Singapore is located on the southern tip of

into an important port for Chinas

Intermodal freight centre

the biggest container port in the world,

the Malay Peninsula, at the entrance to the

international trade.

Logistics centre/freight village

overtaking Singapore.

Strait of Malacca, one of the worlds most

handling in the port was insignificant.

important marine traffic junctions.

The port, which is a typical gateway type

Inland freight terminal

Within 50 km of Shenzhen, are the ports of

Inland port

Hong Kong, Shekou, and Yantian, together

Dry port

port, is situated in the centre of Chinas

The port is also the largest port in the world

representing what is probably the highest

18,000 km long coastline, where the

for the bunkering of fuel oil.

concentration of container activity in

The most common description is the term

the world.

inland terminal. The main features of an

Yangtze River flows into the sea. Through

a network of inland waterways and rail

inland terminal are:

connections, it serves the entire Yangtze

Inland ports and terminals

River valley, one of the most densely

In most parts of the world, trucking is the

where two transport modes are

populated areas in the world with a very

predominant mode of transport between a

concerned, or trimodal involving three

high economic activity, mainly focussed on

seaport and its hinterland. Containers are

transport modes

manufacturing and export of goods.

picked up from the terminal for transport to

it is situated inland

the final receivers premises either directly

it provides regular and reliable rail or

or indirectly, i.e. after transfer of the load

from a warehouse onto a road trailer.

it is an intermodal terminal bimodal

barge connections from/to the seaport

it offers the same ancillary services as
are available at seaports and freight

However, as the volume of cargo to be

terminals, including:

distributed increases, issues such as

storage of containers (buffer function

costs, energy consumption and delays

for the seaport)

due to congestion may provide sufficient

empty container storage

incentives to set up an inland terminal.

repair and maintenance of containers

66 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

customs clearance

carried by the terminal operator to the

warehousing, supply chain

inland terminal under their own transport

management
distribution.

regime. This has created a situation where

terminal operators have become carriers

3.2

Short sea container transport

of containers, either by deploying their

The concept of inland ports has developed

own transport equipment or by hiring

particularly in Western Europe. Logistics

equipment from others.

Deep sea container transport is the

In general, short sea shipping is seagoing

shipment of containers from one continent

trade, including the movement of cargo,

terminals, can be found in almost every

Large numbers of inland ports can also

to the other, carried by very large

mainly along a coast without transiting

region or close to any major city. This

be found in North America, where they are

containerships between major hub ports

an ocean.

development was strongly supported

mostly referred to as load centres. They

with smaller feeder vessels delivering the

by the liberalisation of rail services in

service the ocean trade from and to ports in

containers from these hub ports to smaller

European short sea shipping

Europe, especially in major sea ports such

the Atlantic, the Gulf and Pacific areas.

regional ports. The feeder vessels own

In Europe, short sea container shipping has

as Rotterdam, Antwerp and Marseille. In

One of the worlds largest inland ports is

schedules tie in with those of the deep sea

mainly developed as a multimodal door-

some ports, such as Basel, the majority of

the port of Montreal in Canada.

container vessels.

to-door transport concept for the carriage

barge. The largest inland port in Europe is

In Asia, a large number of inland ports (over

Since the early 1990s, a new type of

Duisburg, Germany.

2.000) are found along Chinas Yangtze and

container trade has been developing in

Yellow Rivers. The cities of Nanjing and

parallel with and entirely independent of

The European Transport Policy has been

Several European inland ports are owned

Chongqing are two of the largest inland

the deep sea container trade discussed

promoting intermodal transport for the last

or operated by the same owner/operator

ports in China. In addition to these river-

above. This new transport segment is

20 years. Aspects such as road congestion,

as the seaport. Containers arriving at the

based inland ports, many rail-based inland

generally referred to as short sea container

environmental impact and sustainability

seaport with an inland destination are

ports are being established in China.

shipping, and its development has been

against the background of a continuously

particularly rapid in Europe. One of the

increasing volume of goods were the main

main drivers behind this growth is the

reasons for this policy. Various instruments

incentivising policy of the European Union,

were used by the European Union as well

which sees a great number of advantages

as its individual member states to bring the

of short sea shipping compared to road

policy into practice, such as improving and

transport which is often characterised by

financing current and new infrastructure,

congestion, environmental issues, etc.

smoothing administrative bottlenecks

zones, mostly with rail-based inland

the containers handled are transported by

of intra-European cargo. It also includes

destinations bordering the European Union.

(customs), and support for the providers of

The term short sea shipping is relatively
Largest inland port in Europe: Duisburg

the transport services.

new. The trade from which it originates

has existed for centuries and used to be

Over the years, many projects involving

referred to as coastal trade. In the United

short sea shipping have been initiated

States it was also referred to as the marine

throughout the European Union and various

highway or the highway of the seas.

formal and informal networking groups

have been established to further enhance

67

68 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

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Short-Sea connections

Atlantic Ocean
Oslo

Dublin

Stockholm

Baltic
Sea

Helsinki
Moscow

North Sea
Hamburg
Berlin

Rotterdam

Celtic Sea

Warsaw

20, 40 and 45 foot long containers with a

very wide geographical area. It stretches

height of either 86 / 2.59 m (standard high)

from the Baltic states across Scandinavia

or 96 / 2.89 m (high cube). In the deep

and Iceland, via the United Kingdom,

sea trade, the variation in container size

Ireland, and Western Europe to the Iberian

is governed by ISO standards and mainly

Peninsula and the Mediterranean as well as

limited by the design of the vessel and the

to Northern Africa and the Black Sea.

positioning of cell guides and container

foundations on deck.

The main European centre for short

Milan

Bay of
Biscay

European short sea shipping covers a

Barcelona

Ad

Bucharest
ria

tic

Istanbul

Sea

Black Sea

Athens

Lisbon

sea activities is Rotterdam, followed by

In the European short sea shipping sector

Antwerp and Hamburg. Several terminals in

a large variety of container types have been

Rotterdam operate containers exclusively

introduced over the years, mainly aimed

for the short sea trade.

at better adapting to the characteristics

and dimensions of the cargo to be carried

Casablanca

Mediterranean Sea
Cairo

Short sea shipping connections in Europe

the growth of short sea container shipping

ESPO

in Europe. Some of these are:

European Sea Ports Organisation

Most short sea shipping lines operate

by the container. Containers with a length

both in the short sea and in the feeder

of 10, 21, 23, 27, 30 and 35 feet etc., can

trade. This implies that ships in this trade

be seen on board a typical short sea type

call at several terminals in one port to pick

vessel, and many of these with an expanded

up and / or deliver cargo from / to different

external width of 2.50 m so-called pallet

transport chains.

wide containers, or 2.55 m which are also

known as over-wide bulk containers.

Founded in 1993, it represents port

Short sea shipping is not bound by

The pallet wide container was designed

TEN-T

authorities, port associations and port

limitations in type and size of containers

for better utilisation of the container space

Trans-European Transport Networks

administrations of the seaports of Norway

as is the deep sea shipping sector. The

when loading pallets (see The success of

The role of TEN-T is to support financially

and European Union member states. ESPO

typical dimensions of containers in deep

Europes 45 foot intermodal container).

transport projects of common interest to

also has observer members in several

sea container transport are standardised

the member states of the European Union.

neighbouring countries to the EU.

The projects aim to facilitate the mobility

The success of Europes 45 foot intermodal container

of goods and passengers within the EU.

ESN

Its annual budget is approximately

European Shortsea Network

One particular type of container has become very popular in the short sea shipping trade in Europe, and that

EUR 1 1.5 billion.

ESN is a forum for co-operation between all

is the 45 foot intermodal container. This is the longest container which can be carried by road within mainland

the national short sea promotional centres,

Europe. As European short sea shipping is often a combination of sea and road transport, the restrictions on the

MOS

and is not exclusively for EU members.

largest size permitted for road transport must be taken into account. These restrictions are laid down in Council

Motorways of the Sea (MOS)

ESN provides information, and organises

Directive 96 / 53 / EC.

The concept was first introduced in the

conferences and seminars, all aimed at

White Paper on European Transport Policy

promoting the role of short sea shipping

Council Directive 96 / 53 / EC of 25 July 1996 has laid down the maximum permitted dimensions of certain road

of 2001, and aims to design logistics

in Europe.

vehicles operating within Europe in both national and international traffic, and the maximum permitted weight in

corridors based on short sea shipping

similar in nature to the motorways on land.

international traffic.

69

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

kingpin

The large range of different containers

carried in the European short sea sector
created a need for a special type of vessel

2040
12000

4500

which could offer the carrier sufficient

16500

2040

12000

70

45FT

bevelled corner casting

flexibility to stow, lash and secure the

containers in a safe and efficient manner.
In the period between 2001 and 2008,

The Directive also states that the total distance from the kingpin of the container trailer to the aft end of the

a large number of ships were built to serve

container should be no more than 12,000 mm. The standard 45 foot ISO container exceeds this maximum

the growing short sea shipping business in

permissible length by 80 mm. An industry lobby working to have the 45 foot ISO container accepted by all

Europe. A significant percentage of these

European states failed, and it cannot, therefore, be carried by road everywhere in Europe.

new vessels for the short sea sector was

Sietas 168 type containership for short sea, 862 TEU

built at the shipyard of Sietas in HamburgSimply moving the 45 foot container 80 mm further forward will not solve the issue, as the same Directive states

Neuenfelde, Germany. The most popular

that, at the forward end, the container should be within 2,040 mm of the kingpin. As a result, a container was

class was the Sietas 168 class, which had

designed with a length of 45 foot but with the forward corner castings bevelled at an angle of approximately

a carrying capacity of 862 TEU. The cell-

45 degrees (see illustration above). This container construction complied with the EC Directive and made the

guided cargo holds were designed without

container fit for road and sea transport in Europe.

hatchcovers and the ships could carry

both over-length as well as over-width

Council Directive 96 / 53 / EC also imposed restrictions on the maximum height of the trailer and container, which

containers. Later ships were designed with

was limited to 4,000 mm. A standard road trailer can therefore carry a container with a height of 2,775 mm.

a larger carrying capacity, i.e. up to 1,400

A special trailer was designed with a so-called (lowered) gooseneck chassis to accommodate the carriage of high

TEU, which were referred to as Baltic Max

cube containers with a height of 2.89 m.

container vessels.

Furthermore, in order to better align the width of the container with the standard pallet sizes used in the

In Europe, short sea connections are also

European trade (so-called EUR pallets with a dimension of 1200 x 800, L x W), the internal width was increased

offered by the many ferry services between

from a standard 2.348 m. to 2.438 m.

the continent and the United Kingdom,

Scandinavia, etc.

The 45 foot pallet wide, high-cube container has gained so much in popularity in the European trade that it has
become available with a large variety of options to meet particular trade requirements:

Shipping connections were also established

the 45 foot curtain-sided container

between seaports and inland ports such

the 45 foot reefer container; including diesel electric power supply

as Duisburg and Dortmund using hybrid

the 45 foot bulk container

vessels. These vessels are small enough to

the 45 foot double door container (e.g. for the carriage of rolls of carpet)

use inland waterways, while at the same

the 45 foot dry box with double load floor (e.g. for the carriage of cars)

time meeting flag state and classification

the 45 foot open-top container (e.g. for long / heavy objects exceeding the height of the container ceiling)

society requirements for overseas voyages.

the 45 foot dry box for hanging garments

Some navigation restrictions usually apply

the 45 foot dry box with extra tall doors.

for these types of vessels, e.g. weather,

(source: Unit 45)

distance from coast, etc.

Sietas 178 type containership for short sea, 1,400 TEU

Baltic Max

71

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Cabotage laws and the Jones Act

Short sea container shipping in

North America

ensure reliable, regular, competitive and

sustainable services. As in Europe, these

Cabotage is the transport of goods or passengers between two points in the same country alongside coastal

The majority of long-distance container

efforts are aimed at reducing landside

waters, by a vessel registered in another country. Most countries enact cabotage laws for reasons of economic

transport in North America is carried by

congestion and air emissions and to

protectionism, national security, or public safety.

the railways, whilst road transport is the

produce other public interest benefits.

preferred option for shorter distances.

Americas Marine Highway System consists

The Jones Act, or the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, is a US federal rule that supports the promotion and

of over 40,000 km of navigable waterways.

maintenance of the American merchant marine. It regulates, amongst others, matters of maritime commerce

However, in 2007, Americas Marine

These include rivers, bays, channels, the

in US waters and between US ports. Section 27 of the Jones Act deals with cabotage, i.e. coastal shipping, and

Highway Program was established under

Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence Seaway

restricts the carriage of goods or passengers between United States ports to US built and flagged vessels.

section 1121 of Energy Independence

System, coastal, and open ocean routes.

and Security Act and the United States

Department of Transport, Maritime

Marine Highway Routes are divided into

Some in the industry are of the opinion

Coastal transportation of containers

Administration (MARAD) is tasked with

corridors, connectors, and crossings.

that short sea services in North America

takes place on every continent in the

its execution. In 2012, the scope of the

The corridors comprise long, multi-state

could be significantly increased if cabotage

world, but are mostly combined with

program was expanded by section

routes that run parallel to major national

rules, tariff issues and duty aspects were

feeder or (passenger) ferry services. The

405 of the Coast Guard and Maritime

highways. Connectors are shorter routes

removed. An example of such legislation is

types and sizes of containers carried

Transportation Act.

that serve as feeders to the larger corridors.

the Jones Act (see above), which prevents

are similar to those carried by deep sea

Crossings are short routes passing through

foreign registered carriers from transporting

container services (20, 40 and 45 foot long).

The aim of the program is to integrate

harbours or waterways as an alternative to

containers between ports in the US.

Frequent coastal services are maintained,

Marine Highway vessels and ports into the

much longer land routes.

for example, between South East Asia,

surface transportation system, in order to

Short sea shipping in other areas

China, Japan and Korea. In China, the

As described above, the concept of short

port of Nanjing, which is situated some

sea shipping is to provide a door to door

200 km upstream of the Yangtze River has

service between ports in the same country,

developed into Chinas busiest inland port

region or continent without crossing an

and is the most important economic centre

ocean. The vessels employed in these

in China after Shanghai. The port of Nanjing

trades offer flexibility in terms of the variety

offers many direct coastal services to other

of containers they can carry. As such, the

ports in the region.

short sea shipping trade has matured

Pac if ic O cean

Toronto

Chicago
San Francisco
Los Angeles

Atlanta

Boston

New York
Washington, D.C.

in Europe only. Programmes have been

Apart from coastal services, there is also

initiated in the United States to establish

inter-island traffic for the transport of

a similar type of trade to compete with

containers in countries such as Indonesia

road transport.

and between the various islands in

the Caribbean.

Americas Marine Highway Routes

MH Corridor
MH Connector
MH Crossing

Short sea shipping connections in North America (source: MARAD)

Gulf of
Mexico

Miami

A tlantic O cean

San Juan

73

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GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

many navigational obstacles or seasonal

3.3

differences allow access only during certain

Container transport by barge

periods of the year. Furthermore, rivers

are only suitable as a major transport
connection if their direction of flow
corresponds with the direction of the

The term inland waterways includes

rail transport appeared to be a better

transport demand. For example, many

natural rivers, lakes, channels and man-

alternative for transporting larger volumes

rivers in Russia flow in a north-south

made canals. The use of inland waterways

of goods over longer distances.

direction, while the main demand for freight

Pushed container convoy, Mississippi River

transport is east-west.

to transport goods goes back to the

early stages of the industrial revolution

During the first half of the twentieth century,

in the nineteenth century when barges

barges were constructed with their own

Significant inland waterways serving inland

were the only way to transport goods in

propulsion systems which introduced a

markets and used for container transport

larger volumes and at a cost that were not

period when inland navigation became

are, in particular, found in Western Europe,

comparable to road transport. Many canals

increasingly important, particularly in

but also in North America (Mississippi River

were built, particularly in England and the

Western Europe. New canals were built or

and The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes system)

United States to transport goods between

existing canals were widened and deepened.

and the interior of China.

these canals were closed to commercial

Some 50 countries have natural inland

Inland navigation is focussed on serving

traffic as their size (width / draught) was

navigation networks that are a thousand

geographic regions. The type of barges

too small to meet the demand for vessels

km long or more. However, not all rivers

deployed on the various inland waterway

with greater capacity. At that time,

can be used for transport purposes as too

systems worldwide, are unique to each

the industrialising areas. Later on, most of

Self propelled container barge, Europe

region. The same applies to the rules and

regulations these barges have to comply
with. In contrast to international deep sea
and coastal shipping, there is no regulatory
system covering inland navigation
shipping with a similar global coverage,
e.g. IMO, SOLAS.

Barge transport, port of Hong Kong

Inland freight vessels can be either

self-propelled vessels, pushed barges
operated by a push boat or towed barges
operated by a towing vessel. Barges can be
interconnected to form a convoy and, if not
self-propelled, they can be operated by a
push boat or towing vessel.
Ship to barge transfer, port of Hong Kong
Overview rivers and inland waterways in the world

75

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 77

Europe

When container shipping started to

of Rotterdam, transported to Ginsheim by

containers as high as possible. There were

The inland waterway network in Europe

develop in Europe in the late 1960s, inland

barge after which they were carried by truck

no rules and repeatedly barges capsized

covers some 50,000 km of rivers and canals

transport of containers was mainly by

to the US army depots.

due to lack of stability. There was significant

of which 50 per cent is accessible to barges

road. Rail transport became increasingly

with a capacity of 1,000 tons or more. In

important at a later stage, for example to

In the wake of the accelerated growth of

between the ports of Rotterdam, Antwerp

Europe, inland waterway traffic is mainly

connect the German Ruhr area with the

global container transport, inland transport

and several inland ports along the Rhine.

concentrated in Germany (7,500 km of

German ports of Bremerhaven

by barge became increasingly important

The Rhine is one of the worlds busiest

waterways), The Netherlands (5,000 km),

and Hamburg.

in Europe. Cross-border transport of

inland waterways
Balticand
Seamillions tonnes of

containers by rail proved inferior compared

freight are carried on this natural waterway

Belgium (1,600 km) and France (15,000 km).

growth in container transport by barge

TEU

North Sea

Atlantic Ocean
Baltic
Sea
Meuse

North Sea

Rh

Hamburg
Se

Ad

ria

tic

Sea

ar

Rhi
ne

Constantza

Bay of
Biscay

Sa

in

Neckar

Basel

in

sel

Ma

Duisburg

Mo

Celtic Sea

ine

Rotterdam

Dan

ub e

Black Sea

waterways

Mediterranean Sea

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Duisburg
2,253,000
Mannheim
2,014,000
Neuss-Dsseldorf
658,000
Kln
557,000
Strassbourg
361,000
Germersheim
226,000
Bonn
178,000
Mulhouse Ottmarsheim 157,000
Wrth
121,000
Mainz
117,000
Koblenz
100,000
Basel
99,000
Ludwigshafen
85,000
Andernach
80,000
Emmerich
78,000
Kehl
66,000
Karlsrhe
54,000
Weil
25,000
7,229,000

container terminal
PO

Overview of rivers and inland waterways in Europe

Rhine River with container ports and transport volumes (source: EICB)
RHN
E

76

The most important European waterway

The first transport of containers by barge

to transport by barge. Rail systems in the

each year. In terms of capacity and

system is the River Rhine and its tributaries.

took place in 1980 when a company called

various countries were often different and

operational accessibility, the Rhine can be

It connects the ports of Amsterdam,

Kieserling started a barge service between

transport had to be carried on the same

divided into three sections:

Rotterdam and Antwerp to inland

the port of Rotterdam and the inland port of

track as busy passenger traffic, which had

destinations in Germany and Switzerland

Ginsheim Gustavsburg, situated where the

priority over freight transport.

(Basel) over a distance of some nine

River Rhine flows into the Main. Kieserling

hundred km. Barges up to 192 m long, 12 m

had agreed a contract for the carriage of

In the beginning there was limited

This part of the Rhine can accommodate

wide and with a 4 m draught can travel from

containerised supply for the United States

experience with container transport using

the largest self-propelled barges with a

North Sea ports to Constantza in the Black

Army forces based in central Europe.

inland navigation barges. At that time,

capacity of 500 TEU as well as push / tug

Sea using the Main Donau Canal, a distance

The containers from the United States were

barge owners experimented by using dry

combinations with six barges with a

of some 3,500 km.

unloaded from ocean vessels in the port

bulk push barges and loading them with

capacity up to 800 TEU. There are no

The Lower Rhine Rotterdam to

Cologne 350 km

DONAU

78

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

locks on this part of the Rhine. The most

classification

length

breadth

draught

air draft

tonnage

38.5

5.05

1.8-2.2

250 - 400

II

50 / 55

6.6

2.5

4/5

400 - 650

approximately 110 million tonnes of cargo,

III

67 / 80

8.2

2.5

4/5

650 - 1,000

including some 3.4 million TEU of

IV

80 / 85

9.5

2.5

5.25 / 7

1,000 - 1,500

containers (2014).

Va

95 / 110

11.4

2.5-4.5

5.25 / 7

1,500 - 3,000

Vb

172 / 185

11.4

2.5-4.5

9.1

VIa

95 / 110

22.8

2.5-4.5

The conditions on this part of the river are

VIb

185 / 195

22.8

comparable to those of the Lower Rhine.

VIc

193 / 200

34.2

important port in this section of the

Rhine is Duisburg, Europes largest inland
port. The port has an annual turnover of

The Middle Rhine Cologne to

Container barge, Scheldt Rhine Canal

Karlsruhe 330 km

3,200

(convoy 1 x 2)

7 / 9.1

3,200 - 6,000

(convoy 2 x 1)

2.5-4.5

7 / 9.1

6,400 -12,000

(convoy 2 x 2)

2.5-4.5

9.1

9,600 - 18,000

(convoy 2 x 3)

There are no locks but restraints upstream

of Mainz do limit the size of vessels.

CEMT-classification, dimensions in metres (source: CEMT)

The Upper Rhine Karlsruhe to

as well by delivering or picking up the

Within the framework of this classification,

Basel approx. 200 km

container at an inland terminal.

three typical container barges have been

designed with capacities from 32 TEU to

Vessel size and carrying capacity in this part

Worlds largest locks for inland navigation,
Volkerak Locks, Netherlands

In Europe, canal dimensions and barge

capacity of 110 x 11.40 x 2.50 m (length x

Canal. The Canal connects the Rhine with

classed according to the waterway they

On the larger container barges, the

width x depth).

the River Scheldt and provides direct access

can safely transit and grouped into

containers are stowed six containers wide at

to the various container terminals in these

CEMT classes. (Confrence Europenne

most and five to six tiers high. There are no

The container carrying capacity of inland

ports and has the worlds largest locks for

des Ministres de Transport / European

hatchcovers fitted on these container

barges on the Rhine is also limited by the

inland traffic, in terms of annual volume:

Conference of Ministers of Transport).

barges. The cargo holds may be fitted with

rivers water level. When the Rhine has a

the Volkerak locks. The locks three basins

CEMT was founded in 1953 to co-ordinate

cell guides extending above the hatch

high water level, the clearance below the

measure 200 x 23.50 x 4.75 m (length x

European transport policies. In 2006, CEMT

coaming. Only the containers which extend

bridges will be insufficient to permit four

width x depth) each.

was renamed the International Transport

above the cell guides require securing.

Forum. It has its headquarters in Paris.

For barges which do not have cell guides,

of the Rhine are restricted by draught and

a series of eleven locks with a maximum

tiers of stowage. During dry periods and

low water, draught is a limiting factor.

The transport of goods and containers by

Most of the specialised container barges in

barge is heavily promoted by the

Europe have liftable wheelhouses, allowing

European Union Transport Policy. Inland

the containers on deck to be stowed as high

barge terminals have emerged all over

as stability and bridge clearance permits at

Europe where there is sufficient

any given time.

navigational access. All import or export

types are strongly linked. Barges are

the usual practice in Europe is that only

procedures can be completed at inland

Most container traffic in North West Europe

container ports. Congestion in the

takes place between the ports of Rotterdam

urbanised seaport areas can be avoided

500 TEU.

and Antwerp through the Scheldt Rhine

Different types of container barges

length x width x draft

stowage

55 x 6.6 x 2.5

32 TEU

110 x 11.4 x 3

250 TEU

135 x 16.9 x 5.5

500 TEU

79

80 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Stability requirements for inland navigation vessels carrying

containers

containers which extend above the coaming

in Europe has been taken by the Central

of the barge are secured. Stacking cones

Commission for the Navigating of the Rhine

are applied between the container tiers to

(CCNR). The framework, which in itself is

The provisions of Rule 22 of the EC Directive 2006 / 87 / EC require the vessel to have on board an approved

avoid sideward shifting of the containers.

only applicable to vessels navigating the

stability booklet, which should contain comprehensive information enabling the crew to check the stability of the

The practice of applying these stacking

Rhine, has become a technical reference

vessel for each loading condition. The verification can be done manually or using special software.

cones varies. On some barges all the

point for the construction, operation and

For the manual method, the following steps need to be taken, using a simple calculation sheet:

containers above the coaming are secured;

inspection of inland navigation vessels,

The skipper calculates the total weight of each container tier and multiplies that figure with the vertical centre

whilst on others only the containers stowed

irrespective of whether the vessels are

in the outboard rows are secured. Lashing

intended for the Rhine or not. In several

elements such as twistlocks, which also

countries, the CCNR regulations have

have a vertical restraint, are not used

been adopted in national regulations.

onboard inland navigation vessels.

The regulations were also the basis for the

Similar calculations are made for the ballast and fuel on board:

European Council Directive 2006 / 87 / EC of

On completion of the form, the skipper has established the KG value of the vessel. This KG value is the overall

There are no strict regulations covering the

30 December 2006.

lashing and securing of containers onboard

of gravity for that container tier.

The vertical centre of gravity for each tier is a fixed number and can only vary with the container height (e.g. standard high or high cube
containers). Where there is a mixed stowage of standard high and high cube containers, the vertical centre of gravity for high cube
containers should be used.

centre of gravity for the vessel in loaded condition.

This KG value must be checked against the table of maximum permissible KG values which every vessel must

inland barges. There is an increased risk

Other examples of European conventions

have. There is a maximum permissible KG value for containers which are secured and for containers which are

of loss or shift of the containers when the

applicable to inland waterways are:

not secured.

barge makes a turning cycle, during periods

CLNI convention on the limitation of

of strong wind or when the barge heels

over as a result of loss of stability (see also
Stability requirements for inland navigation
vessels carrying containers).

liability in inland navigation on the Rhine

and elsewhere
CMNI convention on the contract for the
carriage of goods by inland waterway
ADN agreement on the transport

European rules and regulations

of dangerous substances by inland

covering inland navigation vessels

waterways

Various national regulations and

European conventions apply to inland

CDNI convention on the treatment of

waste produced during inland navigation.

navigation vessels operating on waterways

within Europe.

Special stability requirements apply

to inland navigation vessels carrying

A leading role in the development and

containers. These are set out in chapter 22

harmonisation of a legal and technical

of The Directive 2006 / 87 / EC (see insert).

framework for inland navigation vessels

The Rule states that containers shall only be considered to be secured if each individual container is firmly attached to the hull of the
vessel by means of container guides or securing equipment and its position cannot alter during the voyage. Consequently, this would
imply that containers secured by stacking cones are considered not-secured.

The vessel complies with the regulation, and is sufficiently stable, if the KG value for the vessel in loaded
condition is less than the maximum permissible value in the KG table.

81

82 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 83

North America

oil industry and to connect to ports in the

ranges from four or six barges on smaller

an important incentive to increase container

The inland waterways of the United States

Gulf of Mexico for the delivery of steel

waterways up to over 40 barges on the

barge traffic in the southern and central

consist of more than 40,000 km of navigable

and construction materials. Today, it is the

lower Mississippi River between St. Louis

United States. The terminal will link ocean

waters. The majority of these waterways is

third busiest waterway in the United States

and New Orleans.

going traffic with short-sea and inland

situated in the eastern part of the country

connecting a large range of ports in the

where the landscape is flatter and there

Gulf of Mexico with the inland waterway

Although the potential for intermodal

is a higher rainfall. The most important

systems of the Mississippi and rivers in the

container traffic is significant, the number

The most important waterways in the north

waterways for inland traffic in the US are

state of Ohio. Further north, the Mississippi

of container freight movements in this

and north east of the United States and

the Mississippi River System in the south

is connected to the Illinois Waterway,

river system is limited. One of the largest

Canada are the Saint Lawrence River, The

and the Great Lakes system / St Lawrence

which continues to the Great Lakes

container barge operators in the area

Saint Lawrence Seaway and The Great

Seaway in the northeast of the United States

Waterway and then to the Saint Lawrence

provides a weekly service between

Lakes System.

into Canada.

Seaway into Canada.

Houston and New Orleans and between

waterway services.

New Orleans and Memphis. More irregular

The first section is the 1,600 km Saint

The most important waterways in the

Inland navigation systems in the

container services are also available

Lawrence River which provides direct access

south are the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway

United States are mainly used for the

between the Gulf ports and Pittsburg

to the port of Montreal, Canadas second

(GIWW) and the very extensive Mississippi

transportation of agricultural products,

and Chicago, which involves transiting

busiest port and reportedly the worlds

River System.

which is highly seasonal and primarily

several locks.

largest inland port in terms of intermodal

container transfers. Montreal is unique in

focussed towards the end of the summer

The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway is a

and autumn. The goods are transported on

US authorities are investing in plans to

that the railway tracks are laid very close to

2,000 km long canal that runs along

covered non self-propelled barges, which

promote container barge transport in the

the dockside. Freight locomotives transfer

the Gulf of Mexico coastline from the

are lashed together and operated by a

United States. The building of the Louisiana

the containers to a large railway freight

southern tip of Texas to Florida. It was

towage vessel or push boat. The number

International Gulf Transfer Terminal at the

terminal nearby from where containers

originally constructed to serve the Texan

of barges in such a combination varies and

mouth of the Mississippi River is considered

are carried by rail to eastern and western

Canada as well as to the United States.

Hudson
Bay

Great Lakes
St.Lawrence
S e a w a y Sy s t e m

Lake Lake Lake

Huron Erie Ontario

Toronto

San Francisco

Chicago

Lake Superior

Boston
New York

Washington, D.C.

Lake
Michigan

Chicago

Detroit
Cleveland

Toronto

Quebec
Montreal

New York

P a c i f i c O ce a n

inland waterways

Most important waterways in the United States

G ul f o f M e x i co

Miami

proceeds to the Great Lakes via a system of

canals, locks and channels. Ice conditions
allow the Seaway to remain open for
navigation from late March / early April to
mid-December. The Seaway which was
opened in 1959 is known as one of the most

Los Angeles

A t la nt i c O ce a n

From Montreal, the Saint Lawrence Seaway

The Great Lakes St.Lawrence Seaway System is a deepdraft waterway running from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Great Lakes, a distance of some 3,700 km

outstanding engineering achievements

of the twentieth century. A total of fifteen
locks bridge the 180 m height difference
between Lake Erie and the Atlantic Ocean.

84 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 85

The locks each measure 233.5 m in length,

There are several major container ports

A fifteen barge combination could carry

24.4 m in width and are 9.10 m deep.

on the west coast, such as Port Rupert,

some 700 to 800 40 foot containers.

Hence the term SeawayMax, or the more

Vancouver, Seattle / Tacoma, Oakland and

On sections of the lower Mississippi

commonly used Laker, is used for the

Los Angeles / Long Beach. However, there

where bridge height would allow five-high

type of vessel designed to meet these

are no navigable inland waterways due to

tier stackings, a combination of 42 two

dimensions.

the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains.

barge units could carry up to 3,000

The only exception is the Colombia River

40 foot containers.

Ocean-going container vessels can travel as

basin which provides access to the port

far inland as the port of Montreal. However,

of Portland, some 160 km inland. From

Another method used is the so-called

hardly any significant container traffic takes

Portland, container barge services can

Container on Flat Barge system, whereby

place further down the Seaway system

travel a further 600 km inland towards the

containers are stowed in multiple tiers

towards the Great Lakes as it is faster to

state of Idaho.

on a flat bottomed floating platform.

Loading containers on such a flat bottom

ship containers to the eastern and western

The typical self-propelled inland container

presents additional risks such as exposure

vessels, of which thousands are deployed

to water / waves due to the low freeboard,

In 2014, a new monthly Trans-Atlantic

on European waters, are not used on US

stability issues, tow line failures, etc.

container service was established between

inland waterway systems.

seaports by rail.

the port of Cleveland on Lake Erie and

It is a requirement of the United States

Antwerp. Transit time for the service is

The most commonly used barge types in

Coast Guard that operators of these barges

13 days.

the US are barges used for agricultural

have an approved Operations Manual.

products whereby the containers are

The Manual must contain procedures for

There is no navigable river system on

stowed in a cargo hold. These barges

the loading of containers and the need for

the east coast of the United States

can typically accommodate 48 40 foot

stability calculations to be made prior to

because of the Appalachian Mountains,

containers, which can be stowed three wide,

each voyage.

which are located just a few hundred

four long and four tiers high. Also barges

kilometres inland.

with a capacity of 80-100 containers per

barge are deployed on US inland waterways
(see photo).

March 2014, first departure of combined general cargo,

container service from Cleveland, bound for Antwerp

Containers on a push barge, USA

Containers on a flat barge, USA.

86 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Tianjin

i
Ye l l o w R

Beijing

Wuhan

The largest and most advanced container

up to 10 m can travel as far as Nanjing.

terminal upstream of the Yangtze River is

the Cuntan International Container Terminal

ver
Grand Canal

Three Gorges Dam

in these cities. Seagoing vessels with a draft

n
Ya

Chongqing

t ze

Riv

er

Nanjing
Hangzhou

Shanghai

The Yangtze River is the number one river

in Chongqing, some 2,200 km inland from

in the world in terms of cargo volume; over

Shanghai. This terminal is an important

1.2 billion tonnes of cargo, mainly dry bulk,

inland freight hub in China with barge

were moved by ships navigating the river

connections to Shanghai, rail connections

in 2014. The navigational conditions for

to Shenzhen and close proximity to a large

barge transport on the river have improved

international airport.

significantly by the construction of several

large hydraulic engineering works.
Xi

the dredging of the Grand Canal, the

Guangzhou

East China Sea

Hong Kong

100

100

300 km.

The three most important waterway systems in China

The Three Gorges Dam between

worlds longest. The canal runs for some

Chongqing and Wuhan, including a ships

1,776 km from Beijng to Huangzhou,

lock system, was completed in 2006.

connecting the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers in

These locks are 280 m long, 35 m wide

eastern China. The project was completed

and 5 m deep and have an annual transit

in 2012 and significantly increased the

Canals transport capacity.

China

flows from Tibet in the Himalayas through

capacity of approximately 100 million

Rivers and inland navigation for the

the heart of Chinas most populated areas

tonnes. In addition to these locks, a new

transport of people and goods have always

before finding its way to the sea close to

ship lift system is being built, capable of

played an important role in the Chinese

Chinas most important economic

lifting / lowering ships up to 3,000 tonnes

economy. China has some 120,000 km of

centre and the worlds largest container

over a vertical distance of 113 m. The lift

navigable inland waterways, with more

port: Shanghai.

basin will be 120 m long, 18 m wide and

3.5 m deep. It will reduce the transit time

than 4,000 inland ports and some 200,000

river vessels.

Another major improvement project was

Other important cities and ports located

through the dam from three to four hours

on the Yangtze River are Nanjing some

using the lock system to approximately 30

The three most important waterway

400 km from Shanghai, and Wuhan and

to 40 minutes using the ships lift. The lift

systems in China are the Yellow River in the

Chongqing. Some of the most important

was completed in 2015.

north, the Yangtze River in central China

inland container terminals are also located

and the Xi River in the south. By far the most

important waterway is the Yangtze River
with a length of 6,400 km of which 3,000
km is suitable for navigation by vessels in
excess of 1,000 tonnes.
Some three quarters of Chinas inland
waterborne traffic takes place on the
Yangtze River and its tributaries. The river
Yangtze River

Locks on the Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River

New ships lift, Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River

87

88 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 89

The importance of continuing to improve

Other areas

The Russian inland navigation fleet consists

South East Asia / Mekong

inland navigation is recognised by the

There are many other extensive river

of some 15,000 freight vessels, of which

Another river system which has gained

Chinese government. In the five year

systems around the world, several of which

the 1,100 river sea ships are particularly

significance in the transportation of

plan for 2005-2010, the equivalent of EUR

have reasonable to good navigational

important. Winter conditions mean the

containers is the Mekong River in South

1.5 billion was set aside for investments

accessibility. Only a few, however, are used

rivers are only navigable during a certain

East Asia. The river flows over a distance

in the inland waterway system. This

for or have significant potential for inland

part of the year. During the remainder,

of 4,350 km from South China to Vietnam,

included improvements to the navigational

container transport by barge.

these sea-river vessels can also be

through Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Thailand

employed offshore.

and Cambodia.

accessibility of the rivers, implementation of

traffic information systems and replacement

Brazil

of old tonnage.

In South America, the Amazon and

Road and rail transport dominate the freight

Due to seasonal rains and many bends in

Paranagua Rivers are mainly used to

transport market in the Russian Federation.

the river, navigation is difficult and only

The most commonly used container barges

transport agricultural and mining products.

Inland navigation transport is mainly for

possible for smaller sized barges. Significant

in China are self-propelled barges with a

Significant levels of container transport take

agricultural and mining products. Container

container transport by barge has developed

fixed, non-liftable wheelhouse, situated

place on the Amazon River where deep-

transport by dedicated barge services

on the lower part of the river, between the

either forward or aft. The maximum

sea container vessels can travel as far as

is quite limited. There are intermodal

capital of Cambodia, Phnom Penh.

stacking height on board these barges

Manaus, which is located some 1,600 km

container terminals also offering domestic

which resemble coastal vessels is three to

inland. Several container lines offer direct

barge transport in the Moscow area.

four tiers.

services from Manaus to other continents.

The Brazilian Ministry of Infrastructure
and Transport plans to increase the inland
navigations share of the domestic transport
of containers. This will also include
container transport by barge, which will be
focussed on the Amazon and Paranagua
Rivers as well as between the seaport of Rio
Grande and the inland port of Porto Alegre.

Container barge transport on the Pearl River, China

Container terminal in Moscow

Russian Federation
The Russian Federation has some
100,000 km of navigable inland waterways
and over 100 inland ports. Most inland
navigation movements take place in the
European part of the Federation. The most
important rivers for freight transportation
are the Volga, Neva, Svir, Don and
Dnepr and a range of canals connecting
these rivers.

90 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

3.4

Container transport by rail

United States

intermodal. Accordingly, McLean was

The US freight rail network is generally

equally active in rail and road transport.

considered the worlds largest and most

As in shipping trucks, ships and railroads

efficient freight transportation system. US

were all in the same business, namely that

freight railroads account for approximately

of moving freight from one place to another

40 per cent of intercity freight volume this

with as few transfers as possible.

Containers are very important in the

Transport by rail remained the preferred

is more than any other mode of transport.

global transport of freight not just in

way of moving bulk volumes of goods up

US railroads are all privately owned, and

At the time McLean started to consider

their capacity as cargo transport units, but

until the Second World War. However, as

are built and maintained by the railroads

land transport, it was recognised that,

more so due to their successful integration

roads improved and the road network

themselves. According to the Association

road transport was expensive and time

with rail, road and maritime shipping

grew in the years after the war, trucking

of American Railroads, some USD 550

consuming especially on longer distances.

networks. Transport by land, rail and road

companies became major competitors

billion of their own funds were spent on

Railway corporations already offered an

are strongly interlinked. Rail is viewed as

to the railways and gradually gained

locomotives, freight cars, tracks, bridges,

arrangement called Piggyback or TOFC

the long-distance volume-based haulier,

an increasing share of the market.

tunnels, and other infrastructure between

while flexibility and the ability to

The transport of containers by rail has

1980 and 2013. There are a limited number

transport individual consignments over

developed in the United States in particular,

of players in the American railroad business:

shorter distances are achieved through

where it has become the way to move

CSX Transportation (former owner of Sea-

road transport.

containers across the continent. The

Land), Canadian National Railway (US

carriage of containers by rail in Europe

operations), Norfolk Southern Corporation,

Primitive rail systems were already in

developed some time after the US, but has

BNSF Railway, Canadian Pacific (US

existence in the 17th century and used

over time gained an important share of

operations), Kansas City Southern Railway,

to move materials in mines. The first

land-side container transport.

and Union Pacific Railroad Company.

Intermodal rail transport of containers is an

proper rail transportation systems were

Trailer on flat car (Piggybacking)

only established in the early 19th century,

Since 2000, both India and China have

important part of the business of each of

with the introduction of the first steam

invested in dedicated container rail services

these railway companies.

locomotive in 1829. They were the product

and several major infrastructure projects to

of the industrial revolution which, at that

build more railways are underway or in the

Malcolm McLean, the founding father

on a railway carriage. This method to

time, was sweeping across Western Europe

planning stages in these countries.

of containerisation, had a clear idea of

transport freight by rail remained very

the opportunities that rail could offer.

common in American railway transport

and North America. Rail transport was, and

(Trailer On Flat Car), a system whereby a

road trailer, with container, is transported

still is today, the only way to move large

With some 225,000 km of track, the United

He saw containers as a way to integrate

until the 1990s. After this time, intermodal

and heavy freight volumes and large

States has by far the largest rail network in

maritime and land-based transport into one

freight transport moved towards so-called

numbers of passengers at the same time

the world, followed by Russia (130,000 km),

transport chain. For this reason he called

COFC (Container On Flat Car), a system

on scheduled services. These advances

China (100,000 km) and India (65,000 km).

his shipping line Sea-Land and the

which had been introduced to American

were of great benefit during the

The total extent of the rail network in the

company, which was initially set up as

railway transport in 1936, but had become a

industrialisation, and they fundamentally

European Union is approximately

a shipping line, was sold to a railway

common standard only in the 1980s.

changed the way in which freight and

220,000 km.

corporation (CSX Tranportation) in 1986.

passengers were moved by land.

Rail transport of containers in the United

Marine transport of containers requires

States started relatively late. One of the

alignment with land carriage to be fully

difficulties was the fact that the US railways

91

92 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 93

Deregulation of the US transport system

Road. Shortly afterwards, APL followed with

often over a mile long were deployed

A significant reformation of the US transportation system took place between 1978 and 1980 by the passage

a land-bridge service out of Seattle.

between ports on the West and East Coast.

of three major deregulation laws. These laws were the result of efforts by the Nixon Administration in the early

The Staggers Rail Act, together with

A new industry standard for the carriage of

1970s to replace the regulatory structure that had existed since the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.

the advent of the container shipowners

containers by rail was introduced in 1977.

becoming involved in railway operations,

This new concept was known as double-

Rail transport was deregulated by the Staggers Rail Act

marked the beginning of a new era in

stack, a system whereby the containers

of 1980 (named after its sponsor Harley O. Staggers).

container rail operations in the United

were carried two-high on railway carriages.

The other two laws were the Airline Deregulation Act of

States. The traditional stringent practices

To facilitate the introduction of this new

1978 and the Motor Carrier Act of 1980.

with respect to schedules, right of way

technology, a new type of railroad car was

The Staggers Rail Act provided opportunities for rail

and interchange with other railroads were

created the well car. Again, Malcolm

operators to establish their own rates and their own

abandoned, which allowed containership

McLean, the founder of Sea-Land, played

contracts with shippers. The effect was increased

companies to exercise greater control over

an important role in the development of

competition between the operators and, over time, a

their landside operations. At the same time,

the double-stack and the construction of

considerable reduction of the freight rates. (According to

a shift was observed from railway-owned

well cars (see box story McLean on his way

a study by the Department of Transportations Freight

rolling stock to large fleets of railway cars

to the White House). After several years of

owned and operated by containership

development, the first all double-stack train

companies. By the end of the 1980s,

left the port of Los Angeles heading east in

hundreds of dedicated container trains

1984. The concept proved successful,

Management and Operations, costs and process were

halved over a ten-year period).

US President Jimmy Carter signs the Staggers Rail Act,

14 October 1980

were heavily regulated and fragmented.

Interestingly, particularly the ship operators

At one point in time there were over 100

lead by companies such as American

McLean on his way to the White House

railway companies. Furthermore, the railway

President Lines (APL) and Sea-Land

Sea-Land people had been meeting with executives from the Southern Pacific, but the railroaders kept insisting

companies did not see a future in the

pushed the development of intermodal (rail)

that the floor of a conventional flatcar precluded transporting containers one atop another, as McLean wanted

transport of freight containers on their

transport of containers. They introduced a

to do. One day McLean and his wife and children were invited to a reception at the White House, and they

rail tracks. The situation changed in 1980,

concept known as land-bridge, whereby

travelled to the capital from northern New Jersey aboard a Pennsylvania Railroad train. As they were walking

when Congress passed the Staggers Rail

the container was carried both on board a

along the platform at Washington Union Station, McLean noticed that a considerable amount of permanent

Act. Through this Act, the US railway system

ship as well as on a railroad train as part of

equipment hung below the floor level of the cars, especially steam pipes and brake hoses that were connected

was substantially deregulated and opened

single shipment. For instance, containers

to each other below the couplers of the cars. Getting down on his hands and knees, McLean crawled beneath

up to competition.

from Asia Pacific with final destination New

the cars to estimate how high above the rails this equipment rode, and he determined that it cleared by a mere

York would be discharged from the vessel at

three inches. Armed with this information, Sea-Land people renewed their efforts with the Southern Pacific, and

a port on the West Coast and then carried

the worlds first double-stack container car, Southern Pacific No. 513300, turned out by the American Car and

by train over land (bridge) to New York. The

Foundry Company, a joint effort by Sea-Land and Southern Pacific.

first service of this kind took place from the

port of Los Angeles in 1977 and was offered

Not so lucky, though, was the man who was en route to a White House reception. His little inspection tour in

by Sea-Land and the Southern Pacific Rail

Washington Union Station put a big hole in Malcolm McLeans trousers he called him his britches and
when he arrived at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue shortly afterward, the man was anything but the last word in
sartorial splendour.

Container on flat car

From : Brian J. Cuhady, Box Boats How Container Ships Changed the World, Fordham University Press, 2006. Quoted from: Malcolm McLean
interview, McLean Foundation Oral History Collection

94

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

however, before double-stack trains

Average transit times on the main routes

a number of specific issues to overcome

could move from west to east, the

are (source: websites of various railway

before efficient container rail services

overhead clearance of many railway

companies):

could be established. The European Union

passages had to be adapted. Today,

Los Angeles New York

7 days

played an important role in resolving these

more than 70 per cent of intermodal

Los Angeles Miami

8 days

problems and in creating an environment

containershipments in the United States

Los Angeles Chicago

4 days

whereby cross-border traffic could be

is carried on double-stack trains.

Chicago New York

3 days

accomplished without too many difficulties.

Kansas City New York

4 days

In the 1970s and 80s, the European rail

Vancouver (Canada) Chicago

6 days

market was dominated by state-owned

Prince Rupert (Canada) Chicago

4 days

railway companies offering international

The main seaports on the US west coast are

Los Angeles / Long Beach in the south and

Double stack on well car

services. However, as there was no single

the Seattle / Tacoma region in the north,

with Oakland located halfway in between.

Trans-Pacific transit times out of Pusan,

organisation responsible for cross-border

From these ports, daily services are

Korea range between nine days for Prince

traffic, when the train reached the border

available to destinations inland and on the

Rupert and up to twelve days for Los

station, the unit had to be transferred

east coast. Large inland container terminals

Angeles. Accordingly, a voyage from Pusan

to the railway company operating in the

have been built near cities such as Chicago,

to New York, using the most efficient

neighbouring country.

Detroit and Kansas City, where east-west

land bridge connection, could take some

and north-south connections meet.

17-18 days and is therefore a reasonable

With the liberalisation of rail traffic within

alternative to the Panama Canal, if only

the European Union, smaller rail service

taking transit times into account.

providers entered the market and a new

Calgary

Winnipeg

type of service, referred to as rail-road

Vancouver

Detroit

Salt Lake City

San Francisco

Chicago

Kansas City

G u l f o f M e x i co

New York

A t l a n t i c O ce a n

Houston
P a c i f i c O ce a n

Pittsburg

Hampton

Atlanta

Dallas

Los Angeles
Long Beach

Toronto

Miami

major railroad connections

Major container railroad connections in the United States source Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography

Europe

combined transport, became available.

Rail transport of containers only becomes

These services included container traffic

economically viable when large volumes

between a seaport and an inland terminal

can be transported over long distances,

(or vice versa) or long distance transport

with as few intermediate transfers as

of consumer goods between various parts

possible. There are 51 countries in Europe

of Europe. On these combined transport

and travelling a few hundred kilometres in

trains one can find ISO freight containers,

any direction usually involves crossing one

(semi-) trailers or a typically European load

or more borders. Therefore, Europe had

unit known as a swap body.

95

96

GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Swap body

The introduction of combined rail services

regular container services between the

A swap body is a regional transport containment of a permanent character designed for road and rail transport

was a turning point in European rail traffic,

major seaports and a large number of

within Europe and complying with European standards. (UNECE definition) Swap bodies are generally 2.5 m or

and was further improved once issues such

inland container ports.

2.55 m wide and are subdivided into three length categories:

as flexibility, transit time, punctuality and

Class A: 12.2 to 13.6 m long (maximum gross mass 34 tons);

cross-border issues had been addressed

Class B: 30ft (9.125 m long);

by the railway operators. Clearly, in order to

Class C: 7.15, 7.45 or 7.82 m long (maximum gross mass 16 tons).

be competitive, European rail transport had

to offer at least the same level of service as

For all swap bodies, bottom container castings are fitted at the same intermediate distances as on a normal ISO

did road haulage. This was accomplished by

shipping container. This allows the swap body units to be placed on the same types of trucks, trailers and railroad

offering scheduled block-train services with

cars as the ones designed for ISO shipping containers. The overall dimension of a swap body may be different from

high quality rail logistics.

an ISO container, which results in the bottom fittings not always being located at the corners of the swap body.

Note
The width of a swap body is usually 2,50 or 2, 55 m in order to allow two EUR pallets (80 x 120 cm) to be placed

Block (or unit) train service is a point-to-

next to each other without leaving empty space. The other advantage of a swap body is its relative light weight

point service for a complete train, usually

and the consequential cost saving in fuel consumption during transport. There are stackable and non-stackable

for one customer, the opposite being

In Europe, most container transport by

swap bodies.

wagonload service whereby single wagons

rail uses the same very busy tracks as

for various customers are assembled in

passenger trains. In 2007, a 160 km long

one train.

dedicated freight track, the Betuweroute,

Non stackable swap bodies only have bottom fittings and require lifting by the bottom frame, usually by means

Betuwe route, Netherlands

was completed between the port of

of grappler arms which are inserted into the four recesses in the bottom structure. More and more stackable
swap bodies come on the market and these have top fittings as well, enabling the same kind of handling with

Container block trains (also known as

Rotterdam and the German border.

standard freight container handling equipment.

container shuttle services) are mainly used

With a total cost of EUR 4.7 billion, it is

in hinterland container traffic between

Netherlands most expensive infrastructure

In terms of stack ability and strength, a swap body differs substantially from an ISO freight containers and is

the seaport and an inland container

project ever. The Betuweroute has been

therefore not suitable for overseas transport on board a regular container vessel. Swap bodies are regularly

port. Today, these shuttle services are

built for double-stack container transport,

carried on board short sea vessels, in Europe.

mostly operated by the seaport terminals

although these are not in use at this

themselves and / or one of their subsidiaries.

moment in time.

Swap bodies are subject to European Normalisation standards such as EN 283 (testing), EN 284 (non-stackable

An example of such a company is European

swap bodies, class C dimensions and general requirements) and EN 452 (class A swap bodies, dimensions and

Rail Shuttle (ERS), which was established

As electrification of the railway system

requirements) as well as EN 13044 (coding, identification and marking).

in 1994 by a consortium formed by

in Europe predates the double-stacking

Maersk Line, NS Cargo, Sealand, P & O

concept, the overhead cabling is too low

Containers and Nedlloyd. The company

to accommodate a double-stack. Many

provided regular railway services between

bridges and tunnels are also too low for

Rotterdam, Germany, Austria and Italy. In

double-stacking, and adapting the height

2013, Maersk Line, who in the meantime had

of these to accommodate taller freight

acquired the other shipping companies in

trains would be far too expensive. Another

the joint venture, sold ERS to Freightliner UK.

obstacle for further expansion of container

Today, several private railway companies

transport by rail in Europe is the lack of

operate on European railways providing

uniformity of the track gauge (the width of

swap body

97

98 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 99

the track). Spain, Portugal and the former

gauge provides sufficient space. In double

The widest track gauge is used in India and

Soviet Republics operate a broader gauge

stacking, the top container is held in place

is 1.676 m it provides greater stability,

compared with other European countries.

either by a bulkhead built into the car, or by

hence allowing for a higher speed, e.g.

Funds are being provided by the European

inter-box connectors. The vertical centre

100 km / hr when carrying high-cube

Union to connect the rail systems in these

of gravity is a major aspect in double stack

containers in double-stack arrangement

areas to the rest of Europe.

transport of containers, as it determines

on normal flatcars.

the stability of the car load. It is particularly

India

important in connection with high side wind

Well cars range in size to accommodate the

Containers were carried in double-stack

loads and the corresponding maximum

standard sizes of containers i.e. 2 x 20 foot

permissible speed (centrifugal forces).

or 1 x 40 foot (12.19 m), 48 foot (14.63 m) and

The use of well cars has a positive effect

53 foot (16.15 m) containers. There are also

arrangement for the first time out of APMs

container terminal at Pipavav, India in 2006.

Double-stack container transport in India: containers

loaded on normal flatcars

on the centre of gravity and allows the

45 foot (13.72 m) and 56 foot (17.07 m) well

most long haulage routes are operated

and containers. In future, China will have

carriages to travel at higher speeds

cars. If the well is smaller than the container

by diesel locomotives, India has opted for

a complete network of inland container

compared with flatcars. The use of well

being loaded, the larger container may be

electrification of the freight railways.

terminals interconnected by rail shuttle

cars is also more secure as it prevents the

placed on top of the smaller container.

With a distance of 7.45 m between the

services. Several of these tracks will be able

container doors from being opened during

cabling and the tracks, India has the highest

to carry double stacks as well.

the railway journey.

allows for the carriage of two tiers of

Technology

Track gauge is an important feature.

45, 48, 53 foot containers stowed on top

high-cube containers on a normal flatcar.

Containers may be carried on flatcars or

It is the distance between the rails on a

of a 40foot container. For this purpose,

Double-stack container transport is also

well cars on the railway. A well car, also

railway track, and is measured between the

containers longer than 40 feet have

planned for the Dedicated Freight Corridor

known as a double-stack car or stack car,

inner faces of the load-bearing rails. Many

additional ISO container posts at 40 foot

Project, connecting Delhi with Mumbai in

is a railroad car designed to carry containers

different track gauges are used worldwide.

length (see photo). The size of the well is

the west and Kolkota in the east.

used in intermodal freight transport.

The most common is the standard gauge

usually clearly marked on the side of the car.

With a normal flatcar, the wheels are

of 1.435 m, which is found on 60 per cent

China

positioned directly underneath the flat

of the worlds railway tracks, for example

Well cars are mostly constructed as units of

Double-stack container transport was

bottom. On well cars, the wheels are

in North America, China, Australia, the

multiple cars (three or five), connected to

introduced in China on the rail track

positioned at the fore and aft end of the

majority of Europe, and North Africa.

each other by articulated connections or a

between Beijing and Shanghai in 2004.

carriage allowing the cargo platform to

drawbar. At the extreme end of each unit

The Chinese railway system is in the

be closer to the rails. The well car makes

is a coupler to connect it to the next unit.

middle of significant expansion, not only

it possible to load containers in a double-

This coupler is usually a so-called AAR or

for passenger transport but also for freight

stack arrangement wherever the loading

Janney coupler. These loose couplings

In contrast to the United States, where

Common configurations are 1 x 40 foot

container stowed on top of 2 x 20 foot or

overhead wiring in the world. This height

are necessary to enable the train to go

around bends. Furthermore, the couplings
are also an aid in starting heavy trains,

40

since the transmission of power from the

40

locomotive to the train operates on each

car successively.

t r

US double stack of 53 foot containers in a well car

100 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 101

Couplings and connectors should also be

generally weighs between 20 and 25 mt.

designed in such a way that they reduce the

Since a containers weight is limited to

impact of slack action as much as possible.

32.5 mt for a 20 foot container and

Slack action in railway terms is the length

34.0 mt for a 40 and 45 foot container,

of free movement of one car before it

single stacking does not exploit the full

transmits its motion to an adjoining coupled

load capacity of the railway car. Weight

car. When the train is set in motion, this

considerations are, however, important

Road transport by truck is the dominant

container yard and the clients warehouse,

slack is gradually let out when cars begin

when double-stacking is involved.

mode of transporting freight in developed

or vice versa. In most container ports, there

countries. This is particularly so for local

are distribution and storage centres nearby,

to roll one at a time. With long trains, as

3.5

Road transport of containers

used in the US and Canada, where freight

In Europe, flatcars are commonly used

and short distance transport, where there

where containers are loaded (stuffed) and

trains can be several kilometres long, some

for the transport of containers. These

are little or no suitable alternatives. Road

unloaded (stripped). The short transport

units may be moving uphill while others are

specialised container cars have an open-

transport is fast, flexible and available

by road between the container yard and

moving downhill at the same time. In such

bottom frame with securing equipment

almost everywhere, although this has an

these distribution centres is usually referred

circumstances, slack is constantly let out

(hinged locking pins) at intermediate

effect on transport costs, air quality and

to as drayage.

and taken up, and this causes a significant

distances, meeting standard container

traffic congestion.

fore-aft shock effect to the container and

sizes. Two-axle (L-type) container cars are

its cargo. Freight trains are known to have

designed to carry two 20 foot or one 40 foot

Only very rarely are shipping containers

The road transport of freight first

divided as a result of such slack action.

container. The four-axle (S-type) cars can

used in road transport when trucking is

developed when small combustion engines

carry three 20 foot containers, one 40 foot

the only mode of transport, for example a

were installed in freight trucks. In 1915,

Accelerations / weight limits

plus one 20 foot container or two 30 foot

point-to-point carriage over land. For this

MAN delivered the first diesel operated

Similar fore-aft forces also occur during

containers (see photo below).

type of road transport, vehicles such as

truck, which was succeeded by the first

shunting operations. Excessive impact

box trailers, tautliners and road tanks

direct injection diesel engine in 1924. An

loads and accelerations, up to seven times

are used. Refrigerated and insulated box

efficient road infrastructure was needed

gravity acceleration of 9.81 m / s , may occur

trailers are also available for transport of

to be able to move quickly from one place

during shunting. For this reason, cargo in

perishable goods.

to another. The first modern motorway

History and development

with road segregation, overpasses and

the containers must be properly secured

against these very significant fore-aft forces.

In the intermodal transport of containers,

restricted accesses was built in Germany

The maximum permissible weight for

trucks are used during the first and last

in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. After

a railway car is generally in the order

stages of the transport, i.e. between the

the Second World War, there was a period

of 8 mt per metre of train length, and

of rapid development of road transport

approximately 22.5 mt per axle. For

systems in North America, Europe and

example, a four-axle 40 foot container car

can take 90 tonnes. The railway car itself

Australia followed by other continents.

2 x 30 foot bulk containers stowed on a four axle

S-wagon car

In the United States, probably one of the

most important achievements was the
completion of the American Interstate
Highway system in 1956. The purpose of
the road network was to serve the national
economy and to support the movement
40 foot container on a 3-axle road trailer

of army troops. The motorways were even

102 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Calgary

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 103

Winnipeg

Vancouver

Detroit

Toronto

European E-road networks.

doubles or Rocky Mountain doubles. More

San Francisco
Dallas

New York
Hampton

Atlanta

A t l a n t i c O ce a n

Houston
P a c i f i c O ce a n

Miami

G u l f o f M e x i co

In China, the building of a national network

LCV (Long Combination Vehicle) and can

of expressways was started in 1989. Twenty

be found in several different arrangements.

years later, some 80,000 km of expressway

Pittsburg

Kansas City

Los Angeles
Long Beach

States, where they are known as turnpike

commonly, road trains are referred to as an

Chicago
Salt Lake City

Highway, the Asian Highway and the

had been completed. In 2011, the length of

Powertrains are the largest road trains

the Chinese road network surpassed that of

operating in Australia and worldwide.

the US Interstate.

This combination, however, only operates

B-double (20 + 40 or 20 + 20)

B-triple

Interstate Highway

Atlantic Ocean
Oslo
Stockholm

Baltic
Sea

ABB Quad

Helsinki

triple road train

Moscow

North Sea
Hamburg

London

Berlin

Celtic Sea

Paris

Warsaw

Powertrain

Vienna

Munich

Bay of
Biscay

2AB Quad

Ad

Rome

Bucharest
ria

tic

Lisbon

Casablanca

Istanbul

Sea

Black Sea

Athens

40
40
20

40
20

40

40
40

20

40

40

40

40

40

40

20

40

20

40
40
20

40
40

20

40

40

40

Australia relies heavily on road transport,

on private property such as mining grounds

also for long distance transport. There are

and not the public highway and are

no inland waterways and the rail systems

therefore not subject to legislation.

have not been sufficiently developed to

Mediterranean Sea

European E-road system

20
40

AB-triple
BAB Quad

40

20

double road train pocket train

US Interstate Highway system

Dublin

20

Cairo

transport large volumes of freight. The

In most European countries, the standard

road train concept is therefore a typical

has been for a long time a maximum

Australian solution. A road train consists of

length of 18.75 m. The longer combinations

a tractor unit pulling two or more trailers.

previously permitted in Sweden and

designed in such a way that they could act

By 1980, most industrialised countries had

Australia permits the worlds largest and

Finland resulted in a discussion when

as air strips in an emergency. In total, some

a national motorway system and the work

heaviest road-legal vehicles on its roads,

these countries joined the European

70,000 km of four to six lane motorways

began to establish regional motorway

with configurations weighing up to 200

Union in 1980. A compromise was reached

were built between 1950 and 1975 and

networks. Examples are the Trans African

tonnes and over 50 m in length. Road trains

to allow an increased vehicle length

can also be found in Canada and the United

(maximum 25.25 m) and weight (maximum

linked all major US cities.

104 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 105

3-axle semi-trailer
t

air dam

ee

in

rear underrun
protection system
side underrun protection system

cabin

(with or without sleeper)

fuel tank
Typical US 3-axle truck, pulling a 2-axle semi trailer

European cabover truck with three axles, pulling a 3-axle

trailer with 40 foot container

n e d

trailer support legs (storage without truck)

3-axle truck

(one steering axle, two driving axles, mostly liftable)

60 tonnes) across the EU on the condition

The overview below shows some common

for the driver, but accessing the engine

Container trailers (chassis or Skeletal

that the standardised European Modular

configurations including the EMS

requires the cabin to be tilted. Conversely,

trailers) are available in many different

System (EMS) was used. Each country was

configuration, which allow the transport

conventional (US type) cab tractors offer the

versions and sizes. Modern container

subsequently free to introduce the EMS (or

of 3 x 20 foot or 1 x 20 foot and 1 x 40 foot

driver more comfort and better protection

chassis can be adjusted in length, to

EuroCombi) at its own discretion. Denmark

container at the same time.

in a collision.

accommodate 20 foot, 40 foot, 45 foot

or longer containers. Each corner of the

permitted use of the EMS on some parts of

its road network in 2008. The Netherlands

Technology

A trailer can be either a full trailer or a

container is secured to the chassis by

followed in 2011 and some parts of

A road transport combination comprises

semi trailer, the only difference being the

means of twistlocks, which are fixed to the

Germany in 2011. Trials are currently (2015)

a truck (powered vehicle) and a trailer

presence of a front axle (or dolly) on the

trailer. Full trailers are usually equipped

ongoing in Belgium.

(unpowered vehicle). The tractors, or

full trailers. There are far more semi-trailers

with a draw bar which can be coupled to a

powered trucks, typically have two or three

than full trailers in use, except in the case

truck. The most common type of coupling

The definition of the EMS can be found

axles. One of the rear axles on a three axle

of multiple trailers in one road combination

used on semi-trailers is the so-called fifth

in EC Directive 96 / 53. The remaining

truck can be liftable. Trucks built for hauling

(e.g. road trains).

wheel coupling. This coupling provides a

European countries continue to have

heavy cargo may have as many as four or

a maximum length of 18.75 m with a

five axles, although these are not common

A semi-trailer is normally equipped with

truck, or between the dolly and the leading

maximum weight of 40 tonnes, or 44 tonnes

in container transport.

legs, called landing gear, which can be

trailer. The coupling consists of a kingpin,

lowered to support the trailer when it is

(a steel pin on the front of the semi-trailer),

uncoupled from the tractor.

and a horseshoe-shaped coupling device

in case of a 40 ISO container.

In North America and Australia, most
18.75 m
40
20

25.25 m

20

link between a semi-trailer and the towing

tractors have a forward engine, one

on the rear of the towing vehicle. The fifth-

steering axle, and two drive axles.

wheel coupling on most tractor trucks is

The driver and the sleeper cabin are

adjustable and can be moved fore and aft

located behind the engine.

to optimise weight distribution over the rear

axle of the truck. 25 per cent of the total

20

40
20

40

The Cabover or flat nose truck is more

trailer load should ideally rest on the fifth

common in Europe and some other parts of

wheel coupling.

the world, where there are more restrictions

on truck lengths. Cabovers offer greater

European Modular System (EMS)

manoeuvrability and better overview

Fifth wheel coupling

106 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 107

Jane Mansfield and trailer safety

Maximum permissible dimensions for road

transport units differ by country or even by

Many people know Jane Mansfield (1933 1967) as

state (US). A maximum permissible height

an American actress, nightclub entertainer, singer, and

of 4 m prevails in most European countries.

an early Playboy Playmate. In the 1950s she became

Hence, high-cube containers 2.89 m high,

one of Hollywoods most famous sex symbols. Most

are carried on gooseneck chassis, which

people, however, are not aware that her name became

reduces the overall height to an acceptable

connected with an important safety device on road

level. In the United Kingdom, the standard

minimum clearance over every part of the

trailers. Her sad death explains how the story began:

Container road accident

carriageway of a public road is 16 feet 6

Late on 28 June 1967, Jane Mansfield together with

inches (5.03 m). In the United States, the

Side wind

her three children Miklos, Zoltan and Mariska, her

maximum gauge is 4.11 m (13.5 foot).

Trucks transporting containers are

partner Sam Brody and their driver Ronnie Harrison

In most Australian states the maximum

particularly susceptible to aerodynamic

left Biloxi, Mississippi in a Buick Electra 255, heading

gauge is 4.3 m.

forces. This can be the effects of side wind

for New Orleans, where she was scheduled to appear

or other passing vehicles.

in an early morning television interview.

a single axle or 18 tonnes on tandem axles.

Speed and cornering forces

On 29 June at approximately 2:25 in the morning,

In the United States, 80,000 lb (36,000 kg) is

The centrifugal force is affected by vehicle

on US Highway 90, east of Rigolets Bridge, the car

the maximum permitted weight of a single

speed and the angle of turn. In other

crashed into the rear of a road trailer and the top of

truck trailer. A special permit is required for

words, the faster the vehicle is going

the car was sheared off when it went under the truck.

heavier weights. In the United Kingdom,

and / or the tighter the turn, the more likely

Police reports state that the three adults in the

the weight limit is 44 tonnes. The heaviest

the driver is to lose control of the vehicle

front seat were killed instantly; whilst the children,

permitted weight for a single semi-trailer

causing the vehicle to roll over. Centrifugal

sitting in the rear, survived the accident with only

(50 tonnes) anywhere in the world can be

forces occur during cornering or evasive

minor injuries.

found in the Netherlands.

manoeuvres. Speed has a squared effect

Weight is usually limited to nine tonnes on

to the overturning force and may therefore

The death certificate stated that the immediate

Road accidents

dramatically impact the ability to control

cause of Mansfields death was a crushed skull with

Every year there are thousands of road

the vehicle. For instance the overturning

avulsion of cranium and brain.

accidents involving container trailer loads.

force at a speed of 60 km / hr is four times

The most common and very dangerous

the overturning force at a speed of 30

After her death, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recommended that road trailers

accident is the container overturning,

km / hr. At 90 km / hr the overturning (or

be equipped with a rear underride guard. The bottom rear edge of a road trailer is almost at head level of a person

usually as a result of one or a combination

centrifugal) force will be nine times that of

in a car, where the cars windshield is the only, and insufficient, protection. A strong assembly hanging down from

of the following factors:

30 km / hr. See illustration below.

the bottom of the rear edge of a semi-trailer would prevent cars from sliding under the trailer. Today, most trailers
are equipped with this type of bar, which is known as the Mansfield bar.

4x

9x
In addition to rear underride guards, a Side Underrun Protection System (SUPS) is also required on most trailers
and trucks may also be equipped with a Front Underrun Protection System (FUPS). These additional safety
measures provide protection in an oblique or side collision. Following a high number of fatalities in car crash

30 km/h

60 km/h

90 km/h

incidents, underride protection systems on trucks and trailers have become mandatory in most countries.

108 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 109

Stability of the vehicle

Centre of gravity

There are many factors affecting the

The trailer loads centre of gravity is the

stability of the trailer. Some of these are:

sum of the centre of gravity of the empty

trailer and the centre of gravity of the cargo

Poor load distribution

loaded in the container. When carrying

This particularly applies to the transport

high-cube containers, a gooseneck chassis

of containers as the cargo inside the

may not only assist in reducing the overall

container is not visible to the truck driver.

height of the trailer load but also to lower

If the load in the container is too off centre

the centre of gravity.

(longitudinally as well as transversely), it

will have a negative impact on the stability

Construction of the trailer

and cause the trailer load to bend over

This includes wheel and axle alignment,

dangerously. Too much weight on the

brake calibration, position and number of

coupling may lead to a so-called motor

axles. The more axles a trailer has, the more

boating effect. Too much weight on the

stable the trailer unit will be.

rear of the towed vehicle will have a similar

effect, resulting in an uneven pressure
distribution over the length of the trucktrailer combination.
Load securing
Numerous incidents have been caused by
improper or no securing of the cargo inside
the container.

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 111

Chapter 4

Container terminal operations

Any movement of freight involves

modal container terminals, the container

terminals in one way or another. Even the

may be transferred between different

simplest form of freight transport the

modes of transport, e.g. rail, road or

dispatch of a postcard requires assembly

barge. This is particularly the case where

(the central post box) and distribution

the terminal serves as a gateway to a

through a network of regional and national

hinterland. Terminals may also serve as

post centres (terminals) before arriving at

points of interchange between the same

its final destination.

mode of transport, for example where the

terminal acts as a central hub. Container

With the exception of freight large enough

terminals which do not have a maritime link

to be shipped individually, e.g. a heavy lift

are known as dry ports, where containers

unit, goods will be consolidated and travel

are transferred from trucks and barges to

in batches or units, for example a trailer

railway carriages and vice versa.

load, a ship load, or a freight container.

The processes of assembly, dispatch, and

The container terminals clients are the

the transfer to other modes of transport

shipping lines. They pay the terminal an

take place at terminals. Terminals are,

agreed fee for every container loaded or

therefore, critical links in the transportation

unloaded from the vessel. At the same

chain. Depending on their function and

time, shipping lines demand that terminals

location, each terminal requires specific

handle a minimum number of containers

equipment and accommodation to handle

per hour. These and many other aspects of

the specific types of freight involved.

terminal operations are agreed between

the shipping line and the terminal and set

The obvious unit of freight in container

out in the terminal service contract.

transport is the container itself with its

capacity constrained by either volume

An important section in these contracts

or weight. At terminals known as multi

deals with the terminals commitment to

112 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

reserve, long before the vessel arrives, a

berthing space for the vessel on a certain
date and for a certain period of time a
so-called berthing window.

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 113

4.1

History and development

In terms of exclusivity and ownership,

container terminals may be divided into

The word terminal comes from the

multi or common user terminals, which

Latin terminus, which means the end

serve any shipping line, and dedicated

or final part, and suggests the end of

terminals offering exclusive rights to

a transportation line. In shipping, and

shipping lines. This exclusivity may only

container shipping in particular, terminals

apply to a part of the terminal and for a

have an intermediate function in moving

certain period of time. Shipping lines may

containers from one ship to another, or

also own and operate terminals themselves,

from a ship to another mode of transport.

particularly in locations of significant

Historically, ports developed at the most

strategic importance to the shipping line.

navigable upstream parts of rivers or in

locations where rivers came together.

New York Lower Manhattan . East River piers circa

1931. Typical pier construction as was common prior to
containerisation

This chapter describes how containerisation

Cities such as London on the Thames,

be relatively small. Warehouses located

has changed the function and layout of

Antwerp on the Scheldt, or New York

immediately adjacent to the dockside

ports and terminals, and gives an insight

on the Hudson River owe much of their

meant that goods were only exposed to the

into the processes at a modern container

current status as major global cities and

elements for a very short period of time.

terminal and the complexities of storage,

ports to their location.

shipping, stowage planning, loading and

The shift from break-bulk to containers

unloading of a vessel as follows:

In those early days, there were few

led to a fundamental change in the

History and development

requirements for navigable access, and sites

construction and siting of terminals.

easily achieved status as a port or harbour.

This was especially so in the late 1960s,

Ports which had to cope with tidal waters

when containerships were built without

created enclosed docks accessible through

on-board cranes. The terminal where the

lock gates.

ship intended to berth had to provide the

Terminal owners and operators

The function of a container terminal

Layout of a modern container terminal

Terminal equipment

equipment to load or unload the containers.

Planning and operations.

Dry cargo was shipped in the form of break

The rate at which containers were loaded

bulk and ships had to stay in port for several

and discharged was much faster than the

days or even weeks to load and unload the

trucks could handle. Therefore, a buffer

cargo; this required a sufficient number of

of container storage space was needed

berths being available. Ports were typically

ashore. Quayside warehouses were no

constructed with finger piers to achieve a

longer needed as the container itself

maximum number of berths within the port

provided enough protection. Accordingly,

area. As ships had their own cargo gear and

ports which entered into container handling

transfer times were lengthy, quays could

had to completely redesign their port

114 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 115

Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal;

leaders in the development of container terminal operations

structure. Locations like New York and

With the size of vessels increasing, there

Hamburg reshaped their existing port areas

was a corresponding growth in the demand

while, for example, Rotterdam shifted its

for ports and terminals to handle these

container operations towards the coast

larger vessels as well. These new vessels

Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal

and built it on land reclaimed from the

created new challenges for the terminals,

On 15 August 1962, the Port Authority of New York opened its Elizabeth Marine Terminal, considered to be the

sea. With the further globalisation of the

particularly regarding water depth and

worlds first container terminal, at the port of Newark.

world trade, large container ports were

the size of quay cranes. The investment

needed at the junctions of north / south and

required to build new terminals or to adapt

The New York Port Authority was created in 1921 from the merger of the ports of New York and New Jersey,

east / west trade routes. These ports had a

existing terminals to the new standards

who had been fighting for many years between themselves over the jurisdiction rights on the Hudson River.

transhipment function only.

became so large that many terminal

The new port agency was tasked with developing and modernising the entire port district. The nearby port of

owners sought alliance with or ownership

Newark received particular attention, as by 1951 it had become one of the worlds most modern terminals with

Historically, two ports have led the way in

by foreign investors to be able to afford

21 berths and a 35 foot (10.7 m) deep channel to accommodate the largest ships at that time. On 26 April 1956,

the development of container ports and

these investments.

the terminal was the location of a landmark in the carriage of containers, when Malcolm McLeans IDEAL X was

terminals. The first major development took

loaded for its first voyage carrying standard freight containers, destined for Houston. At that time, McLean had

Due to call-size (the volume of containers

already struck a deal with the port agency to build a completely new container port just south of Newark, which

when New York and nearby Newark battled

handled during one port call) and the

was to become the new Port Elizabeth. In fact, this new terminal instigated the demise of the port of New York.

over the location of the construction of the

need for storage space ashore, terminals

Marc Levinson writes as follows in The Box:

first dedicated container port in the area.

handle much greater peak loads than ever

The second such development was in 1980

before. A normal port call of a very large

Then (1955) came the most aggressive move of all. On December 2 1955, New Jersey governor Robert Meyner

when Rotterdam-based Europe Combined

container vessel involves the exchange of

announced that the Port Authority would develop a 450-acre tract of privately owned tidal marsh just south of

Terminals decided to move their container

some 5,000 TEU (loading and discharge),

Port Newark. The new Port Elizabeth, the largest port project ever undertaken in the United States, was planned

operations from the city of Rotterdam to

however, there have been instances where

the coast and opened its Delta terminal,

over 10 to 15,000 TEU have been transferred

the worlds first automated terminal, in 1985

during one port call. The trend is for current

(see also Port Newark Elizabeth Marine

container volumes to be handled by fewer,

Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal; leaders

but larger terminals, capable of handling

in the development of container terminal

ultra large container vessels and with the

operations).

required navigational accessibility.

et

rine er in

Bayonne

Ba

Upper

rt e

place in the late 1950s (and early 1960s),

Bayonne bridge

New York and the Bayonne Bridge

116 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

eventually to accommodate twenty-five oceangoing vessels at once, enabling New Jersey to handle more than
one-fourth of all general cargo in the Port of New York. Previously, the Port Authority had shown little interest
in Elizabeths marshlands. McLeans idea of putting truck trailers on ships changed that view entirely. Now, port
planners foresaw a resurgence of coastal shipping, and the new Port Elizabeth would have ample wharf and

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 117

4.2

Terminal owners and operators

upland available for the proposed use of large shipping containers on specially adapted vessels. There might
not even be a transit shed, the most expensive part of pier construction. The first containership had yet to
sail, but the Port Authority was making clear that the future of container shipping would be in New Jersey,

The investments involved in constructing

container handling. Examples are HPH, PSA

not in New York.

and operating container terminals are very

(Singapore), HHLA and Eurogate (Germany).

significant, require strategic planning and

Today, the Port of New York and New Jersey is the third largest port in the United States in terms of volume

a long term view. Furthermore, operating

Financial holdings / investment companies

(tonnes), after the Port of New Orleans and the Port of Houston.

a container terminal requires capacity

These are investment banks, pension

in terms of funding, knowledge of ship

funds and wealth funds that consider

Any development of the Port of Newark is considerably hampered by the fact that the Bayonne Bridge only

handling, logistics management and data

the container terminal sector a valuable

allows a maximum air draught of between 46 and 48 m, which is not sufficient for the largest container vessels.

processing. This combination makes that

source for generating revenue. The

In May 2013, a USD 1.3 billion project was started to increase the navigational clearance to 65 m, with completion

container terminal operators are usually

majority are shareholders and do not get

aimed in 2017.

part of large international consortia of

directly involved with the management of

which a limited number are operating on a

the terminal leaving this to the (existing)

world-wide basis.

operator of the terminal. Examples are DP

ECT Delta terminal

World from Dubai and Port America.

Ten years after its birth in the United States, containerisation found its way to Europe. The director of the
Rotterdam Port Authority, Dr. F. Posthuma, recognised containerisations enormous potential at the port of

Based on their container throughput in

Rotterdam. Sea-Land chose Rotterdam as its centre of activities in Europe, influenced by Posthumas good

2014, the six largest container terminal

Terminals linked with container

relationship with McLean. In 1967, a consortium consisting of Dutch Rail and four stevedoring companies,

operators are:

shipping companies

founded a new company to handle the new container business: Europe Combined Terminals (ECT). In order to

Hutchinson Port Holdings (HPH)

These terminals were set up by container

facilitate further growth in its container operations, the ECT opened its Delta Terminal in 1985, near the sea

China Merchants Holding Int. (CMHI)

shipping companies expanding into

and some 50 km from the city of Rotterdam. Many were of the view that the new terminal was too far

APM Terminals

terminal operations in order to exercise

away from the existing port area, however, the move appeared successful and ECTs business continued to

Cosco Pacific

greater control over this important part in

grow. The terminal expanded further in 1993, with the opening of the worlds first automated terminal. Further

Port of Singapore Authority (PSA)

the container transport chain. Examples are

expansion took place in 1999 and 2003 with the opening of the automated Delta Dedicated East and West

DP World.

APM Terminals (AP Moller), Cosco Pacific

terminals. In 2008, the opening of ECTs Euromax terminal was the next step in the development of terminal

(source: Lloyds List / companys annual reports)

and TIL (MSC).

Looking at background, organisation and

Productivity rates of ports and terminals

Many terminal operators around the world followed ECTs example of situating their terminals closer to the sea

constitution, container terminal operators

The productivity of a container terminal or

or sufficiently close so as to allow access without the need to pass through locks. Automation was introduced at

can be divided into three categories:

port is the average of the gross moves per

automation, and it became one of the most environmental friendly terminals in the world.

hour for each vessels call.

many terminals around the world, particularly in countries with high labour costs.

Terminals with a typical

Further innovations in container terminal operations, particularly with regard to energy saving and reduction of

stevedoring background

The definition of gross moves per hour for

carbon emissions, have been introduced at Rotterdams new terminals at Maasvlakte 2, which opened in 2015.

These companies were originally founded

a single vessel call is the total number of

as stevedoring companies and, at a

container moves (loading, discharging and

certain moment in history, diversified into

repositioning) divided by the number of

118 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 119

ranking

hours the vessel is at berth, for the period

port

moves

ranking

terminal

moves

between all lines fast and all lines off.

Tianjin (China)

130

APM Yokohama

163

The method of counting moves may vary

Qingdao (China)

126

Tianjin Xingang Sinor

163

Ningbo (China)

120

Ningbo Beilun Second

141

Jebil Ali (UAE)

119

Tianjin Port Euroasia

139

between ports and terminals but the

following is a common method:
discharge or load

1 x 20 / 40 / 45

= 1 move

Khor al Fakkan

119

Xiamen Sonyu

132

restow in the same bay

1 x 20 / 40 / 45

= 1 move

Yantian (China)

108

Tianjin Five Continents

130

discharge, land and restow

1 x 20 / 40 / 45

= 1 move

Xiamen (China)

106

Ningbo Gangji

127

out of gauge

1 x 20 / 40 / 45

= 3 or 4 moves

Busan (S. Korea)

105

Tianjin Port Alliance

126

hatchcover handling on board

= 2 moves

Mawan (China)

104

DP World, Jebil Ali

119

hatchcover handling to shore

= 3 moves

10

Shanghai (China)

104

10

Khor al Fakkan

119

twinlift

2 x 20 units

= 2 moves

tandemlift

2 x 40 units

= 2 moves

In 2014, the US based JOC Group produced

counterparts. The APM Terminal at Port

a white paper on port and terminal

Elizabeth (New Jersey) was the highest

productivity, based on a survey of 150,000

ranked terminal in the Americas with 104

port calls at 483 ports and 771 terminals.

moves. The Euromax Terminal at Rotterdam

They ranked ports and terminals according

was the highest ranked European terminal

to the average number of moves per hour

with 100 moves.

per ship during 2013. The port with the

highest productivity was Tianjin, China

Whilst there are no official records, the

averaging 130 moves. The terminals with the

Westport Terminal at Port Kelang Malaysia

highest productivity were the APM Terminal

claims to hold the world record for the

in Yokohama, Japan and the Tianjin Xingang

most container moves in one single hour.

Sinor Terminal in China, with 163 moves

In March 2010, they achieved 734 container

each. The survey indicates that Asian ports

moves in one hour over the 9,572 TEU CSCL

are far more productive when compared

LE HAVRE, using nine cranes at a time.

with their European and American

Ranking of worlds most productive port and terminal, average container moves per ship, per hour, all vessel sizes (2013).
source: JOC Group

120 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 121

4.3

The function of a container terminal

Container stripping and stuffing

provided by the trucking company, is

Facilities for regular loading (stuffing) and

different from that stated in the booking

unloading (stripping) of the container may

form supplied by the shipping line.

be available at the terminal, albeit this will

Container weight and container weighing

mostly be only at the smaller or medium-

will be dealt with further in Chapter 6.

sized terminals. The larger terminals do

Efficiency of stacking containers in the

Handling and storage

On the other hand, the terminal provides

not usually have the space to carry out

yard also depends on the correctness of

The primary function of a container terminal

secure and relatively inexpensive storage

such operations on a regular basis, and

the information about the next mode of

is to handle and move containers one way

for shippers, receivers and shipping lines.

will only facilitate stuffing and stripping of

transport (e.g. rail, barge, truck or ship)

or another. This is the primary function of

Terminals, therefore, provide fixed time

containers if alllowed by the Custom status

every container terminal around the world,

periods during which shippers can deliver

of the terminal and / or in an emergency; for

Container inspection

irrespective of whether it is a marine or an

their export containers to the terminal.

example, if the container has been

At the terminal, the container crosses

inland terminal. The practical impossibility

The point in time from which shippers can

damaged and can no longer be transported.

several lines of responsibility each

of directly transferring containers between

deliver the containers to the terminal in

vessels or between trucks, barges,

advance of the vessels arrival is known as

Administrative functions

condition of the container. These lines

trains and vessels are an integral part

the cargo opening time. This varies from

Document check and verification

of responsibility are crossed where the

of container terminal operations. Direct

terminal to terminal, but a cargo opening

Container terminals exchange a vast

container enters the terminal. This can be

transfer between vessels would require

time of some eight to 10 days prior to the

amount of information and documentation

either at the quayside or at the entrance

the transhipment vessels, as well as trucks,

vessels estimated arrival is not unusual.

with their users. Every day, mostly 24 / 7,

gate to the terminal. In practice, the

trains and barges to all arrive at the terminal

The terminal would ideally prefer that

they are in contact with shipping lines, local

container will be inspected as soon as

at the right time and in the right order, and

import containers which have been

agents, trucking companies, barge and rail

it is landed on the quay. This inspection

containers would need to be unloaded from

discharged from the vessel are picked up

operators, Customs, etc. This particularly

usually entails a check for any damage to

these in the same sequence as they are

as soon as possible. A two to three day

applies to terminals with a gateway

the container, as well as the integrity of

loaded on board the vessel. This is simply

storage period at the terminal is usually

function, where various modes of

the container seal. The container will also

impossible. Therefore, container terminal

included in the cost of the container

transport meet.

be checked for any leakage or spillage

operations can only be executed in an

handling. Thereafter, the terminal charges a

efficient manner if the containers can be

daily storage rate.

of cargo. Containers which have been

For the terminal to operate as efficiently

declared to contain hazardous cargo, are

as possible, it is important that all the

checked for the presence of the required

Empty containers are a separate category

information delivered to the terminal

IMO placarding on the outside of the

container.

placed in temporary storage at the terminal.

This is referred to as the storage buffer.

requiring an assessment of the external

of storage and separate areas may be

is correct and accurate. For example, if

The amount of time a container remains at

set aside at the terminal to store empty

the transport document shows that the

the terminal is referred to as the container

containers for each shipping line. However,

container delivered to the terminal is a

A special type of container is the

dwell time. Terminals prefer to limit

in most instances, and especially at very

20 foot container, but is in fact a 40 foot

refrigerated containers. These containers

container dwell time as much as possible,

busy terminals, empty containers are

container, this will lead to complications

are stored in a special area of the container

as too many containers at the storage yard

stored at designated empty container

during the automatic container stacking

yard where they can be connected to a

complicates the logistic processes. After

depots just outside the terminal itself.

and stowing on board the vessel. The same

power supply. The temperature of these

all, a container terminal is not a warehouse,

At these empty container depots there

complication, with an additional safety

containers must be checked regularly

but is built to handle as many containers

are also facilities for inspection, repair and

risk will arise if the weight of the container

to verify that these are in line with the

as possible in the shortest possible time.

cleaning of the containers.

as declared on the transport document

carriage instructions.

122 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 123

Similar inspections take place at the

available, has been blocked for transport,

container gate. At some of the more

has not been cleared by Customs, or does

sophisticated terminals, cameras with

not yet have the necessary documents.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) are

This would not only incur unnecessary

installed at the entrance gate to identify

costs for the transport company, but would

the arriving container by its unique 7-digit

also create congestion and inconvenience

reference number. Seal status, direction

at the terminal gate. Terminals have,

The purpose of a container terminal is to

of the terminal is to serve more than one

of the door, container damage and IMO

therefore, often a system in place whereby

safely and efficiently load and discharge

transport mode, and to have an efficient

labels can also be detected. If the system

the transport companies can verify that

vessels and to accomplish a smooth

internal transport system to shuttle

finds any irregularity with the container, the

these issues have been resolved before

transfer between the various modes of

containers between the container stacks

security systems can automatically prevent

sending their haulage equipment to the

transport. The terminal will only function

and the landside operation. Nevertheless,

the container from entering the terminal.

terminal. These systems vary from a simple

efficiently if the layout of the terminal has

the general layout will be more or less the

It is good practice by the terminal to send

line of communication to a complete online

been designed in such a way as to ensure

same at each location.

a damage or non-compliance report to

computer system, where all the relevant

that all operations are in alignment with

the client as soon as an irregularity has

parties can log on, enter clearance codes,

each other.

been found. This gives those involved an

and check whether the container is ready

opportunity to rectify any errors.

for collection.

Data control and verification

Stowage planning

It would not be in anyones interest if

Terminals play an important role in the

transport companies send their haulage

completion of the preliminary and final

In general, the layout of a container terminal

equipment to the terminal to pick up

stowage plans for each vessel calling

serving as a transhipment hub is different

Most modern containerships are

a container if the container is not yet

at the terminal. In the past, these plans

from that of a typical gateway terminal.

gearless. The loading and discharge

were created by the ships officers but,

A transhipment terminal will have

of containers are carried out at large

due to logistic reasons, this task has been

maximised the container storage, as

terminals with specialised gantry cranes.

transferred to the planners at the terminal,

containers may have to stay at the terminal

These cranes can traverse the length of

who work in close co-operation with a

for a longer period of time. The landside

the quay on a rail track. Between the rail

stowage co-ordinator at the offices of the

operation on the other hand will be

track and the quay wall may be a road

shipping line. The process of preparing the

minimal, as only a few containers will have

used by terminal personnel and visitors

stowage plan is described in more detail

an inland destination. For example, the

to gain access to vessels. This road may

later in this chapter.

Malta-based container hub Malta Freeport

also be located behind the gantry crane.

will only handle a few import and export

The trolley of the container gantry crane

containers destined for the island itself.

is passing over this road. At the landside,

The vast majority of the containers arriving

the containers are picked up / landed in

at the port are destined for transhipment

a section of the container yard where

onto other vessels.

vehicles drive between the container

4.4

Layout of a modern container terminal

be divided into three areas:

Each container terminal has its own specific
layout, concept of container handling, and

Automatic container inspection at the terminal gate

A marine container terminal can generally

its own equipment.

1 The waterside area with quay wall, apron

and cranes to load and discharge ships
and barges.

cranes and the container storage yard.

A gateway terminal will focus on having an
efficient landside operation. The purpose

124 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 125

2 The storage area or container yard

approximately 750 TEU per hectare for

where the containers are stored

straddle carriers. In some locations with

temporarily and which links the water-

a high storage density, e.g. Hong Kong,

and landside operation.

bay racks are used where containers can

be stowed up to 12 tiers high.

The container yard is located at the

centre of the terminal and occupies most

A less common system is storage on

of the space at the terminal. A storage

trailer chassis which is particularly

capacity of 30,000 to 40,000 containers is

popular in the United States. This system

not uncommon.

requires a significant storage area and

is therefore only found at terminals with

Containers may be stacked ashore in

limited container throughput.

blocks or lanes. Block storage is used

in conjunction with yard cranes. Each

When containers are stacked in the yard

position in each block is identified by

not every container is readily available

its bay, row (lane) and tier position.

to be picked up by the yard equipment.

Lane storage is used where straddle

Where the container at the base of the

carriers are used to store the containers

stack is needed, the containers stowed

in the yard.

on top must be removed first. This

involves unproductive moves (reshuffles)

waterside
waterside
landside (truck/rail)

quay cranes

The stacking height for block or lane

in the yard. The terminal obviously

stowage varies with the lifting capacity

wishes to keep the number of reshuffles

of the yards cranes or straddle carriers.

to a minimum and this places certain

Straddle carriers and yard cranes usually

demands on the storage strategy, the

lift to a maximum of four tiers high. The

type of equipment in the yard and, most

highest storage density can be achieved

importantly, the decision whether or not

using yard cranes with approximately

to automate the storage system.

1,100 TEU per hectare as opposed to

entrance gate
AGV

ASC

container yard

feeder and barge

loading quay
inspection area special containers
Lane storage involving straddle carriers

train

trucks

126 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

3 The landside area, where containers are

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 127

or yard cranes load containers onto

delivered or leave the terminal by road,

chassis or railway carriages. Barges are

rail or barge.

loaded further away from the stacking

area. This may also be the case for

4.5

Terminal equipment

The landside operation is where the

dedicated rail centres. Special vehicles,

terminal interacts with the connections

such as multi-trailer units, are used to

towards the hinterland. At the end of the

shuttle between the container stacking

Handling systems found in container

operate a scheduled service, and they are

container stacking area, straddle carriers

area and the rail / barge loading areas.

terminals include a quayside handling

best served by a reliable and consistent

system for loading and discharge of

performance of the terminal in the loading

vessels and barges, a transport system,

and discharge of their vessels. Automation,

and a storage yard system.

however, completely changes the

operation and data processing at the

Each terminal will use its own type of

container terminal and requires very

equipment based on differences in

significant investment.

operation, size and construction of the

terminal. Furthermore, the systems will
differ between terminals due to their
different manufacturers.
This section therefore provides a general
overview of the equipment used at
container terminals. A general distinction
can be made between terminals which
are automated and terminals where all

Gantry or ship to shore crane

(or part of the) equipment is operated by

US: Container storage on chassis

drivers. The areas of the terminal which

Quay cranes

lends themselves most to automation is

Different terms are used for quay cranes at

the stacking area, the transport between

container terminals. The most commonly

the stacking area and the quay cranes,

used term is ship-to-shore (STS) crane,

and the transport between the stacking

although the term gantry crane is more

area and the loading platforms for trucks

common. In the United States, the term

and rail transport. A few terminals operate

portal crane, or more commonly portainer

with remotely operated gantry cranes for

is used. This was the trademark of the very

loading and discharge of vessels.

first container cranes built by Paceco Inc.

in 1959 but has since that time become the

The benefits of automation are reduced

generic term used for this type of cranes.

labour costs, reduced emissions and, most

In this book, quay crane denotes a rail

importantly, a more consistent performance

mounted crane consisting of a supporting

of the terminal as a whole. Shipping lines

framework with a container spreader device

128 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 129

that can traverse the length of a quay, and

runs over the boom of the crane. In its

corner of the container, sensors are fitted

which is known in the industry as a

backreach position, the trolley hangs above

in the spreader allowing the locking device

gantry crane.

the storage area at the container yard. In

to engage only if the spreader is resting

the outreach position, the trolley hangs

on the container. A signal in the cabin tells

It should be noted that some terminals

above the vessel. The part of the container

the driver when all four locking devices are

also use multi-purpose, mobile harbour

crane which hangs above the water is

engaged. Similarly, sensors, both on the

cranes, which can be fitted with a container

hinged and can be moved into a vertical

spreader and in the drivers cabin, prevent

spreader. These cranes, however, have

position to clear the area for navigation.

the lifting of 2 x 20 foot containers in a 40

limited capacity in terms of reach (usually

foot spreader.

Twin lift

they can serve ships up to 13 containers

The drivers cabin is located in the trolley

wide) and are slower than gantry type

itself which is equipped with a steel wire

Crane and spreader devices are now

quay cranes. In view of their limited use at

operated container spreader to lift / lower

available which allow containers to be lifted

modern container terminals, this type of

the containers. The spreader is fitted with

in horizontal tandem, vertical tandem or

crane will not be further considered here.

a standardised twistlock mechanism which

twin lift arrangement.

Gantry type quay cranes move on rails

locks into the four upper corner castings of

running parallel to the quay wall. The

the container to be lifted. Telescopic beams

Conventional container gantry cranes have

positioning on a rail system means that

in the spreader allow easy adjustment from

a single hoist with a single spreader lifting a

quay cranes cannot pass each other and the

a 20 foot container length to 40 / 45 foot

single 20 foot, 40 foot or 45 foot container.

sequential order of the quay crane positions

container lengths.

along the quay wall cannot, therefore,

be changed.

Tandem lift

A special spreader can be fitted which

From his position in the cabin, the driver

allows 2 x 20 foot containers to be lifted at

each operating a single spreader, and

has to lower the spreader on top of the

one time. This way of lifting, whereby 2 x

working in parallel on the same trolley.

The crane driver is located in a cabin just

container to be lifted. Flipper arms are

20 foot are lifted end-to-end in a 40 foot

A vertical tandem lift (or in port jargon

above the spreader. From his position in the

fitted at each corner of the spreader to help

spreader, is referred to as a twin lift.

Piggy backing) is the lifting of two

cabin, the driver controls all movements of

position the spreader onto the container.

A tandem lift is the lifting of two (or

containers locked one above the other in

the crane and spreader.

Once the spreader is fully lowered in the

three) containers side by side. There are

one operation. The safety of this operation

correct position, the spreaders locking

two systems for tandem lifts; a single hoist

very much depends on the integrity of the

The loading / unloading mechanism of a

devices engage and the container can be

system with one set of falls connected

devices locking the containers together and

gantry type quay crane is a trolley which

lifted. To ensure proper connection at each

to a special single headblock with two

is not allowed in every port in the world.

(or three) spreaders, or two main hoists

twin lift

20
Gantry crane driver cabin

Container spreader with flipper arms

tandem lift

20

vertical tandem lift

130 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 131

Modern container gantry cranes must not

Bigger ships call for bigger and smarter cranes

only be capable of handling the largest

Increasing the capacity of containerships has not only been a challenge for naval architects and classification

vessels (see insert), the increased volume

societies. Crane manufacturers have had to keep pace with these developments as well. The increased container

of container traffic also demands quicker

capacity of ships was mainly achieved by increasing the width of the vessel and the stacking height of the

transfers to and from the ships. Modern

containers stowed on deck. Consequently, lifting height and outreach of the gantry beam had to become larger as

gantry cranes are therefore equipped

well. In addition, heavier and larger cranes also impose increased requirements on the strength of the quay wall.

with many features to improve efficiency,

single trolley system

such as:
Precision vehicle positioning (to align

backreach

gauge

outreach

vehicles on the quay in an optimal

position for loading or unloading)
Cameras for better visibility and
lifting height
25 m

remote control
Pendulum motion control to eliminate the
effects of wind and container inbalance

10 m

1970 Panamax

lifting height
52 m
17 m

2013 Triple E

Automatic container landing systems, for

precise motion control of the container

17 m outreach 37 m

backreach 25 m

30.5 m

outreach 72 m

during landing on the terminal vehicle

Automatic track control. The spreader
dual trolley system

backreach

gauge

outreach

follows set paths along the trolley to

Transport equipment at the terminal

do not have lifting capacity. These

automatically position the spreader

Once the container has been unloaded

vehicles can be either (multi-)trucks with a

above the container stacks. The driver

from the vessel, it needs to be taken to the

container chassis operated by truck

takes over during the last few metres

container stacking area, where it will remain

drivers, or unmanned automatic guided

before the spreader is lowered onto the

for a certain period of time. The vehicles

vehicles (AGV).

container or into the cell guides.

used for the transport from the quay to the

Gantry cranes can be divided into single

yard fall into two categories.

AGVs are robotic vehicles that drive

and dual trolley cranes. A single trolley

Some recently built container terminals,

crane transports the container in one

such as APM and Rotterdam World Gateway

The first group comprises vehicles which

transponders in the ground. These vehicles

move from its stowage position on board

(RWG) at Maasvlakte 2 and the Dubai-based

provide horizontal transport only, and which

can either be operated by a diesel motor

to the quay or onto a terminal vehicle. A

Jebil Ali T3 terminal, deploy container

or can be electric or both, i.e. a hybrid.

dual trolley gantry crane consists of a main

gantry cranes which are no longer operated

The vehicles have a loading capacity of 60

trolley which moves the container from

by crane drivers located in the cabin, but

to 70 tonnes, and are capable of carrying

the vessel onto a platform. From there, a

are instead remotely controlled by an

one 40 foot, one 45 foot, or two 20 foot

second trolley moves the container onto

operator in the terminal building. Crane

containers. Some AGVs have a liftable

the quay.

manufacturers have developed a range of

platform, enabling the vehicle to lift and

concept designs which can increase the

place containers independently on transfer

cranes rate of handling containers.

racks in the interchange zone in front of the

along predefined loop-type paths with

yard-stacking cranes.
AGV

132 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 133

The road at the terminal used by the AGVs

originally the name of one of the terminal

Forklift trucks lift containers by inserting

is divided into a small grid. Before an AGV

chassis manufacturers.

the prongs into the forklift pockets in the

can enter that grid, it has to be allocated

containers base frame.

the path so that no other AGV can drive in

the same area at the same time. This way,

Reach stackers (top pickers) have a

collisions between AGVs within the network

telescopic arm with a spreader device

are avoided. In addition, sensors are fitted

attached to the top of the arm which lifts

at the front and the back of an AGV, which

immediately switch off the engine if the

the container using the top corner castings.

Reach stackers are capable of stacking

Straddle carrier

AGV hits, or is hit by, another object.

containers up to five tiers high.

An overview of all the AGV movements

to place it directly into the container yard,

can be seen on the screen in front of the

or vice versa. Straddle carriers are mostly

quay operator located in the terminal

operated by a driver located in a cabin at

building. As soon as an AGV fails, it can be

the top of the frame. The work orders for

Special yard tractors are used to shuttle

remotely steered to a separate area where

the carrier drivers appear on a screen in the

the containers and chassis from their

technicians can locate and repair the fault.

cabin in a sequential order. Once a work

parking position on the terminal to the

If the engine fails on an AGV, a truck can

order has been accepted by the driver, it

gantry cranes.

be connected to the AGV to pull it to the

disappears from the top of the list and a

inspection area. Experience from operating

new order heads the list. In 2005, the Patrick

For transport on public roads, the trailers

automated terminals has shown that for the

Autostrad Terminal in Brisbane, Australia,

must have additional features such as a

optimum operation of the terminal, at least

became the first terminal with a completely

twistlock system to lock the container to

eight AGVs should be connected to one

automated straddle carrier system. The

the chassis.

quay crane. Therefore, a terminal operation

terminal had opted for the straddle carrier

with six quay cranes should deploy some

system instead of the AGV system to ensure

The terminal equipment used to stack

50 AGVs.

a consistent container throughput, as they

containers can be divided into three

were of the view that the AVG system was

different groups:

less flexible and more at risk of failure.

Reach stackers, container lift trucks and

The second category is the straddle carrier

system, also called a shuttle carrier or

Mafi

Forklift truck

forklift trucks

van carrier. The vehicle consists of a

Terminal storage equipment

Straddle carriers (see previous Chapter)

metal frame with a telescopic spreader

The simplest form of container storage

Yard cranes

suspended within the frame. The vehicle

is storage on chassis. This system is

usually drives on four wheels located either

particularly popular in the United States.

Reach stackers, fork lift trucks and container

side of the frame. The frame itself is in the

The typical yard chassis consists of a simple

lifting trucks are all rubber-tyred vehicles

shape of an upside down U, which allows

steel frame with guides to allow easy and

powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid

the carrier to drive over the container and

correct positioning of the container on the

diesel-electric engine and used to lift fully

to lift the container between the frame legs,

chassis. In its parked position, the chassis

loaded containers. The vehicles differ from

up to three or four container tiers high. This

is resting on support legs. The chassis is

each other in the way they lift the containers

allows the straddle carrier to pick up the

often referred to as a MAFI trailer, which

and the stacking height capacity.

container from the quay or truck chassis and

has become a generic term but which was

Reach stacker

Container lift truck

134 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 135

Container lift trucks (side pickers) can only

A yard crane consists of a steel portal

and span eight to twelve containers wide.

lift containers vertically. For that purpose,

frame, a trolley and a spreader. The crane

The container block can be several hundred

the trucks have a telescopic lifting frame in

drives on either rubber tyres (RTG rubber

metres long and can be served by one

front of the vehicle. The containers are lifted

tired gantry) or moves on a rail system

or more ASCs. Where there are multiple

through the side apertures of the top corner

(RMG rail mounted gantry).

ASCs in one container block, the ASCs

castings. These trucks are particularly

can all be of the same height, in which

case they cannot pass each other, or can

where containers need to be stacked 6-8

Automated container handling in the

storage yard

tiers high.

During the last 25 years, improved sensor

can pass below each other. This latter

popular at empty container deports

be of different heights, in which case they

ASCs in end loading system

and navigation technology has made

configuration can be found at the CTA and

All the above types of container stacking

it possible to operate automatically

CTB terminals in Hamburg.

equipment are used mainly in smaller ports,

container handling equipment, using very

container logistic sites or container depots.

sophisticated computer controls systems.

There are two different layouts used in the

ability to handle peak loads at either

They are very flexible and can be used for

The first type of automated container

construction of storage yards operated

the land or waterside end and for this

both transport and stacking. Reach stackers

handling equipment was the rail mounted

by ASCs; the end-loading and the side-

reason many terminals opt for the side-

are also used to load and discharge barges.

gantry cranes, now commonly known as

loading system.

loading system. A combination of the

containers from the trucks. The end-loading

system is considered less flexible in its

end and side-loading system is in use at

Automatic Stacking Cranes (ASC).

Larger container terminals, however, prefer

The first ASC, together with unmanned

The end-loading ASC yard (E-ASC) has

to use another type of equipment for

AGVs, were installed at ECTs Delta

container blocks perpendicular to the

container storage, namely yard cranes.

Terminal in Rotterdam in 1993. In 2002,

quay. This system is particularly seen

ASCs receive their work orders directly

Firstly, more containers can be stowed

HHLAs CTA terminal in Hamburg

in automated terminals in Europe, e.g.

from the terminal operation system. These

within a given area when using yard cranes.

implemented a similar technology. Since its

Rotterdam, Hamburg, Algeciras and

work orders come in batches which means

The yard crane system is also much safer

first introduction in 1993, some 30 terminals

Antwerp. Containers are only handled at

those responsible for terminal planning

as there is less traffic in the storage area.

have introduced ASCs and their use have

the two ends of the storage block; one end

can prepare each batch based on the

Furthermore, yard cranes lend themselves

become the norm at new large container

serving the waterside (usually by trucks,

latest real-time information received and

to a high degree of automation which is

terminals in Europe, Asia and America.

AGVs or straddle carriers). The other end

any future information can be included in

serves the landside for loading container

subsequent batches.

particularly important in countries where

labour is expensive.

Thamesport, UK.

The latest ASC designs can stack up to five

onto trucks, railway carriages or multi-trailer

containers high (with one container passing)

systems. There is no traffic in the yard when

The sequence of stowing and stacking

using the end-loading system.

containers in the yard is a highly

computerised process, whereby the

The side-loading system has the container

operation system continuously looks for

blocks positioned parallel to the quay.

optimisation. In container storage terms,

This system is mainly favoured in Asia.

optimisation means the smallest amount

The ASCs in the side-loading system are

of reshuffles (or shifters) during the loading

cantilevered (C-ASC). Trucks drive into the

of the vessel. Since trucks do arrive at the

container stacking area in a side-loading

terminal in an entirely random order which

system, through lanes running parallel to

Rubber tired gantry

Automatic Rail Mounted Gantry (ARMG), or: Automated

Stacking Cranes (ASC)

the container blocks. ASCs pick up the

136 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 137

will be different to the sequence in which

ASCs must be equipped with advanced

the containers are to be loaded on board

observation (CCTV), positioning

the vessel, the ASCs will carry out reshuffles

(transponders, laser, infrared) and

during periods of less activity.

communication systems to automatically

4.6

Planning and operations

report the status of the crane and any

The container storage will now have been

possible technical failures of the machinery.

prepared in such a way that only a small

Different container terminals have

performance of a quay crane may be less

number of reshuffles will be necessary

different processes and procedures in

than initially planned. If this is the case,

during the loading operations of a vessel.

place for the planning and execution of

the terminal will have to reschedule its

their operations.

operations in order to meet the vessels

Container terminal equipment, for those who like abbreviations

planned departure time.

These differences may depend on the type

A wide variety of container handling equipment is available, each type with its own abbreviation. Each type of

of equipment used at the terminal, but

All these uncertainties mean that container

equipment has a unique functionality and may be used together with complimentary equipment within the same

the differences can also be of an historic

terminal operations are very dynamic

system. Below is a list of the most commonly used abbreviations:

and / or cultural nature. For example,

processes where plans continuously

AGV

Automated Guided Vehicle. Robotic vehicles that drive between the gantry cranes and

terminals located in high cost countries will

need to be rescheduled and decisions

the stacking area and are controlled by a network of electric wires or transponders in

move more quickly towards automation.

need to be taken to adjust to the actual

real-time situation.

the ground
ALV

Automated Lifting Vehicle, an AGV that can both load and unload

An example of this, is as already

ASC

Automatic Stacking Crane

mentioned, the fact that Asian countries

The terminal operation system (TOS) is

TTU

Terminal Tractor with Trailer Unit

favour the side-loading system in a storage

the beating heart of a modern container

MTU

Multi Trailer Unit (terminal tractor with several trailers) also known as MTS - Multi

yard whereas European yards favour the

terminal and is designed to quickly deal

Trailer System

end-loading system.

with any real-time changes. The TOS is

RTG

a software package offered by a dozen

Rubber-Tyred Gantry crane (mostly used in conjunction with straddle carriers)

different manufacturers to the market in

ARTG

An automated RTG

Container terminal operations are very

RMG

Rail Mounted Gantry crane

complex compared with many other

many different versions, and capable of

ARMG

An automated RMG (also referred to as an ASC)

similar operations due to the high level of

adding software modules covering various

OHB

Overhead Bridge Crane

uncertainty at almost every stage of the

other operations. It is important that plans

SC

Straddle Carrier

planning operation. These uncertainties are

and messages are interchangeable and

ShC

Shuttle carrier

inherent in shipping, but also in transport in

can be read by every computer system at

STS crane

Ship to Shore crane (usually a gantry crane)

general. Vessels may be delayed because

the terminal to achieve efficient operation

ECH

Empty Container Handler (front loaders capable of up to 9-high stacking ashore)

of bad weather or operational delays in

and to communicate efficiently with other

a previous port. At the terminal, during

parties in the transport chain.

the execution of an operation, technical

equipment can suddenly fail and this can

Apart from internal communication,

lead to rescheduling of the operations.

container terminal operators conduct a high

The terminal can suffer congestion during

volume of communication with a wide range

peak times because of conflicts between

of external parties such as shipping lines,

terminal operations and, as a result, the

local agents, freight forwarders, trucking,

138 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 139

UN / EDIFACT

These processes are outlined as they would

time frames are mentioned, these will be

In shipping, as in many other sectors of industry, documents and data are exchanged electronically between

be at typically large container terminals

applicable to these particular terminals only

different companies, in accordance with internationally agreed standards.

in north-west Europe. The container

and may be different at any other terminal.

yards at the terminals in question are fully

By definition, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards,

automated as well as the transport between

from one computer system to another without human intervention. The files carry the extension .edi after

the container yard and the quay cranes.

Ship planning berth allocation, crane

and resource planning

the message description. There are several EDI standards although the standard recommended by the United

The annual throughput ranges between

This is the process which assigns vessels

Nations UN / EDIFACT (Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Administration) is the only

2 and 4 million TEU and there is a full

to a certain section of the quay wall, taking

international standard. All EDIFACT messages are based on the ISO standard 9735, which was adopted in 1988.

range of intermodal connections to inland

into account the vessels dimensions,

Accordingly, all computers used in a shipping environment and have been installed to deal with electronic data

Europe. The planning departments operate

location of mooring points, expected

exchange, should support EDIFACT-type messages.

a 24 / 7 service in five work shifts. Where

service times, etc. It is the terminals quay

S i s annin

The following are the most frequently used EDIFACT messages in communication with container terminals:
BAPLIE

(Bayplan / stowage plan Occupied And Empty Locations message).

e t in

oced e (indicative)
indo a eement

Bayplan message from the terminal to the ship operator, to the ship and, if required, to the next terminal
COPARN (COntainer Pre-ARrival Notice)
Container announcement message (loaded or empty) from the carrier to the terminal

mont
before ETA

(Estimated
Time of Arrival)

COPRAR (COntainer PRe-ARrival) message

The loading and / or discharge instruction from the carrier to the terminal
COARRI (COntainer ARRIval) message
Loading / discharge report from the terminal to the carrier
MOVINS Stowage instruction from the ship operator to the terminal

ay annin
Crane allocation

mont
before ETA

indo con mation

ee
before ETA

a o o enin time

o s
before ETA

a o c osin time

COREOR (COntainer REelease ORder)

Container release message for full and empty containers from the carrier to the
terminal
CODECO (COntainer DEparture COnfirmation)
Gate in / gate out movements from the terminal to the carrier

o s
before ETA

oadin ists to anne

}
}
}

This chapter will now deal with the following

To achieve uniformity and efficiency,

two processes which are important to every

all parties use the UN internal standard

marine container terminal:

for electronic communication, called

the ship planning process berth

EDIFACT. (Electronic Data Interchange For

Administration, Commerce and Transport).
These messages are recognised by the file
extension .edi. (see also above).

allocation, crane and resource planning

Ships control of stowplan

n as in

Sta t oad disc a e

the preparation of the container

stowage plan.

delivering of export cargo

dt

ntr

Load discharge sequencing

Stowage plan
Work orders to TOS (Terminal Operation System)

esse s a i a

rail and barge operators, customs etc.

regular updates on vessels ETA

om etion oad disc a e

Final stow plan

esse sai s

eri ti n

140 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 141

planner, who is part of the terminals

The terminal service contracts entered into

The table below is an extract from a typical

resource planning department, who

between the liner operator and the terminal

berthing window plan, agreed between the

handles these planning issues and stays

state a predefined berthing window, as well

terminal and the liner operator.

in contact with the shipping line and the

as the length of time the liner operator is

vessels local agent.

allowed to be delayed. A typical contract

allows the vessel to arrive two to four hours

The allocation of a berth starts a long time

late. Depending on the terminals other

before the expected arrival of the vessel.

berthing commitments, consideration

Nearer the date of the vessels arrival, crane

may have to be given to rescheduling

sequences and labour resources will be

the vessels berthing time if the vessel is

involved in the planning process as well.

delayed, or, alternatively, to skip the port

call all together.

We will now deal with the various stages of

the ship planning process.

Art. 1 Vessels details / trade

trade

nominal
capacity
(TEU)

L.O.A.
(metres)

maximum
number of
containers
abeam

maximum
draft

vessel
operator

number
of vessels
operated

Alliance X

6,600

305

16

14.50

container
line x

Art. 2 Berthing window plan

trade

call size (TEU)

contractual berthing
window

dedicated berth

Alliance X

2,500 load / 2,500 discharge

Wednesday 22.00 Friday

22.00 hrs.

alfa berth

Timely arrival of the vessel is also important

for the planning of the operations at

Berthing window agreement

the stacking yard. The terminal usually

Large container vessels operate regular

allocates mooring berths well before the

schedules that are agreed a long time in

first export containers arrive at the terminal.

advance. A typical liner service runs weekly

The terminal would ideally like to have as

Quay planning

quay planner estimates the number of

schedules with berthing on a certain day

short a distance as possible between the

Approximately three months before the

quay cranes that needs to be allocated to

each week. The weekly service can be

containers at the yard and the vessel, and

expected arrival of the vessel, the quay

the vessel. For a crane productivity of 20

provided by one single liner operator,

will therefore place the export containers as

planner books the intended quay position

containers per hour, this would be 5 quay

or by a pool or alliance of operators.

close as possible to the vessels intended

(length) and allocates a number of cranes to

cranes. A section of the stacking area, and

The latter being the most common

berth. If for one reason or another the ship

the vessel. Quay positions are indicated by

a number of ASCs, will be automatically

arrangement today.

arrives after the allotted time, she may have

the bollard positions. The decision on berth

connected to the berthing location.

to divert to another berth. This will incur

allocation takes into account the vessels

Long-term planning is important for liner

significant costs (and additional work) for

technical requirements and the technical

operators to enable them to provide their

the terminal as the containers will have to

restrictions at the intended berthing place,

needed has been established, the quay

customers with scheduling information well

be moved over a longer distance to be

such as air draught, water draught, outreach

planner will also know the expected length

in advance and to contract with terminals

loaded onto the vessel.

of the crane, etc.

of stay of the vessel at the terminal. If, for

at scheduled ports along the route. The

Once the number of cranes that will be

example, the forecasted call-size is 5,000

contracts with the terminals provide the

The ships name is usually not mentioned in

The service contract between the shipping

containers, fifty hours need to be set aside

liner operator with a degree of guarantee

the berthing window clause contained

line and the terminal also stipulates a berth

in the quay planning system and allocated

that a berth will be available when the ship

in the terminal service contract; only the

production. This is the average number of

to the particular quay positions. At this

arrives. At the same time, the advance

ships dimensions and estimated call size,

containers per hour which the terminal has

stage, the vessels name is not known; and

planning allows the terminal to plan the

i.e. number of containers to be loaded

to handle during the vessels stay at the

the entire planning is made on forecasted

resources available (quay space, labour, and

and discharged.

terminal. A typical berth production for

numbers only.

equipment) for a longer period of time.

a large container vessel is 100 containers

per hour. On the basis of this figure, the

142 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 143

2 5 8 11 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99 104 110 116

0800

quay position mooring points

time line

crane number

Feeder vessels and barges are entered

grant trucks access to deliver the export

into the quay planning system shortly

containers. The container gate system

before arrival at the terminal. These vessels

contains information on which section of

occupy less quay space and require less

the stacking area has been assigned to

time allocated to them in the quay planning

the vessels berth and any incoming trucks

system and the planning surrounding them

will be directed to the correct area of the

can be much more flexible than that for the

container yard to deliver the containers.

large ocean carriers.

Cargo closing time, data control and

green = twin lift

red = single lift
1600

number of cranes for 1 vessel (here 5)

29
OCT

Window confirmation

24-hour fine tuning

Approximately one month before the

Export containers are allowed to enter the

vessels expected date of arrival, the

terminal, up until 24 hours before the vessel

shipping line will inform the terminal

arrives. This is referred to as the cargo

whether the vessel is still within window.

closing time or cut-off time. After that

At this moment, the vessel will have

time, export containers can be accepted

started the ocean voyage to Europe and

with the permission of the terminal planner

the terminal can be provided with the

who prepares the preliminary stowage

exact call-size. Based on this updated

plan. Immediately after the cargo closing

information, the terminal can adjust the

time, the data control centre of the terminal

quay and crane planning further. At this

will verify that all the booked containers

stage, the shipping line will also provide the

have arrived at the terminal. They will also

ships name. The terminal will ensure that

check that the information contained in

all vessel details needed for the stowage

the transport companys documentation

planning are available to them. If this is the

matches the information in the loading

first time the vessel calls at the terminal,

lists received from the shipping lines local

the shipping line will have to provide the

agent. Items such as size of the container,

details needed for the terminal to prepare

weight, IMO status etc., will be checked.

its planning programmes.

If any discrepancy is found between the two

total period vessel alongside quay

0800

documents, the data centre will contact the

In the weeks that follow, the shipping line

shipping lines local agent to obtain more

sends regular updates to the terminal about

accurate information. If any uncertainty

the vessels expected arrival time. If it is

remains, the general principle is that the

possible that the vessel will fail to meet its

terminal will take the information from the

window, the terminals resource planner will

documentation of the transport company

check to see if the plan can be altered.

which delivered the container to the

terminal. Experience has shown that this is

Cargo opening time

Approximately one week before the vessels
Example of a quay / crane planning

expected date of arrival, the terminal will

usually the most accurate information.

144 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 145

The terminals data control centre has

cranes and related haulage equipment, the

approximately 18 hours to complete these

so-called crane sequencing or crane split.

checks. The final loading information must

be sent to the vessels terminal planner

The crane sequence diagram shows the

at least six hours before the arrival of the

crane positions relative to the vessel and

vessel.

the length of time each crane works at a

container bays
fore
aft

start operations

certain location on board the vessel.

The day before the vessels arrival, the

The diagram is designed in such a way

resource planner will book the labour gangs

that, in an ideal world, all cranes complete

needed to operate the quay cranes. The

their operations at exactly the same time.

foreman of the lashing gang will obtain

The crane diagram, in combination with

information on how many containers need

the preliminary stowage plan, is translated

to be unlashed and lashed and will arrange

into work orders for the ASCs and AGVs.

the labour force accordingly. The harbour

These work orders are entered into the

pilot and mooring gangs will be informed

terminals operating system (TOS) several

about the exact berthing position of the

hours before the vessels arrival. This time

incoming vessel. The terminal is now ready

is needed by the TOS to optimise and start

to receive the vessel. The shipping line

the stacking sequence in the yard.

single lift discharge

twin lift discharge

accommodation

and / or its local agent will be informed of

the final arrangements made.

Once plans and schedules are ready

time line

for execution, the terminals operations

Load / discharge planning

department will take over and will start

crane sequencing

monitoring and supervising their execution.

The terminals planning department assigns

This is done from the terminal building.

a vessel planner, usually referred to as the

The operator oversees the situation on

terminal planner, to the vessel, who will

board and on the quay using remotely

be in charge of preparing the preliminary

operated cameras. There is direct radio

stowage plan and the division of work

contact between each crane and each

across the gantry cranes and other related

crane works on a separate radio frequency

equipment. The terminal planner will remain

to avoid interference between the cranes.

twin lift discharge

twin lift load

the central point of contact for all planning

activities during the vessels entire stay at

Preparation of the stowage plan

the terminal.

Container stowage planning can be

described as the act of allocating positions

Based on the number of containers to be

to containers on board the vessel. For a

loaded or unloaded as well as the planned

number of reasons, accurate and correct

stowage positions of these containers on

stowage planning is vital, not only for the

completion operations

board the vessel, the terminal planner will

divide the work across the respective quay

Crane split diagram for container vessel to discharge and

load containers (see right page)

= discharge
= loading

twin lift
discharge

twin lift
loading

146 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 147

efficiency of the operations at the terminal

containers containing hazardous cargo

but particularly for the safety of the ship

and containers requiring a particular

and crew.

stowage position. The positions, or slots, for

Preparation of the Stowage plan (indicative)

container bookings

refrigerated containers are also indicated.

are grouped by loading and discharge

liner operators will have the final say over

port without further reference to numbers,

the stowage plan; others leave it entirely up

weight, etc.

to the terminal planner to prepare a plan.

booking
system

booking
system

booking
system

booking
system

carrier 1

carrier 2

carrier 3

carrier 4
ship operator

The second step of stowage planning is

are part of the software used for the

This will result in a plan showing the exact

stowage planning. Stowage planning by

position of every container on board

the terminal has the major advantage that

and containing all the relevant details of

maximum optimisation can be achieved;

each container.

i.e. a minimum of reshuffles in the yard

and maximisation of the crane production.

In practice, however, stowage planning

These factors have a positive effect on costs

contains several more stages. It starts at

and the length of the vessels stay in port.

the initial booking by the shipper and ends

with the submission of the final approved

In its simplest form, stowage planning

plan to the Master of the vessel. The above

is a two-step process. The first step is

outline and simple description of planning

performed by the shipping line who

only applies when there is one shipping line

prepares a very rough plan, the so-called

and all cargo carried on board the vessel is

pre-stow plan. The central planner at the

booked by that particular shipping line. In

shipping line is responsible for this task.

reality, most container vessels operate in a

There is no reference to specific container

pool or alliance with other shipowners.

numbers in the pre-stow plan, except for

Data Control

Terminal planner

Gate-in
arrivals
Terminal Gate
barge, truck, rail

arrival

Terminal

Ship

completion operations

Chart showing the various stages in the stowage planning process for a vessel operating in a pool with four members

The principle of a shipping alliance is that

same time, enjoy the benefits of scale

different liner ship operators, who either

when operating a large vessel instead

own or charter the vessels, put a number

of a smaller one. The liner operator who

of ships in a pool and that each operator

delivers the vessel in the pool provides the

is entitled to use a certain number of the

central planner; the others are referred to as

container slots on every vessel. This way,

partner lines or slot charterers, and do not

each ship operator can offer their clients,

have a say in the stowage planning.

for example, a weekly service and, at the

The terminals operations department

loading
lists

container to be loaded on board the vessel.

approval

principles of good practice. These principles

Carrier /
Shipping
operator

central
planner

booking forecast
and IMDG
loading
lists

assigns specific positions to each and every

na
loading
list

produced by computers based on general

loading
lists

executed by the terminal planner who

loading
lists

At larger terminals the stowage plan is

SLBS

Shipping Line
Booking system

na sto a e an

plan differs between liner operators. Some

Shipper

pre-stow plan

The positions of the remaining containers

preliminary stowage plan

The process of preparing the ships stowage

148 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 149

An additional complexity is the fact that,

Port-of-load and discharge

The pre-stow plan

Loading lists

while the group of operators form a pool,

Pier-of-load and discharge

The central planner or planning centre

Prior to the terminals cargo closing time,

they do not want to disclose sensitive

Ready-date (date when the containers

has received the booking forecasts from

the local ships agent of each slot charterer

commercial information to other members

all slot-charterers, including the booking

provides the terminal operator with a list of

of the pool. As a result, the exchange of

Ocean vessel name or call sign

information from their own agency, and will

containers to be loaded and discharged, a

information between the pool members

Ocean vessel voyage number

use the information to prepare the pre-stow

so-called COPRAR message.

is kept to a minimum. Nevertheless,

Unique reference on booking level

plan. The purpose of the pre-stow plan is to

the terminal needs to obtain detailed

Unique reference for each container on

ensure that all containers can be carried on

In addition to the name of the ocean going

board in a safe manner and that the cargo

vessel and the loading / discharge port, this

information to organise their processes

will be available for shipment)

container level

and to prepare a proper stowage plan.

Container ISO code or type size

is loaded with a view to avoiding costly

message also lists the unique container

As a result, the flow of information

Container empty or full

re-stows in future ports of call. The pre-stow

identification numbers, weight and other

follows different routes as described in the

Container weight (only for full containers)

plan will also provide some rough guidance

references such as IMDG class or the

chart on page 146.

Commodity (only for full containers)

to the terminal planner when the more

required setting temperature.

IMDG class (in case of hazardous cargo)

detailed preliminary stow plan is prepared

Temperature settings (in case of

at a later stage.

In the above example, the vessel in

question operates in a pool with three other
partners. An allocation of the container
slots has been made in the pool agreement

refrigerated containers)
Special stowage codes (e.g Out
Of Gauge).

and each member is entitled to assign 25

The local agent also sends a message

(COPARN) to the terminal, specifying

The central planner will therefore work with

the containers which will be delivered

known data the containers already on

or picked up from the terminal and the

board, as well as projected data which is the

mode of inland transportation used.

per cent of the container slots to bookings

By using the booking system, the container

booking forecasts. The preparation of the

This information will be checked against

under their own bill of lading. Pool member

line will know how many empty containers

stowage plan at the central planners office

the information supplied by the various

4 is also the operator or owner of the vessel

to release from its depot. By aggregating all

will also require input on ships stability, hull

transport companies when they deliver

and therefore delivers the central planner

the booking information, the shipping line

stress, draught, forward visibility, etc.

their containers at the gate. The final

to coordinate the port calls and stowage

will know how many containers are going to

planning with the terminal.

be shipped at each loading port.

The shipping line booking system (SLBS)

A few days before the vessels expected

Every shipping line providing a container

arrival date, the shipping line has to

The stowage positions of these containers

service has a booking system. The purpose

submit the booking forecast to the vessels

are fixed by the central planner and cannot

Preliminary stowage plan

of this system is to book cargo shipments

operator for the central planner to prepare

be changed by the terminal planner,

The preliminary stowage plan is compiled

and find the best route for each shipment

the pre-stow plan. At this time, however,

without the central planners consent.

shortly before the vessels arrival. Some

to its final destination. The system requires

the complete booking information such as

input of data supplied by the shipper as well

exact weight and quantity may not yet be

The central planner will subsequently

not uncommon. By this time, the terminal

as information provided by the shipping

available. The information received from the

transmit the completed pre-stow plan to

planner has received the inbound stowage

lines agency.

slot charterer may therefore not be entirely

the terminal to guide the planner at the

plan from the previous port of call and the

checked loading lists will subsequently be

No specific container data has been

transmitted to the terminal planner. In the

entered in the plan yet. The only exception

meantime, the terminal will not take receipt

applies to containers with hazardous cargo.

of any further containers to be loaded.

six hours prior to the vessels arrival is

accurate until the terminal receives the final

terminals office in the further planning of

loading list of the containers to be loaded.

Once completed, the following information

information from the trucking, rail or

the stowage. This transmission will take

The previously received pre-stow plan from

is contained in the booking form:

barge company delivering the container to

place some 1-2 days prior to the

the shipping line is also entered into the

the terminal.

vessels arrival.

150 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 151

terminal planning system and serves as a

Approval of the preliminary plan by the

will also be forwarded to the vessels next

rough work sheet for the planner.

vessels staff

port of call.

The preliminary plan, in BAPLIE format, will

The objective of the terminal planner is

be sent back to the central planner and to

to prepare the most efficient preliminary

the vessel for approval, prior to start of

stowage plan, taking into account the pre-

the operations.

stow plan, the limitations of the vessel,

The cost of calling at a container terminal

Ships entering a port to load and unload cargo have to pay a range of costs which can broadly be split into the
following categories:

the general principles of stowage, the

The vessel is equipped with a loading

Port related costs (e.g. harbour costs)

allocated resources (labour, cranes) and

computer capable of calculating the ships

Navigation and mooring costs

the way the containers are stacked in the

trim, stability, shear force, bending and

Stevedoring costs

yard and, at the same time, comply with the

torsion moment. The computer will also

requirements by the central planner.

check that the maximum permissible

Below is an example of the costs incurred by a 15,000 TEU container vessel calling at a terminal in north-west

During this part of the stowage planning,

forces are not exceeded in the vessels

Europe to load 5,000 TEU and to discharge another 5,000 TEU.

these general stowage principles are:

planned departure condition. The vessels

minimise the number of reshuffles in the

programme is also equipped with software

container yard

The below list is an indication only and costs can vary considerably between different ports and terminals.

to check that the requirements of the

no heavy over light stowage

vessels Cargo Securing Manual are met

Port related costs

the maximum permissible stacking

and that the prescribed limits are not

Harbour costs

65,000

weight. This is the maximum weight the

exceeded in the vessels planned departure

Compulsory waste fee

vessels hatch covers are designed to

condition. The computer programme can

Navigation and mooring costs

carry and cannot be exceeded

quickly upload the BAPLIE file in the system

Pilotage (inward and outward)

9,500

and will flag locations where forces may

Towage (inward and outward)

4,800 (2 tugs)

be exceeded. At this stage, the vessels

Mooring gangs (2 x)

8,800

staff may have to instruct the terminal to

Stevedoring costs

600,000

the positions of IMO and reefer

containers are fixed.

875

The plan can be compiled manually,

change the stowage plan if this is the case.

but is today mostly done by a computer

Once the plan is approved, the status of the

Stevedoring costs include terminal handling charges and costs which are deemed part of the freight charges.

programme. The following information will

stowage plan is final. Any changes to the

Terminal handling charges are effectively charges which are incurred by the shipping line and which will be

be contained in the stowage plan for each

plan after approval has been received, and

recovered from the shippers at the loading port and from the receivers at the discharge port. The basic principle

container position:

which may result in different stowage

is that all costs related to the handling of the container before it passes the ships rail are terminal handling costs

container number

forces will have to be agreed by the ships

and that the costs incurred after the containers have passed the ships rail are for the account of the shipping line

carrier indication

staff and / or central planner in advance.

and deemed incorporated in the freight charges. For example, the cost of lashing the containers and the vessels

ISO size / type code (e.g. 2210,)

planning are for the account of the shipping line. The costs related to the movement of the container at the yard

empty / full indication

During loading and discharge operations,

and inspection of the container, are included in the terminal handling charges. Terminal handling charges also

weight (gross weight)

terminal staff will make a record of

include a number of days with free storage after which a demurrage fee is charged.

stowage position (Bay / Row / Tier)

the containers which are loaded and

load port

discharged. This information will uploaded

discharge port

in the terminal operation system and a final

required transport temperature

version of the plan will subsequently be sent

dangerous goods class (IMDG Code).

to the vessel and the central planner and

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 153

Chapter 5

Shipboard container operations

The basic function of a merchant cargo

in ship handling and navigation, the ships

vessel is to transport goods from one

officers also had to possess detailed

place to another, and to deliver the

knowledge of the nature of the commodity

cargo in the same condition as when it

carried and how to handle it in port and

was loaded. While containerisation has

care for it during the voyage.

changed every aspect of the transport

of goods, this basic function has not

The role of the crew in the handling of

changed. However, the method and

cargo has developed towards a situation

equipment used to accomplish this are

whereby virtually all co-ordination of

very different due to containerisation.

loading, discharge and stowage is the

responsibility of the central planner and the

Throughout the evolution of

terminal. The ocean voyage is no longer

containerisation, one common denominator

a self-contained journey but is just a link,

has driven change; the need to make

albeit an important one, in the entire supply

shipping more efficient and to reduce the

chain. Except for containers with hazardous

overall cost of transport.

substances and refrigerated containers, the

crew on a modern containership has little

Prior to containerisation, the ocean voyage

or no knowledge of the cargo contained

was an enterprise in itself. The Master of

in the boxes on board. Their role is mainly

the vessel, being in full control of all cargo

focussed on taking the vessel safely from

handling on board, knew exactly what cargo

one port to another and to maintain the

was on board, where it was loaded, and

vessels tight sailing schedule.

how it would be discharged. Once the ship

had left port, the Master had to rely on his

At the same time, the crews responsibility

navigational skills, knowledge of the sea

in terms of the volume and value of

and weather to steer the ship safely to its

the cargo being carried has evolved

destination. In addition to being specialists

tremendously. Today, the Master of a very

154 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

large container vessel can be responsible

for assets in excess of USD 1 billion; reason
enough to take a closer look at the vessel
itself, the container operations on board
and the risks involved.

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 155

5.1

The construction and layout of

a modern container vessel

We will look at the following aspects of

container transport in this chapter:

The construction and layout of a modern

Containers can be carried on two types

suitable for the carriage of containers.

container vessel

of ships:

This vessel category includes Ro-Ro

Ships designed exclusively for the

vessels (rolling stock and containers),

Owners and operators

Registration and classification

Strength loads acting on containerships

Navigation and ship handling

Stowage

Determination of forces

Lashing and securing

Major containership incidents.

carriage of containers. These ships

conbulkers (bulk cargo and containers),

belong to the category containerships

multi-purpose vessels (general cargo

and may again be divided into ships

and containers) and specialised

with hatch covers or hatchless ships, and

refrigerated vessels.

ships with on-deck container handling

equipment, e.g. cranes, or gearless

For both the above categories of ships the

ships. The majority of containerships are

rules of the applicable Classification Society

gearless, dedicated containerships with

must be adhered to in order to ensure that

hatch covers.

the ship and its fittings meet design and

Ships that carry containers as well as

test criteria to carry containers safely.

other types of cargo. The combined

carriage may be in only some cargo

Below is a schematic overview explaining

holds and can be different from voyage

the basic layout of a containership.

to voyage. These ships are classified as

7
5

Focsle
Bow thruster
20 bay
40 bay

Hapag Lloyd containership

11

6
9

1
2
3
4

10

5
6
7
8

Main deck
Hatch cover
Wheelhouse
Accommodation

9 Engine room
10 Rudder / propeller
11 Poop (winch) deck

156 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 157

hatch covers

Hull
The typical hull structure of a modern

containership has large deck openings, a

almost rectangular shape further towards

aft narrowing towards the aft transom.

The cargo holds are covered by steel hatch

covers. These are either hydraulically-

cargo hold

sharp bow with a significant flare and an

Deck / hatch covers

operated folding hatch covers or steel liftaway pontoons, the latter being standard
on cellular containerships. During cargo
operations the hatch pontoons are lifted

The deck openings stretch across the

entire breadth of the cargo holds.

Hull form of a modern container vessel

This construction is used to minimise

1
2
3
4

under deck passageway access to holds

waterballast or fuel storage tank
void space or tank space
duct keel

by shore cranes and stacked on top of

each other on board the vessel or ashore.
The undersides of the hatch pontoons

obstruction of the hatchway during loading

Cargo holds

and discharge of containers under deck.

Below deck, the vessel is divided into cargo

Each cargo hold is connected to the ships

the container stacks. Welded container

To promote safety and to ensure that the

holds separated by watertight transverse

bilge (drainage) system to discharge rain

foundations can be found at the four

necessary strength is achieved, ships are

bulkheads. The holds are numbered from

and condensation water. The bilge system

corners of each stack, e.g. for 20 foot and

constructed with a double, U-formed,

fore to aft; 1, 2, 3...

is also designed to cope with a certain

40 foot stowage, where the weight of the

amount of outboard leakage water, e.g.

container stack is transferred.

hull structure with heavy transverse

are strengthened to carry the weight of

constructions at intermediate distances

A typical design configuration has

after a collision. Classification societies

between every 40 foot container. The

watertight bulkheads at every two 40 foot

require increased pumping capacity for

Container stanchions approximately 2.5 m

double hull itself is divided into various

container bays with an open transverse

open-hatch containerships.

high are fitted in line with the deck edge at

watertight compartments used as water

frame construction in between. This

ballast or fuel oil storage tanks.

layout divides the ship into a number

The ship, including the cargo holds, is fitted

deck stow covers the entire width of

the vessel.

the extremities of the deck. In this way, the

of watertight compartments. The open

with various types of fire / smoke detection

There is an internal passageway for access

frame construction also serves as a vertical

and fire-fighting equipments. These include

to the holds just below the main deck at

passageway giving access to the containers,

fixed systems for extinghuising with water

Containerships can also be built without

either side of the ship running from fore to

albeit from one side only.

(possibly also automatic systems such as

hatch covers. These hatchless, or open-top,

sprinklers) and smothering systems such

containerships have cell guides extending

as CO2.

above the hatch openings. This design

aft along the entire length of the ship.

is particularly popular in the feeder and

Ventilation of cargo holds can be done

short sea shipping trade but has been

either naturally (air draft only) or

abandoned in the ocean trade.

mechanically (electric fans). Cargo holds

certified to carry dangerous cargo under

Mooring winches are located on the

deck must have mechanical ventilation

forward (focsle) and aft (poop) decks.

fans. Cargo holds designed to carry

The aft winch deck is usually over-stowed

refrigerated containers can be equipped

by containers resting on one tier high

with additional ventilation fans. All the

support bridges.

ventilation openings can be closed, for

example, during a fire in the hold.
Containership, cross sections

158 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 159

Engine room

The propulsion engines on large

long, weighs over 2,300 tonnes, and

Accommodation

The engine room contains the main engine

containerships are two-stroke turbocharged

produces 80,080 kilowatts (107,390 horse

The accommodation houses the living

and ancillary equipment such as pumps,

low speed engines. These engines burn

power). This type of engine was, for

quarters for the crew and the wheelhouse

generators, electrical switchboards etc.

thick, heavy fuel oil which requires pre-

instance, installed in 2006 on the Maersk E-

on top. The minimum number of crew

heating, cleaning and filtering prior to being

class (EMMA, ELLY etc.) of vessels.

(ratings and officers) on board is regulated

The main engine drives the propeller via

injected into the engines cylinders.

a shaft running through an enclosed

by international conventions. This varies

Another major engine manufacturer, MAN

from 10 crew members on smaller container

vessels, to a crew of 25 on larger vessels.

space from the engine room towards the

The most powerful engine currently

B&W, installed its 12S90ME-C Mark 9.2

vessels stern.

in service is the RT-flex96C from the

engine on board the latest 19,000 TEU

Finnish manufacturer Wrtsil. Its largest

containership series purchased by China

14-cylinder version is 13.5 m high, 26.59 m

Shipping Container Lines (CSCL). This

type of engine is 17.2 m high and has been
de-rated to 56,800 kW to allow for a more
efficient performance at lower speeds.
For the largest vessels in service, the
above engines drive one single propeller
measuring ten metres in diameter and

Bridge of a modern large container vessel

weighing over 110 tonnes. Maersks Triple

E-class vessels are equipped with a custom

The crew consists of ratings and officers

designed twin-skeg propulsion system

working either for the deck or engine

with two 43,000 horse power engines each.

department. A few shipping lines continue

Each engine drives a four-bladed propeller

to use an integrated crew system, whereby

developing a service speed of 19 knots and

the officers have dual qualifications and

a maximum speed of 23 knots.

alternate between working in the engine

room or navigating the vessel with working

In more recent years, the principle of slow

on deck. This system of integrated crew

steaming has been introduced in container

was introduced in 1980, but has been

shipping, driven by increasing fuel costs.

abandoned by most shipping lines.

Where, for example, the EMMA MAERSK

would consume 150 tonnes of fuel per day

Over the years, the location of the crew

for a service speed of 24 knots, this has

accommodation on board the vessels and

been reduced to less than 100 tonnes a day

its height above deck have undergone

for the triple E-class vessels, sailing at an

several changes. The demand for higher

average speed of 16 knots.

container stacking heights on deck made

it necessary to increase the height of
the accommodation superstructure. For
example, the first generation of Panamaxsized container vessels built in the 1970s

Source: MAN-B&W

160 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 161

had three to four tiers of containers on

stern of the vessel. The purpose of bow and

manoeuvrability in port. Large ships may

deck. The latest generation of Panamax-

stern thrusters is to improve the vessels

have multiple bow and stern thrusters.

sized container vessels have eight tiers of

containers on deck.

Gross tonnage and containership design: a topic of considerable

discussion

Due to the development of containerships,

the crew accommodation and engine

For many years, there has been considerable discussion in the industry as to whether the definition of gross

room have moved forward. One of these

developments was the size and the

tonnage compromises the safe design of ships.

Accommodation almost aft

weight of the main engine on very large

What is gross tonnage and what is the issue about?

containerships requiring the engine to be

positioned in that section of the vessel with

Gross tonnage is a unit-less index related to a ships overall internal volume. It was defined by the International

more voluminous hull forms. At one point,

Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships in 1969, adopted by the IMO in the same year and came into force

e.g. the mid-island type Maersk E-class of

in 1982. The purpose of the new definition was to arrive at a universal tonnage measurement system as the

vessels, the propeller shaft had to span a

basis for determining ship manning regulations, safety rules, port dues etc.

significant distance, up to 100 m, from the

engine room towards the propeller. The

Gross tonnage is calculated on the basis of the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship. In

moving of the engine room forward has

introduced the need for a watertight door

practical terms, this is the volume enclosed by the ships hull and main deck together with the volume of the
Accommodation amidships

accommodation. Gross tonnage is calculated by applying a multiplier to this volume.

in the aft engine room bulkhead, which

has to be kept closed at sea. Locating

It was argued that, in order to keep gross tonnage as low as possible, the ship designer was tempted to sacrifice

the crew accommodation further forward

a safe height of freeboard and to compensate for the loss of cargo space under deck by increasing the volume of

was also beneficial in view of the forward

containers stowed on deck.

visibility requirements on ships as this

would increase the number of containers

A reduction in the vessels freeboard reduces the angle of down-flooding, i.e. the angle at which the deck

that could be stowed on deck, aft of the

edge comes in the water, and may cause the vessels stability to be compromised at low angles of heel,

accommodation.

e.g. 12-15 degrees.

The latest containership designs have

separated the accommodation structure

Two island configuration with accommodation at 1 / 3

from bow

and the engine room. The accommodation

under deck to construct heavy transverse

together with the wheelhouse can be

frameworks to stiffen the vessel and make it

found approximately one-third from the

less vulnerable to torsion stresses.

ships bow. The engine room and funnel

are now located at two thirds from the

Bow and stern thrusters

bow. This concept is known as the two

Almost every vessel has a bow thruster,

island design and has further increased the

which is a transversal propulsion device

vessels on-deck stowage capacity. At the

built into the bow of the vessel. A similar

same time, the new design created space

type of thruster may also be built into the

162 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 163

5.2

Owners and operators

strong maritime heritage and seafaring

shipping lines

background by their initial founders. The

Container shipping lines may collaborate

history of some shipping lines go back

with one another in many different ways.

over hundred years when operating as a

The most common way is to share available

steamship company whilst others have

container capacity on a certain liner trade

been founded just around the 1970s

by means of vessel sharing agreements, slot

in the market and a further drop of

when container shipping was introduced

charter agreements, pool arrangements,

charter revenues. These developments

into Europe. Quite remarkably, all of the

etc. The reasons for collaboration are

Non vessel owning common

have not gone unnoticed by many

container shipping lines who played a

obvious: with a relatively limited number

carriers (NVOCC).

shipowners and several had to change

pioneering role in container shipping in

of ships, more frequent services covering

their funding strategies.

North America (e.g. Sealand, Sea-Train etc.)

a wider network can be offered, the ships

no longer exist in their current capacity but

utilisation rates improve and slot costs

Non-operating shipowners (NOO)

Container shipping lines

Collaboration arrangements between

Far East, causing an overcapacity

Container carriers can be divided into

All container shipping lines have a

Non-operating shipowners
Non-operating shipowners provide the

Examples of major non-operating

have been merged with other companies.

can be reduced. Furthermore, the liner

market with ships which are chartered out

shipowners are: Seaspan Corporation

In that respect, there has been a real shift

operators joining the agreement have a

to liner operators on a long term basis

(Singapore / Vancouver), Claus-Peter Offen

in emphasis on ownership of container

stronger bargaining position in negotiating

(e.g. five or ten years). This arrangement

(Hamburg), Blue Star Holding (Hamburg),

shipping lines from the United States to

arrangements with terminals.

implies that the NOO takes responsibility

Peter Dohle (Hamburg) and Costamare

Europe and, later, the Far East.

for the vessel, its machinery, equipment,

(Piraeus).

Collaboration between shipping companies

A further distinction can be made between

exist since the middle of the 19th century

carriers under a bill of lading and therefore

Container shipping lines

container shipping companies being part

when the first regular liner services were

have no direct responsibility under a

Container shipping lines offer scheduled

of a large consortium with activities in other

being established. These first arrangements

carriage contract towards the shipper.

services for container transport for which

areas of business (e.g. AP Moller / Maersk,

were called conferences, a system

A typical NOO does not own or lease

they own and / or charter containerships.

Evergreen) and shipping companies who

dominating the liner (and thus later the

containers.

They are seen as the parties who operate

have concentrated on shipping alone, either

container) industry till 1994.

crew, navigation, stability etc. They are not

the vessel in a commercial manner, as

exclusively container shipping or also for

The investment for the building of new ships

opposed to managing the vessel on a

instance in luxury cruises.

may either be funded through corporate

technical basis in a role as shipowner, only.

capital, external investors on the stock

Apart from obtaining operational synergies,

the conference system was very much

In general, it can be said that all of the

focussed on fixing tariffs. For many

exchange (in case the company is publically

There are many container shipping lines,

ten largest container shipping companies

decades, the general consensus (and

listed) or funding by private investors

the largest ones being Maersk Line

operate globally whilst others are

acceptance) was that if liner operators

and banks. Until 2008, the latter model

(Copenhagen), Mediterranean Shipping

concentrated in certain geographic areas or

were to compete among themselves on

was very successful and generated large

Company (Geneva), CMA CGM (Marseille),

particular trade lanes. Only a few container

price, this would create rate wars and a

sums of investment capital to build new

Hapag-Lloyd (Hamburg) and Evergreen

shipping lines are seen as specialised

destructive competition undermining the

containerships. The global economic crisis

(Taiwan). Container shipping lines are either

carriers of certain types of cargo such as

stability of the trade. Eventually, by 1990 the

caused drop in demand for container space

privately owned companies (e.g. MSC and

the transport of refrigerated containers.

system of conferences was abandoned in

reducing the charter incomes. Meanwhile

CMA CGM), shareholder based (e.g. Hapag

the container industry because of anti-trust

more (already ordered) containerships were

Lloyd) or a publically listed company (e.g.

law concerns.

being delivered from the shipyards in the

AP Moller / Maersk Line).

164 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 165

After 1995, other forms of collaboration

President Lines), HMM (Hyundai Merchant

NVOCC vs freight forwarder

amongst container liner operators

Marine Co Ltd.), MOL (Mitsui OSK Lines),

The role of an NVOCC and freight

States, NVOCC operators must publish

developed in the form of consortia, global

Hapag-Lloyd AG, NYK (Nippon Yusen

forwarder are often mixed up with one

their tariffs. This requirement does not

alliances and slot charter agreements.

Kaisha) and OOCL (Orient Overseas

another. This is understandable as in several

Container Line Ltd.)

instances they both operate under the same

In a consortium or an alliance, the objective

in certain countries, such as the United

identity and offer the same kind of services.

apply to freight forwarders.

NVOCCs issue bills of lading and as a
result take on the liabilities of the carrier.

is to rationalise capacity by offering joint

NVOCC

Both ship freight over long distances and

liner services organised by two or more

The third category of container carriers

both work with common carriers as well as

either an agent or partner for an NVOCC;

shipping lines, either globally or one

is the Non Vessel Operating Common

with companies requiring transportation of

the vice versa is not true.

particular trading route only. While all

Carriers (NVOCC) also referred to as ship-

their goods to complete an order. However,

members share space amongst one another

less shipping lines. NVOCC was first

there are some distinct differences:

The differences between the three

and use the same terminals, they continue

defined in the US Shipping Act of 1984,

NVOCCs can (and mostly do) own or

categories of container carriers is

to operate independently in respect of

according to which NVOCC means a

lease the containers they operate.

pricing, conditions, issuance of bills of

common carrier that does not operate the

Freight forwarders do not.

lading etcetera.

vessels by which the ocean transportation is

provided, and is a shipper in its relationship

Main alliances (2015)

NOO
(non operating owner)

with an ocean common carrier.

2M

freight forwarding companies may act as

summarized in the below overview.

Shipping line
(acting as charterer)

NVOCC (Non Vessel Operating

Common Carriers)

owning ship

yes

no

no

The 2M alliance was established in 2015 and

Today, NVOCCs operate in every continent

providing crew

yes

no

no

is a 10-year vessel sharing agreement (VSA)

and do not necessarily operate under the

providing bunkers

no

yes

no

between Maersk Line and Mediterranean

above strict interpretation of the law.

Shipping Company (MSC).

In most instances, an NVOCC is considered

maintaining fixed
sailing schedules

no

yes

possible

enters agreement
with terminal

no

yes

no

issue bills of
lading

no

yes

yes

an international intermodal service

Ocean Three (O3)

provider who uses the services of common

In September 2014, CMA CGM, China

carriers. An NVOCC therefore acts almost

Shipping Container Lines and United

like a common carrier, with the exception

Arab Shiping Co. formed the O3 alliance,

that an NVOCC does not actually operate

owns containers

no

yes

possible

a combination of a vessel sharing, slot

the vessel it uses to move the container. An

lease containers

no

yes

possible

exchange and slot charter agreement.

NVOCC act as a virtual carrier towards the

shipper (for which it issues a bill of lading)

CKYHE

and acts as shipper towards the shipping

This alliance was formed in 2014 and

line. (for which it receives a bill of lading

comprises Cosco, K-Line, Yang Ming Line,

from the shipping line).

Hanjin Shipping and Evergreen.

There are literally hundreds of NVOCCs,
G6

and analysis shows most of them operate in

The G6 was set up in 2014 for a period of

certain trade lanes / continents only.

two years and comprises APL (American

166 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 167

5.3

Registration and classification

through a separate class notation,

There are more than fifty companies

e.g. lashing.

worldwide classifying themselves as ship

classification societies, but most have

A separate flag state requirement is the

no recognition by major flag states and

approval of the ships Cargo Securing

insurance providers. Of the internationally

Manual (CSM), which is described further in

recognised classification societies there

the chapter on lashing and securing.

are twelve, all members of the International

Merchant ships must be registered in

Apart from the inspections and certification

a country, known as their flag state.

for or on behalf of the flag state, a ship

The flag state has the authority and

must also be certified by the classification

Apart from providing classification

(IACS). IACS was established to serve as a

responsibility to enforce regulations

society itself in accordance with its

and certification services, the larger

forum for the exchange of knowledge and

applicable to vessels registered under its

Rules. The requirement to be certified

classification societies also conduct

technical development and to harmonise

flag, including those relating to inspection,

by a classification society is not a formal

research at their own facilities and provide

class rules and survey procedures across

certification and the issue of safety and

requirement made by the flag state, but

additional services such as innovation,

the societies. Classification societies

pollution prevention documents.

is necessary to obtain insurance for both

technology support and consultancy.

can become members of IACS by

Flag state certification and inspections

Association of Classification Societies

the cargo and the vessel, which again is a

demonstrating a consistently high standard

prerequisite to trade.

of operation.

can be undertaken by the flag states

own authority, such as the Maritime and

A classification society is a non-

List of IACS Classification Societies

Coastguard Agency (MCA) for vessels

governmental organisation that establishes

name

abbreviation

date

head office

EMSA member

registered in the United Kingdom, and the

and maintains technical standards for

American Bureau of Shipping

ABS

1862

Houston

Yes

Coastguard (USCG) for vessels registered in

the construction and operation of ships

the US.

and offshore structures. The society will

Bureau Veritas

BV

1828

Paris

Yes

also verify that the construction of a ship

China Classification Society

CCS

1956

Beijing

Yes

Most merchant ships, however, are

or offshore structure complies with the

Croatian Register of Shipping

CRS

1949

Split

Yes

registered in a country where the owners

applicable standards and regulatory

DNV / GL*

DNV / GL

1864/1867

Oslo

Yes

of the vessels are not domiciled. Some

requirements. In this respect, regular

of these flag states are known as flags

surveys are carried out of ships in service

Indian Register of Shipping

IRS

1975

Mumbai

No

of convenience, with lower standards

and during dry-docking.

Korean Register of Shipping

KR

1960

Busan

Yes

Lloyds Register

LR

1760

London

Yes

for vessel, equipment, and crew than

some other maritime countries. Panama

Apart from the ships overall construction,

Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK)

NK

1899

Tokyo

Yes

is currently the worlds largest flag state,

the classification society will look at hatch

Polish Register of Shipping

PRS

1936

Gdnsk

Yes

with a quarter of the worlds ocean-going

covers, lashing bridges, cell guides and

tonnage registered there.

fixed fittings on containerships, to ensure

Registro Italiano Navale

RINA

1861

Genoa

Yes

Russian Maritime Register of Shipping

RS

1913

St. Petersburg

Yes

that these have sufficient strength. Loose

Most of the flag states have outsourced

fittings such as twistlocks, turnbuckles

the certification and inspection of ships to

and lashing bars are excluded from this

classification societies.

certification process, but the shipowner

may assess the adequacy of these fittings

* DNV / GL is the merger (in 2013) of Oslo-based Det Norske Veritas (DNV) and Hamburg-based Germanischer Lloyd

168 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

The European Union has recognised eleven

classification societies as belonging to the
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA).
Maritime authorities in EU Member States
can only authorise a classification society
recognised by the European Union to
undertake surveys on their behalf.
European Maritime Safety Agency; Lisboa, Portugal
(EMSA)

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 169

5.4

Strength loads acting on containerships

The types of stresses on a ships hull

Bending moments

structure are:

The hull of a ship has many of the same

longitudinal strength loads bending

properties as a single steel beam.

moments, shearing forces and torsional

Therefore, when describing the nature of

moments

the vessels hull, a simple beam theory can

transverse strength loads

be applied. This is usually referred to as

local strength loads vibrations,

the hull girder theory, i.e. thinking of the

slamming, stacking loads etc.

vessels hull as a floating hollow steel beam.

The loads acting on a ship are either

When a vessel floats in still water, there are

internal loads, e.g. caused by cargo, ballast,

two forces acting on the hull: buoyancy

fuel etc., or external loads caused by

acting upwards, and weight acting

sea, wind and ice, and can occur in a still

downwards. The resultant force is zero

water (harbour) condition or in a dynamic

(Archimedes principle).

(seagoing) condition.
The buoyancy force will be more at the
Longitudinal stresses and certain local

midships area as the submerged volume

stresses are of particular interest for

in this region is larger. The buoyancy force

containerships. The longitudinal loads

gradually decreases at the less voluminous

are bending moments, shear forces and

shaped aft and forward ends.

torsional stresses.
The weight distribution varies along the
length of the ship. In addition to the
distribution of the weight of the ship itself,

buoyance curve

Typical buoyancy curve for a container vessel

170 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 171

weight curve

Typical weight curve for a container vessel

Shear forces

Torsional stresses

When a ship floats in still water, the ships

Torsional stresses twist the ships hull

own weight and that of the variables on

along the longitudinal centreline. Torsional

board, such as cargo, ballast, fuel etc., are

stresses occur particularly when the ships

supported by the overall buoyancy force

hull is subject to oblique waves. At a given

acting on the exterior of the ships hull.

point in time, the sea may be attempting to

There will be local differences in the vertical

roll the forward end to starboard while the

forces of buoyancy and ships weight along

after end is trying to roll to port. The ship is

the length of the ship. These unbalanced

designed to withstand these wave-induced

torsion stresses.

it also depends on the location of the ships

In addition to weight and buoyancy forces,

net vertical forces acting along the length of

equipment such as the main engine and

wave forces also act on the hull girder at

the ship will cause the hull girder to shear.

machinery, and propulsion system, and in

sea; the wave bending moment.

All ships classed with an IACS classification

Most ships, being fully loaded with cargo

society are assigned permissible still water

do not induce torsional stresses.

shear forces (SWSF).

In containerships, however, it is possible

particular, the location of the cargo,

ballast and fuel. This weight variation along

For example, when the length of the waves

the vessels length is displayed in the

are equal to the ships length and the wave

weight curve.

crests are at the bow and stern; the ship will

tend to bend downwards in the midships

In any condition, the total area under the

area in way of the wave trough (sagging).

weight curve will equal the total area under

On the other hand, when the wave crest is

the buoyancy curve. The unevenness in

right at the middle of the ships length, the

the weight distribution acting downwards

ship will tend to bend upwards (hogging).

and the buoyancy force distribution acting

The sum of the still water bending moment

upwards results in a still water bending

and the wave bending moment is the total

moment. This causes the hull girder to

bending moment.

Shear forces

bend. If the hull is bending upwards, this is

called hogging as opposed to sagging if

At sea, the continuously changing wave

that excess weight to one side at one bay

the hull is bending downwards.

pressures on the hull produce shear forces

is balanced by an excess to the other

on the vessels hull as well; referred to as the

side at another bay, thus setting up a

wave induced shear forces. The still water

torsional stress.

and wave induced shear forces are taken

sagging

into account during the design phase of the

New containership designs using the two-

vessel as well as in the day to day operation

island configuration has improved the

of the vessel when loading / unloading and

vessels strength against torsional stresses

ballasting / de-ballasting the vessel.

as heavy transverse constructions are built

at 1 / 3 and 2 / 3 of the ships length.

hogging

172 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 173

5.5

bending moments

Navigation and ship handling

shear forces
Shear forces and bending moments

Training and education on navigation,

Many research studies have been

meteorology and ship handling in

conducted by universities, classification

heavy weather is an important part

societies and ship design organisations

of the education provided by nautical

on the subject of ocean waves and ship

academies. Mariners with a nautical

motion. The topic is very complex and the

degree are specialists on these subjects

approaches are usually highly mathematical

Loadicator

These values are also included in the

due to their training. They are well aware

in nature. Below is a simplified explanation:

Classification societies require that

loading computer programs. The calculated

of the dangers posed by heavy weather

the vessel is equipped with a loading

stresses are usually expressed in terms of

and extreme sea states to the ship, crew

Waves and swell

instrument (called loadicator) capable of

percentage with 100 per cent being the

and cargo. Excessive ship motions are

Ocean waves can be divided into seas or

calculating the shear forces and bending

ceiling limit.

often the result of extreme weather or

wind waves and swell. Seas are waves

an excessive sea state, but this may not

which are generated fairly quickly, often

necessarily be the case.

within an hour or so, in the immediate area

moments, usually a computer program.

The computer program also calculates

The International Association of

transverse stability, draught, trim and

Classification Societies (IACS) has issued

lashing forces. Torsional stresses may also

a set of Unified Requirements for the

The following topics related to navigation

subside shortly after the wind has died

be calculated.

structural requirements and loads applied

and ship handling of containerships will be

down. The wave height is dependent on:

to a ships hull. UR (Unified Requirement)

discussed in this chapter:

wind speed

With regard to bending moments and

S11, which has been common to all IACS

shear forces, the loading computer

members since 1992, is particularly

Significant wave height

produces overviews showing the load

relevant to ships over 90 m in length and in

curve, shear forces and bending moments

unrestricted service.

Notorious areas.

the length of time the wind blows

These values are entered into a graph and

UR S11 requires the bending strength to

Prior to departure, the Master approves

water depth.

appended to the calculation results.

be calculated for the midships region,

the voyage plan for the voyage to the

covering 40 per cent of the ships length.

next port. This plan will take into account

Generally speaking, the stronger the wind

Regulations

Any bending strength requirements

the latest reported weather conditions,

and the longer it persists in the same

Information on the highest permissible

outside this area are at the discretion of the

recommendations by the routing company

direction without changing speed, the

stresses at designated frames of the vessel

individual classification society.

if provided, navigational hazards and

larger the waves. The fetch required for

the required arrival time in the next

waves to develop their maximum potential

port. Weather forecasts are updated

in the open sea is 60 km for a wind of 5 m / s

continuously and routing advices may

and 1000 km for a wind of 20 m / s.

where the wind is blowing, and they usually

Waves and swell

Excessive ship motions

at regular intervals along the ships length.

is provided in the vessels loading manual.

fetch, which is the horizontal distance

over which winds blow from a single,
constant direction
consistently over the fetch

recommend that the vessel deviate from its

original voyage plan.

174 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

successive crests (or troughs)

can continue to travel for thousands of

kilometres even through areas with no wind.

mode
median
mean

length, which is the distance between

period, which is the time that elapses

These waves, which are no longer the result

between the passing of successive crests

of local winds, are called swell.

(or troughs)
steepness, which is the slope determined

Seas are shorter in length, steeper, more

by the ratio between wave height and

irregular and more confused than swell.

wave length.

The term sea state is used to describe the

overall condition of the water surface which

significant wave height, Hs

90th percentile

wavelength

Following extensive research on this

subject, it has been recognised that
containerships are sensitive to certain ship
motions and hydrodynamic effects, such as:

wave height

1/3 of waves

excessive rolling, i.e. beyond the

design criteria

As can be seen in the above graph, there

slamming (bow and stern)

are a relatively high number of small waves

hydro elastic effects (springing and

(left side of graph) and a low number of

crest

whipping).

very large waves (right side of graph).

takes into account the combined effects of

wind waves, swells, and surface currents.

Excessive ship motions

number of waves

Once waves have been formed, they

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 175

waveheight

stil water level

This implies that you will not encounter a

Excessive rolling

significant wave very frequently. However,

When a vessel is moving in following or

indeed wave to wave but changes in sea

Significant wave height

statistically, it is possible
towave
encounter
seas, dangerous
highest
likely overaa10 minute quartering
period
: 1.6 x Hs situations can
highest
likelythe
wave over a3 -hour period
: 2.0
x Hs Problems
wave that is much higher
than
occur causing heavy
rolling.
highest likely
wave wave
likely over
over aa12
10 -hour
minute
period
1.6 xx Hs
highest
period
: :2.25
Hs
significant wave.
arising
highest likely
likely wave
wave over
over aa3 -hour
period
: 2.0
xrolling
Hsx Hs of ships,
highest
24 -hour
period from the heavy
: 2.35
highest likely wave over a12 -hour period
: 2.25 x Hs sailing in
particularly containerships
highest likely wave over a 24 -hour period
: 2.35 x Hs
For example, given that HS is 10 m,
following or quartering seas, have

state generally take a number of hours.

Marine weather forecasts usually provide

statistically this implies that:

The sea state can either be assessed by an

information on wind velocity (speed and

experienced observer, such as a trained

direction) and wave height. The usual

mariner, or through instruments such as

term to define wave height is significant

weather buoys, wave radar or remote

wave height, abbreviated as HS . This is the

sensing satellites. There is a large number

average of the highest one-third (33 per

of variables which together create the

cent) of waves, measured from trough to

H
H
H
H1/10
H
H1/100
HH1/10
1/1000
H1/100
H 1/1000

sea state.

crest, that occur during a given period.

The Canadian National Marine Weather

In a constant sea state, waves can occur

with a whole range of individual heights

trough

which can vary from minute to minute or

(mean)
(most probable)
(mean)
(10%
highest waves)
(most
probable)
(1%
highest
waves)
(10% highest waves)
(0.1%
(1% highest waves)
(0.1% highest waves)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

been known for some time. The issues

(0.64) Hs = 6.4 m
6.0 m
(0.64) HHss =
= 12.7
6.4 m
m or higher
(1.27)
6.0 m
m or higher
(1.67) Hs = 16.7
(1.27)HHs)s =
= 18.6
12.7 m
m or
or higher
higher
(1.86
(1.67) Hs = 16.7 m or higher
(1.86 Hs) = 18.6 m or higher

surrounding this were addressed in the IMO

MSC Circular 1228, dated 11 January 2007.
The effect of stern or quartering seas
on any vessel may give rise to any of
the following:

Guide provides information on the

Surf-riding and broaching-to

These cannot be quickly and easily

Significant wave height is therefore an

likelihood of meeting a particular wave

When a ship is located on a steep forefront

summarised, so simpler scales are used

average of the largest waves and this

height within a given time frame:

of a high wave in following and quartering

to provide an approximate but concise

does mean that individual waves may be

description of conditions for reporting in

higher. Significant wave height is actually

a ships log or similar record, e.g. the (1-10)

a statistical term and indicative of a

Douglas Sea Scale.

certain range of wave heights. This is best

highest wave likely over a 10 minute period

highest likely wave over a 3 hour period
highest likely
wave wave
likely over
over aa 12
10hour
minute
period
highest
period
highest likely
likely wave
wave over
over aa 243 hour
hour period
period
highest
highest likely wave over a 12 hour period
highest likely wave over a 24 hour period

1.6 x Hs
2.0 x Hs
1.6 xx HHss
2.25
2.0 xx HHss
2.35
2.25 x Hs
2.35 x Hs

seas, the ship can be accelerated to ride

on the wave; this is known as surf-riding.
When a ship is surf-ridden, the so-called
broaching-to phenomenon may occur,
which puts the ship in danger of capsizing

explained on the basis of a graph showing

The wave conditions can be characterised

the wave numbers on the vertical axis and

The energy generated by a wave is

as the result of a sudden change of ships

by four main elements:

wave height on the horizontal axis.

proportional to the square of its height.

heading and unexpectedly large heeling.

height, which is the distance measured

from the trough to the crest of the wave

For example, a 30 m high wave will hit the

vessel with a force equivalent to four times
that of a 15 m wave.

176 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 177

Reduction of intact stability when riding

safety of containerships. Parametric roll is

(post) Panamax containerships, with large

a wave crest amidships

a threshold phenomenon as a combination

bow flares, are particularly prone to head-

When a ship rides a wave crest, the intact

of environmental, operational and design

sea parametric rolling.

stability will decrease substantially. This

parameters needs to come together before

stability reduction may become critical with

it is encountered. These are:

Parametric rolling can best be described as

wave lengths within the range of 0.6 L to

the ship travels with a small heading

a situation where there is loss of stability,

2.3 L, where L is the ships length in metres.

This situation is particularly dangerous

Other situations which can occur include:

Slamming
Slamming occurs when a ships hull impacts
heavily with the water surface.

angle to the predominant wave direction

followed by a complete recovery of stability,

The accelerations caused by slamming

(head or stern seas)

half a wave frequency later, see illustration.

may create high compression forces on the

the wavelength is comparable to the ship

in following and quartering seas, as the

length and wave height is large

duration of riding the wave crest

becomes longer.

the ships roll damping characteristic

Synchronous rolling motion

if unfavourable tuning occurs between

is low

container stacks. Modern containership

Official guidance has been provided by

designs are sensitive to wave impacts due

the IMO in IMO MSC Circular 1228, dated

to the large bow flares and wide and flat

11 January 2007 to the Master for avoiding

overhanging sterns. Slamming can have an

dangerous situations in adverse weather

impact in both the bow and stern areas.

There are two types of bow slamming:

Large rolling motions may occur when the

the wave encounter period and natural,

and sea condition, including parametric

natural rolling period of a ship coincides

or twice natural, roll period of the vessel,

rolling. The Circular includes an operational

with the wave encounter period. When

parametric roll motion can occur

guidance, assisting the Master with ship

Bottom slamming

handling procedures to avoid dangerous

The ships bottom emerges from the water

navigating in following and quartering

seas, this may happen when the transverse

Although the phenomenon has been known

situations such as this occurring. Various

and suffers a severe impact on re-entry,

stability of the ship is marginal and

for a long time, investigations into the

data such as wave height, wave period,

often also referred to as pounding.

therefore, the natural roll period is longer.

APL CHINA incident in 1998 revealed that

wave length, wave speed, roll angle and

encounter period must be obtained from on

1.5

Parametric rolling motion

The term parametric roll is used to

the various diagrams provided.

describe a large unstable roll motion

suddenly occurring in head or stern

1.5

board measurements tools and input into

0.5
GZ (m)

accelerations associated with the onset

of parametric roll cause concern for the

0.5

10

20

30

40

GZ (m)

seas. Due to its violent nature, the large

50

-0.5

stil water

-1

trough
crest

0
-0.5

stil water

-1

trough
-1.5

Parametric rolling: wave crest amidships, temporary loss of stability (see GZ curve)

crest

-1.5

Parametric rolling: wave crest forward and aft. Recovery of stability (see GZ curve)

10

20

30

40

50

178 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 179

Bow flare slamming

Even where this effect is not severe it

therefore, recognise the importance of

following areas have a relatively high record

This occurs when the upper flared part of

can be clearly felt in the ship structure

staying clear of the most severe weather

of container (loss) incidents:

the bow is forced deeper into the wave.

and in particular in the accommodation

systems such as tropical cyclones and

The buoyancy of the bow section increases

and wheelhouse.

deep Atlantic or Pacific depressions. The

Le Havre
Brest

most economic and effective approach in

proportionally over time and thereby

progressively dampens the downward

When sailing in head sea conditions and / or

this respect is to rely on crew capabilities

movement of the bow.

at reduced speed, the transom may also

to overcome bad weather. To assist in the

come free of the surface due to large

decision process there are various on-board

Stern slamming

pitching motions. Re-entry may lead to high

tools as well as shore based weather

This is when the underside of the vessels

stern slamming loads.

routing systems. Some major containership

FRANCE
Bay of Biscay
Bordeaux

Bilbao

Finisterre

SPAIN

companies even operate an in-house fleet

stern impacts with the water surface. For

reasons of propulsion efficiency and the

Hydro-elastic forces / springing / whipping

and weather monitoring system to guide

desire to have more cargo space in the

Ship motion tests in water basins use

their ships masters to make the best

aft area of the vessel, the exposed plating

rigid body models to determine loads

navigational decisions.

around the aft waterline has over time

and accelerations. However, ships do flex

become a more or less flat surface.

along the hull, particularly when navigating

Notorious areas

the centuries. The Bay stretches from Brest

The development of the so-called

through high head seas.

There are many notorious areas around the

in France to Finisterre in Galicia, Spain.

overhanging sterns does not solely apply

The Bay of Biscay

The Bay of Biscay is home to large storms

and many ships have been lost there over

world known for their extreme weather.

As can be seen from the bathymetric

to recent designs of containerships, but can

The term springing is used to describe

Most of these areas, such as Cape Horn and

chart, the continental shelf forms a trench

also be found on passenger vessels

strong hull girder vibration due to

the Southern Pacific, are not major trade

for Atlantic swells and weather systems

and sailing yachts.

oscillating wave loads. The term (slamming

lanes for containerships. When looking at

entering the Bay from west northwesterly

induced) whipping is used to describe an

the major trade lanes of containerships the

direction.

increasing vibration along the ships hull

after an excitation at the ships bow, usually
a slamming event.
Full scale and model tests, with flexible
models, have indicated that the additional
wave load because of whipping is typically
between 10 and 50 per cent. Classification

FRANCE FRANCE

FRANCE FRANCE

14

14

24

24

societies are currently (2015) carrying out

13

13

22

22

further testing in this regard.

12

12

20

20

Under certain, even moderate, conditions

11

11

18

18

wave impacts against the flat bottom may

In summary, containerships and their

10

10

16

16

create huge impact forces. These impacts

lashing and stowage arrangements are

14

14

12

12

may occur in following waves even in mild

designed for a certain operational envelope

10

10

sea states when sailing at low speed. If the

and it may be possible that weather, sea

transom is out of the water the overtaking

state and ship motions become so severe

waves may slam into the stern plating.

that this envelope is exceeded. Mariners,

Overhanging stern

Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay

SPAIN

SPAIN

significant
wave height
significant
wave(m)
height (m)
Wave height analyses Bay of Biscay, north west 9 Bft.
Storm. Significant wave height up to 14-15 m

Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay

SPAIN

SPAIN

peak wave
height
peak
wave(m)
height (m)
Peak wave height (1% highest waves): over 20 m
source : BMT Argoss

180 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 181

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Bering Sea
Sea of
Okhotsk

JAPAN

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS

CANADA

Vancouver

JAPAN

CHINA

USA

Pacific Ocean

East China Sea

Philippine Sea

PHILIPPINES

North Pacific, great circle navigation. High following seas for ships sailing in easterly direction

North Pacific Ocean

MALAYSIA
Typical typhoon tracks, western Pacific, over a year period

North Pacific, great circle

high following seas most of the time. The

Containerships are sensitive to stern

classification society DNV / GL estimates this

and quartering seas as when wave riding

would apply to 70-80 per cent of the ships

and parametric rolling can occur. Most

using this route. Many container losses have

containerships trading between Asia and

occurred in this area in recent decades and,

the West coast of North America take a

almost without exception, the experience

great circle route reaching high altitudes

of the ships was that the rolling behaviour

Some 50,000 ships transit the Bay annually.

during its westerly course towards mainland

with weather depression systems prevailing

of the vessels suddenly changed from

They may find westerly waves of impressive

China where it either will make landfall

most of the time. As a result, ships trading

regular moderate motions to very violent

heights crossing their course from abeam

or turn northwards to develop into a

on this route in the easterly direction

motions with large amplitudes in short

with no availability of shelter.

Pacific depression. The northwest Pacific

(Asia to North West America) operate in

periods of roll.

sees tropical cyclones year round, with the

The wave analyses (based on satelitte

smallest number in February and March and

measurements) after a north-west storm

a peak in early September.

9 Beaufort is indicative of the possible

magnitude of wave heights in the

Ships crossing the China Sea often have

Bay of Biscay.

to make the decision whether it is safe to

pass ahead of the track of the typhoon, to

The Hong Kong Japan coastline

divert or to delay the voyage. Especially

This area is probably one of the busiest

ships sailing on a northerly course and

shipping lanes in the world and at the

anticipating maintaining a certain speed

same time, notorious for the presence of

might find themselves in difficulty as the

tropical cyclones. These cyclones, known

anti-cyclical direction of the winds will

as typhoons in Asia, have their origin in

force them to slow down, reducing the

the warm tropical waters of the Pacific

distance between the ship and the centre

Ocean. Once developed into a cyclone,

of the typhoon.

the devastating weather system intensifies

182 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 183

21

5.6

20

19

17

16

15

13

12

11

09

08

07

05

04

03

01

20 bays

40 bays

tiers

Stowage

88
86
84
82

Containers are stacked in such a way that

Row

the ISO corner posts of every container in

The row position indicates where the

the stack rest on top of the corner post of

container is placed across the width of the

the container below. The basic principle

ship. The numbering starts at the centre line

used in container stowage is to stow the

and increases outwards with odd numbers,

containers lengthwise with the doors

01, 03, 05 etc., on the starboard side,

facing aft. On some ships, e.g. certain

and even numbers, 02, 04, 06 etc., on the

type of Ro-Ro vessels, the containers are

portside. A container with the row position

stowed athwart ships.

00 is stowed on the centre line. A container

08
06
04
02

bay 16 (40)
08 06 04 02 01 03 05 07

bay 03 (20)

tiers

08 06 04 02 01 03 05 07

86
84
82

tiers
84
82
08
06
04
02

08
06
04
02

row is also known as a stack.

The bay-row-tier numbering system

position 40
bay 16 - row 01 - tier 82

position 20
bay 03 - row 02 - tier 04

The location of a container on board a

Tier

vessel is called a slot. These slots are

The tier position indicates the level where

three-dimensional and each position

the container is stowed. The tier coordinate

is allocated three coordinates. Each

is an even number for standard high

coordinate consists of two digits. The

containers and uneven for half-height

official standard to indicate the containers

containers. The number increases the

positions on board containerships is ISO

higher up the container is located. The tier-

9711-1:1990, the six-digit bay-row-tier

coordinates also indicate if a container is

numbering system.

stowed in the cargo hold or on deck.

Point load line load

system also allows for a lighter construction

The numbering of containers stowed in the

The most common way of stowing

of the supporting structure, for example the

cargo hold start with 02.

containers is in a pointload where the

hatch covers. To stow containers in a line

container is resting on the four bottom

mode, a recess deep enough to prevent

08
06
04
02
01
03
05
07

starboard

The bay position indicates the position

06
04
02
01
03
05

portside

Bay

rows

of the container along the length of the

The tier numbering on deck, usually starts

corner castings. In a pointload, the forces

the corner castings from touching the

vessel. Bays are numbered from bow to

with 80 if the container is stowed on the

in the container stack are transferred

supporting structure, is made in way of the

stern, with odd numbers, 01, 03, 05 etc., for

main deck, and 82 if the container is

through the corner posts and finally to the

four bottom foundations. The weight of the

20 foot containers, and even numbers, 02,

stowed on the hatch covers. Containers are

foundation on the deck, hatch cover or

containers is not supported by the founding

04, 06 etc., for 40 and 45 foot containers.

stowed on the main deck when there are

tank top.

tiers, but by the containers longitudinal

Two 20 foot containers can be stowed in a

no underdeck stowage positions in that

40 foot bay position. An even numbered

location, for example on the deck above the

Another way of stowing containers is in a

system is mostly used on general cargo

bay position, e.g. 04, occupies two 20 foot

engine room.

lineload, which avoids the high point loads

ships where the hatch covers have been

positions in this case bay numbers 03

on the bottom corner castings of containers

modified to carry containers.

and 05.

stowed in the classic way. The lineload

bottom girders. The lineload stowage

184 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 185

Russian stow

in Europe, have convertible cell guides to

The basic principle of container stowage is

fit a variety of different sized containers.

that containers can only be stacked with the

These frames are usually placed in position

ISO corner castings resting on top of one

by a crane. Some general cargo and

another. From this principle follows that two

multi-purpose ships capable of carrying

20 foot containers cannot be stowed on top

containers have removable cell guides or

of one 40 foot container, but that one 40

do not have cell guides at all.

foot container can be stowed on top of two

5.7

Determination of forces
The following topics are covered in this

Weight

chapter:

Weight is the force exerted on a body by

20 foot containers. This type of stowage is

Containers may also be stowed in cargo

Mass, weight, force and acceleration

the earths gravitational force. The direction

called Russian stowage.

holds without cell guides where they are

stowed on top of each other and restrained

Stability

by means of a transversal lashing system.

See chapter on Lashing and securing.

Limitations.

Stowage limitations

Some knowledge of forces and stability is

The velocity of a body is the rate of its

The hatch pontoons are constructed to

necessary to understand the way forces are

displacement with respect to time in a

carry a maximum weight for each stack.

determined on board ships and how these

particular direction (m / s).

Exceeding the applicable maximum stack

are applied to lashing and securing.

40
20

20

20

20
76 mm ISO gap

Forces acting on container stows

Design criteria for containerships

of the weight is towards the centre of the

earth and it is measured in terms of Newton
(N) or, in thousands, kiloNewton (kN).
Velocity

Acceleration

weight could cause damage to the hatch

A key component of the design of

covers. The ships maximum stack weight

Mass, weight, force and acceleration

The acceleration of a body is the rate of

dedicated containerships is the use of

values can be found in the ships manuals

The following basic terms and definitions

change of velocity in relation to time.

cell guides which are fixed to the vertical

and values are provided for both 20 foot

are used when considering forces:

The unit of acceleration (a) is metre per

steel structure of the vessel with an angled

and 40 foot stowage.

second squared (m / s2). If a body is moving

Mass

at a constant speed, the acceleration is

stowage positions in the cargo hold and to

The maximum permitted stacking weight

Mass is the basic measure of the quantity

zero. The acceleration will be at its highest

secure the containers during the voyage.

not only depends on the strength of the

of matter in a body, and is expressed in

at the point where the moving body is

In a common cell guide configuration the

tanktop, hatch covers and the container

terms of the kilogram (kg) and the tonne (t),

changing speed.

cell guide profiles are distanced for 40

itself, but also on the lashing system used.

also known as the metric tonne or metric

foot containers. Depending on the size of

Stowage in cell guides afford for the

ton (mt).

the ship, the containers may be stacked as

highest stacking heights; whilst containers

many as nine to ten tiers below deck.

lashed by lashing bars have lower maximum

profile to guide the containers into their

permissible stacking weights.

Some containerships, particularly those
operating in the short sea shipping sector

186 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 187

heave

The forces acting on container stows

yaw

on board seagoing vessels are a

combination of:
static load

roll

dynamic load

rest

shift

ti t

e er

The point of application and the direction of a force will determine whether an object
will stay at rest, shift, or to topple over

surge

wind load

pitch

sway

forces exerted by pre-stressing of the

lashing gear.

Vessel, 6 degrees of freedom

The static load is caused by the vessels

heeling and trim angle, the weight of the

Rotational motions are:

Centre of gravity

Static force

container stack, and pretension of the

pitch the motion along the transverse

The centre of gravity of a body is the point

The static force is the force exerted by an

lashing bars.

where its mass may be assumed to act

object due to its own weight while at rest.

the ship to move up and down

The dynamic load is caused by a ship

vertically downwards, with a force equal to

its weight.

axis, causing the bow and stern of

roll

the motion along the longitudinal

Dynamic force

moving in a seaway. Like any other type

axis, causing the port and

The dynamic force is the force exerted by

of floating structure, a ship has a freedom

starboard side to move up

Force

an object resulting from its movement.

of movement, referred to as six degrees

and down

A force may be described as any push

The most important dynamic forces

of freedom. The resulting motions can be

or pull exerted on a body and has three

experienced on board a ship are those

divided into linear and rotational motions.

elements:

generated by the ships motions.

magnitude

yaw

the motion along the vertical

axis, causing the bow and stern to
move sideways.

Linear motions are:

direction

Forces acting on container stows

point of application.

The safe transport of containers by sea

Stability

heave the vertical (up and down)

motion

An assessment is made during stability

the lateral (side to side) motion

calculations of the vessels overall centre of

requires that the forces acting on the

sway

Isaac Newtons second law states that force

container stows are resisted by the lashing

surge the longitudinal (fore to aft)

is the multiplication of mass by acceleration

gear and the containers themselves.

motion.

gravity (G), the centre of buoyancy (B), the

metacentre (M) of the vessel and how these
interact with each other. The interaction

F=mxa
Containers, like any other construction,

between these points works as follows:

The earths gravitational acceleration (g)

are designed and built to withstand a

as soon as the vessel begins to heel, one

is approximately 9.81 m / s. Therefore, a

maximum force. When the forces exerted

side of the hull rises from the water and the

body with a mass of 1 kg has a force due

on the containers exceed this limit, the

to gravity of 9.81 Newton. In practice,

construction can suffer a structural failure.

this is rounded up to 10 Newton. Most of

In terms of container stacks, this means that

the forces involved in cargo securing are

the stack can collapse or disintegrate.

expressed in kiloNewton (kN). These forces

In this chapter we look at the forces in a

in kN must be divided by 9.81, although 10

container stow and their origin.

is commonly used, to derive the weight in

tonnes. This is useful when selecting lashing
equipment which is certified in tonnes.

Metacentre
M
Gravity

Z
Buoyancy

M
G

M
Z
B

188 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 189

other side submerges. In a well-designed

confused with angle of list which is caused

Central to any design methodology is

ship, this causes the centre of buoyancy to

by an unequal distribution of weight on

estimating the prevailing sea state and

shift towards the side that is deeper in the

either side of the vessels centre line.

selecting a design wave height. Therefore,

during the initial design phase, information

water. A vertical line can be drawn from

the new centre of buoyancy and where

The metacentric height is an approximation

is collected on the wave spectrum a vessel

this intersects the centreline, the so-called

of the vessels stability at a small angle

is expected to meet during its service life

metacentre is located. As long as the

(0-15 degrees) of heel. Beyond that range,

(usually 20-25 years). These assumptions,

the vessels stability is dominated by

together with several other service

what is known as the righting arm (or

conditions, are important as they determine

righting lever), indicated as GZ. This is

how strong the build of the ships hull need

the horizontal distance between the lines

to be to resist bending, torsion and shear

loaded / discharged. The same applies for

of buoyancy and gravity. The lower the

forces. The strength of other structures

ballast water, fuel etc. A decrease of the

vessels centre of gravity, the bigger the

on board the ship, such as hatch covers,

metacentre is located above the centre

of gravity, the ship is stable in an upright
condition. The distance between G and M is

Snow and ice adding unknown weight and dislocation of

the centre of gravity (G) of the vessel

referred to as the metacentric height (GM)

and is a measure of the vessels stability.

GM value may also occur in connection with

righting arm (GZ) will be. The righting arms

lashing bridges, crane platforms etc.,

initial stability. The GM also determines the

slack tanks, i.e. tanks which are not full, also

for different angles of heel can be plotted

are also based on the assumption of the

natural roll period of the vessel, with large

A larger metacentric height implies greater

known as the free surface effect. In certain

onto a graph and a line can be drawn. This

maximum wave height to be encountered

metacentric heights being associated

situations, e.g. tanks with a large width, this

curve is known as the stability curve. The

by a ship during its lifetime.

with shorter roll periods and high forces

free surface effect can have a detrimental

stability curves shape does need to meet

of acceleration.

effect on the stability of the entire ship.

the requirements normally referred to as

The ship designer may determine these

The position of G may also change

the IMO Res. A.167 criteria, which were

criteria on the basis of tests with models

If G moves upward, stability will reduce and

significantly because of snow and ice on

included in the IMO Code on Intact Stability

in a wave basin. This is quite an expensive

become zero when in the same position

the containers. A ship may also be unstable

for all types of Ships covered by IMO

method and, alternatively, computers can

as M. If G is located above M, the vessel

in its upright position, but stability may

Instruments (IMO Res. A.749) in 1993.

be used to simulate the conditions in the

has a negative stability and may capsize

become zero and subsequently positive at

instantly. The up or downward movement

larger angles of heel. The vessel will then

The stability criteria apply to all types of

the use of so-called Response Amplitude

of the centre of gravity (G) is relative to

reach an equilibrium at a certain angle,

vessels. Large containerships can suffer

Operators (RAO) derived from model tests

the weight and position of the cargo

known as the angle of loll. This is not to be

from significant fluctuations in stability

and which are in fact a set of statistics used

when navigating through particularly high

to predict the behaviour of a ship at sea.

wave basin. A more common method is

sea states. These fluctuations can cause

57,3

severe rolling of the vessel and are further

When setting up model tests or computer

discussed in the chapter on Navigation and

programs, wave heights statistics can be

Ship Handling.

used which are available to purchase from

various organisations.

Design criteria
ri tin e er

maximum
righting lever

0
n e

0
ee in de ree

point of
vanishing
stability

metacentric
height

When designing ships and lashing systems,

In commercial shipping, the most common

it is important to know how ships motions

method of determining the strength of the

respond to waves. Design criteria assist

hull is to apply the Rules of the classification

naval architects in designing ships fit for

societies. After all, the ship is designed

particular weather and sea conditions.

190 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 191

IACS recommendation 34 Standard Wave Data

IACS provides recommendations and guidelines related to adopted resolutions that are not necessarily matters
of class but where IACS considers it beneficial to provide advice to the marine industry. IACS recommendation 34
applies to Standard Wave Data and applies to ships carrying goods at sea, specifically aiming at ships covered by
Unified Requirement S11 and focussing on extreme wave loads.
(Note : UR S11 is the longitudinal strength standards and applies only to steel ships of length 90 m and greater in unrestricted service.)

Hs/Tz

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

12.5

13.5

14.5

15.5

16.5

17.5

18.5

SUM

0.5

0.0

0.0

1.3

133.7

865.6

1186.0

634.2

186.3

36.9

5.6

0.7

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

3050

1.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

29.3

986.0

4976.0

7738.0

5569.7

2375.7

703.5

160.7

30.5

5.1

0.8

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

22575

2.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.2

197.5

2158.8

6230.0

7449.5

4860.4

2066.0

644.5

160.2

33.7

6.3

1.1

0.2

0.0

0.0

23810

3.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

34.9

695.5

3226.5

5675.0

5099.1

2838.0

1114.1

337.7

84.3

18.2

3.5

0.6

0.1

0.0

19128

4.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

6.0

196.1

1354.3

3288.5

3857.5

2685.5

1275.2

455.1

130.9

31.9

6.9

1.3

0.2

0.0

13289

5.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

51.0

498.4

1602.9

2372.7

2008.3

1126.0

463.6

150.9

41.0

9.7

2.1

0.4

0.1

8328

6.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

12.6

167.0

690.3

1257.9

1268.6

825.9

386.8

140.8

42.2

10.9

2.5

0.5

0.1

4806

7.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

3.0

52.1

270.1

594.4

703.2

524.9

276.7

111.7

36.7

10.2

2.5

0.6

0.1

2586

8.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

15.4

97.9

255.9

350.6

296.9

174.6

77.6

27.7

8.4

2.2

0.5

0.1

1309

9.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

4.3

33.2

101.9

159.9

152.2

99.2

48.3

18.7

6.1

1.7

0.4

0.1

626

10.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.2

10.7

37.9

67.5

71.7

51.5

27.3

11.4

4.0

1.2

0.3

0.1

285

11.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.3

3.3

13.3

26.6

31.4

24.7

14.2

6.4

2.4

0.7

0.2

0.1

124

12.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

1.0

4.4

9.9

12.8

11.0

6.8

3.3

1.3

0.4

0.1

0.0

51

13.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.3

1.4

3.5

5.0

4.6

3.1

1.6

0.7

0.2

0.1

0.0

21

14.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.4

1.2

1.8

1.8

1.3

0.7

0.3

0.1

0.0

0.0

15.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.7

0.5

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.0

16.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

SUM:

165

2091

9280

19922

24879

20870

12898

6245

2479

837

247

66

16

100000

Probability of sea-states in the North Atlantic described as occurrence per 100,000 observations.
Derived from BMTs Global Wave Statistics
Hs is significant wave height (in metres) and values are listed in the left column. Tz is Wave Period (in seconds).
Where the value of Hs and Tz intersect, one can find the probability (per 100,000 observations) of meeting such a wave.

192 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 193

in accordance with the Rules of the

Roll motions / amplitude

The transverse accelerations on board

Wind load

classification society.

Obviously, more and stronger lashings

a ship with a long rolling period are

Containers stowed on deck act as a wind

are required for a ship expected to roll 40

relatively low. It is for this reason that the

shield and the stack would easily be blown

When considering wave height, the

degrees than for a ship rolling 20 degrees.

rolling period is kept deliberately long on

over without lashings.

common standard used by the classification

Therefore, classification societies assume

passenger vessels, as too many passengers

societies, and thus shipbuilders, is

a certain worst case scenario, based on

would otherwise become seasick. Ships

When calculating container lashings,

Recommendation 34 of the International

technical research carried out by them for

with a short rolling period create high

a side wind force is assumed to act only on

Association of Classification Societies (see

the vessel in question. This roll angle is

acceleration forces on the ships structure

those containers exposed to side winds.

IACS Recommendation 34 Standard

the design roll angle. Current practice in

and cargo, which in turn may cause

These are the containers located in the

Wave Data).

container shipping is that this design roll

damage.

outboard stacks and the containers in the

angle varies between 17 and 30 degrees,

inboard stacks extending above the block

The assumption of wave height is used

where the lowest angles apply to ultra-

Thus:

to establish the behaviour of the ship at

large container vessels. The design roll

low stability

sea and the accelerations to the cargo

(containers) and lashings. The assumption

of containers (see illustration below).

long rolling period

A standard wind force of 40 m / s (more than

angle is usually listed in the Container

low accelerations (ay)

12 Bft) is used to calculate the wind load

Lashing Manual.

low dynamic forces (Fy)

on the containers. The standard wind force

on accelerations determine how high

results in the following forces on containers

containers can be stowed and the maximum

Roll motions / period

permissible weight distribution for a certain

The rolling period is how long it takes for

high acceleration forces (ay)

pressure formula: pressure (N / m2) = x air

lashing arrangement. Therefore, the aspect

the vessel to make a full roll motion from

high dynamic forces (Fy)

density x windspeed2 x shape factor, with

of sea state (waves) and ship motions are

port to starboard and back. There is one

air density taken as 1,25 kg / m3 and shape

particularly important for containerships.

main criterion for the rolling period for any

factor taken as 1).

The most important motions considered by

given type of vessel, and that is stability

the classification societies when calculating

(GM), see below formula:

high stability short rolling period

the forces in a container stack are pitching,

rolling, and heaving.

whereby:
Troll

There is currently no agreement between

natural roll period of the vessel in

seconds

classification societies on the formulas for

Troll =

calculating standard acceleration forces.

As a consequence, different classification

0.7 x B ship
GM

societies can arrive at different stowage and

B ship

width of the ship

lashing requirements for the same ship.

GM

metacentric height

The extent of the forces is mainly coming

0.7

block coefficient (here assumed to

from the roll angle (amplitude) and the

be 0.7, but for containerships this

rolling period (time / velocity). Roll angle

is usually somewhere in the range

and period are therefore the main design

of 0.65-0.75)

criteria for determining the stowage and

lashing arrangements on board.

container with side

wind load

in tonnes (This is the outcome of the wind

194 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Standard side wind load

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 195

to fold it flat. The racking force is governed

force on a corner casting of a container as

In test configurations, reference is

designed under ISO 1496, is 250kN (25 t.).

also made to the term proof load. No

20 foot standard high container

1.6 tonnes

by the construction of the container.

40 foot high-cube container

3.5 tonnes

According to the CSC Convention and ISO

45 foot high-cube container

4.0 tonnes

specification 1496, the maximum racking

Strength of the lashing gear

remain in the lashing device after the item

force a container is designed to withstand is

Classification societies have imposed

has been subjected to the proof load. The

Limitations

150 kN (15 t). Racking forces have no safety

minimum strength criteria for the lashing

proof load must be around 1.3 times the

Strength criteria of containers

margins, and where there are racking forces

gear used in container stows. The

maximum securing load, although there is

The stowage and lashing configurations

greater than 150 kN, symptoms of racking

manufacturers of lashing equipment have

some variation between the classification

should be arranged in such a manner that

failure may be seen.

to construct the material in such a way that

societies on this.

permanent plastic deformation is allowed to

it meets these requirements. The most

any forces will not cause the container

stows to collapse. This means that the

Vertical compression forces (b)

important criterion is the breaking load

There are three different types of forces

forces must stay within the structural limits

Vertical compression forces act vertically

(BL), which is the minimum load a lashing

affecting the lashing material:

of the containers and the safe working

on the compression side of a container

item has to sustain before breaking. The

tension force the pulling force on each end

loads of the lashing material. If these forces

through the corner posts. According to

maximum securing load (MSL) is derived

are exceeded for one reason or another,

the ISO specification 1496, the maximum

from the breaking load strength and is

the container stow is at risk of damage,

permissible design compression force at

defined as the maximum permissible

pushing one part of an item

collapse, and / or loss overboard.

each corner post of a 40 foot, 30.5t. rated

load allowed on a lashing device when in

in one direction, and another

container is 848 kN (86.4 t)

use. The standard practice for evaluating

part of the item in the

container lashing equipment is that the BL

opposite direction

The permissible forces on containers

of a lashing device
shear force

the unaligned force from

are laid down in the Convention for Safe

Vertical tension forces (c)

and the MSL should differ by a factor 2,

compression the pushing force on a

Containers and the international standard

Vertical tension forces act on the container

meaning that the maximum securing load is

force

ISO 1496. In addition, classification societies

through the corner posts. These forces

half the breaking load.

maintain their own criteria. The most

cause a container to tip or pull out of its

length of the item along

important limitations are the following:

corner fittings, and / or from the bottom

that direction.

device, with the object of

reducing the thickness or

foundation on the hatch cover. The vertical

Racking force (a)

restraint required to contain this force

The racking force acts by changing the

is provided by the twistlocks and the

shape of a container end frame from a

containers corner castings. The maximum

rectangle to a parallelogram, and ultimately

allowable safe working load by a pull-out

tension force

Forces on container lashing material

shear force

compression force

196 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 197

The particular classification society

5.8

and relevant ISO standard specify the

required minimum breaking loads for each

Lashing and securing

lashing element.
To summarise, in a container stack secured
with twistlocks and lashing bars, the

In this chapter, we will look at:

following forces and limitations are present:

Methods of lashing and securing

container stows

roll motion
wind

Fu3

Fc3

Fu2
Fu1

Fc2

Fr

Fl
Fr

Fs

Fc1

Fr

racking (15t)

Fs shear (15t)

Fc compression (86.4t)
Fl

lashing force (25t)

specifications of containers and lashing

material, that the racking and compression

elements and lashing rods.

equipment

Under deck stowage in a block with side

Container lashing routines

supports and (double) stacking cones

Container lashing software.

This method is mostly used on feeder

vessels, general cargo vessels and multipurpose vessels and is not common on

Methods of lashing and securing

container stows

dedicated ocean-going containerships.

Containers on board seagoing vessels

The containers are stowed in a block

can be lashed and secured in three

and connected to the foundations in the

different ways.

tanktop of the hold by single stacking

cones. A stacking cone provides a

Maximum permissible forces in container and lashing gear

It may appear from the strength

independent stacks with locking

Container lashing systems and

Cargo Securing Manual

Fu tension/uplift (25t)

For containers stowed on deck:

For containers stowed under deck:

horizontal restraint against shifting but

in a block of stacks with side supports

does not provide vertical restraint against

and (double) stacking cones

in cell guides.

lifting. The containers are transversally

interconnected by double stacking cones

forces of an ISO container are maximum

between the container tiers. In this way,

forces with no safety margin. Strength limits

the container stacks form a tight block with

of lashing gear are based on their MSL and

do have a safety margin before breaking.

side support with counter

bearing
double transversal stacker

single stacker

bottom stacker

Block or transverse lashing of containers stowed under deck

198 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 199

locking elements between each container

at every tier. In order to avoid the entire
block of containers shifting sideways,
pressure or pressure / tension supports
are fitted between the outboard container
stacks and the longitudinal bulkhead
of the hold. Special attachment points,
recesses or reinforced areas are fitted in the
longitudinal bulkhead for these pressure or

Stowage in cell guides

Lashing and securing of containers on deck

A two tier high lashing bridge

between the lowest container and the

Another disadvantage is that cell guides are

stack. It is even possible to stow containers

This is known as transverse lashing, as

foundation in the bottom of the hold.

prone to damage thus requiring the crane

with different lengths in one container stack,

opposed to vertical lashing, because

This method of stowage and lashing can

driver to handle the containers carefully.

although this requires careful planning,

the forces are transmitted to the sides.

also be extended above the hatch opening

Relatively higher stacking loads can be

on cell-guided hatch-less vessels. On some

Independent stacks with locking

achieved using this (transverse) method.

vessels, cell guides are also installed up to a

elements and lashing rods

The major disadvantage of this system is

certain level on deck. The major advantages

This method is the only method for loading

The major disadvantage of this system is

that all the containers in each tier must be

of this system are that no lashing elements

containers on deck, except on ships with

that all the forces acting on the container

of the same height and, therefore, a mixed

are required and that relatively high stack

cell guides on deck, and may also be used

stack are transmitted through the corner

stowage with different container heights

weights can be achieved. The forces are

for under deck stowage on board feeder

posts and locking devices to the container

needs careful planning. Careful planning

transmitted to the cell guides as well as

and general cargo vessels.

at the base of the stack and, subsequently,

is also necessary when containers with

to the bottom of the stack and stowing

different discharge ports are stowed in

containers with different heights is not

The containers are stowed in a stack and

Therefore, if using twistlocks alone, the

one block. Furthermore, because of the

an issue.

connected to one another and to the four

forces exerted on the stack foundations will

foundations on the hatch covers using a

exceed the permissible limits quite easily

locking device, e.g. twistlocks.

when containers are stacked three or four

tension / pressure supports.

use of double stacking cones, loading and

discharging can only be done layer by layer,

The major disadvantage of this method

and not stack by stack.

is that the cell guides are suitable for

taking into account the basic principles of

proper stowage and / or lashing.

to the foundations on the hatch cover.

high. For higher stowage configurations,

one container length only. The most

There are no transversal connections with

lashing bars are required at both ends of

Stowage in cell guides

common cell guide length is 40 feet, plus

adjacent stacks as every stack is lashed

the containers. The height of the stowage

This is the most commonly used method of

an approximate 40 mm margin at each

and secured individually. The container

can be further extended using long lashings

container stowage on board ocean going,

end. Additional lashings must be used if

lashing calculations assume that there is

and lashing bridges.

dedicated container vessels, including short

containers with a length of 30 or 20 feet

no interaction between the adjacent

sea vessels.

are stowed in these cell guides. A common

container stacks.

method is to stow two 20 foot containers in

Another complication when using this

system is that the forces acting in the front

The containers are stowed on top of one

a 40 foot cell guide with stacking cones at

This lashing system provides maximum

and door end of the lashed containers must

another in a cell with vertical guide rails

the 20 foot open ends.

flexibility in terms of the sequence used to

be evaluated separately, as the two ends of

at each corner. No connection fittings

load and discharge the containers, i.e. stack

the container have a different deformation

are needed between the containers, and

by stack or layer by layer, and containers

characteristic.

with different heights can be loaded in one

200 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 201

manufacturers and the yard work closely

together during the vessels design and
construction phase to decide where
containers fittings need to be placed and
the system to be used. This is an important
aspect of the overall design of the ship, as

twistlock
lashing rod
with turnbuckle

the lashing system chosen determines

how high containers can be stacked and
how heavy the containers in each tier of

Fixed
ec fittin

the stack can be.

flush foundations, raised

foundations, twistlock
pockets, sliding

Lashing of independent stacks on deck

There is a large variety of lashing

foundations, lifting

components and systems on the market

foundation sockets,

today. For example, the catalogue of one

base plates, dovetail

Container lashing equipment and

systems

of the leading manufacturers of container

Container lashing equipment can be

lashing equipment and 50 types of loose

divided into fixed and loose fittings.

lashing equipment. Each manufacturer

Fixed fittings are welded to the ships

has its own range of products, which

hatch covers and structures and form an

are often patented, and each year

integrated part of the vessel. Loose fittings

additional products enter the market.

are stored in separate bins and can be

As a result, there are several hundred

used where and when needed. The fixed

different types of fittings in service on

and loose fittings together form the lashing

board containerships today.

lashing equipment lists 160 types of fixed

foundations, etc.
lashing points D-rings and lashing eyes.

in e e

in e

in e e

te
d et i

nd ti n

system. Each fixed fitting has a loose

counterpart within the system.

In addition to the distinction between

fixed and loose fittings, the lashing

A container lashing system is part of

elements can also be grouped in the

the vessels overall design. Shipowners,

following subcategories:
r i ed nt iner

ed
Deck of large container vessel with fixed and loose lashing gear

Example fixed lashing equipment

t nt iner

nd ti n

nd ti n

202 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 203

Loose
otto

fittin

base stacking cones, base

The most important piece of lashing

his patented twistlock design in June 1967.

equipment in most of todays systems is the

His design was the world standard for many

twistlock. Over the years, the design has

decades (see Keith Tantlinger, the inventor

undergone many changes.

of the twistlock).

twistlocks, cone plates, etc.

stacking and

twistlocks, midlocks,

Twistlocks

In the late 1990s, the conventional

oc in fittin

automatic locking cones,

Twistlocks are used to attach the containers

twistlock design was criticised by the

single stacking cones,

in one stack to each other. The conventional

US Occupational Safety and Health

terminal fittings, stackers,

twistlock consists of two cones connected

Administration (OSHA) following several

etc.

to each other by a steel shaft, which is

fatal incidents involving US longshoremen.

block stowage bridge fittings, double

operated with a handle. In between the

This led to new regulations for ships calling

systems

stacking cones, pressure

cones is a 30 mm thick plate (flange) with

at American ports which prohibited terminal

elements, tension pressure

a collar attached to it at either side. The

operators from placing longshoremen on

lashings

elements, etc.

flange and collar sit between two containers

top of containers. The regulations entered

turnbuckles, lashing chains

stacked on top of each other. The upper

into force on 26 July 1999.

and lashing rods, etc.

cone sits in the bottom corner casting of

the upper container and the lower cone
sits in the top corner casting of the bottom
n

t it

ti t i t

container. When the handle is moved into

the locked position, the two cones rotate
approximately 60 degrees, locking the two
containers to each other. This is done at
all four corners of each container resulting

rid e ttin

ener
r e e
eeder n i re ired

e i

ti t i t

in a tight connection between the two

containers. A similar twistlock connection

Operating principle twistlock

can be made between a foundation on the

d

e t

in

in e t

in

ne

ne

hatch cover and the base container of the

The new regulations forced manufacturers

stack. In the locked position, the vertical

of container lashing equipment to develop

play of the locked cone in the container

a twistlock compliant with the new OSHA

castings is no more than 12 mm. Twistlocks

regulations. This resulted in the semi-

may close in the clockwise or anti-clockwise

automatic twistlock (SAT), which is still

direction, depending on the requirement

widely used in the industry today. The

of the purchaser. There is no international

novelty of this twistlock was the shape of

standard, requiring one specific direction

the spring-loaded cones which were shaped

for closing / opening.

in such a way that they would automatically

engage when pushed into the ISO corner

e
Example loose lashing equipment

ter in

er

The principle of locking containers together

casting of the container. The advantage was

using the twistlock mechanism was the

that it could be attached to the containers

invention of Keith Tantlinger, who released

bottom corner castings ashore, and would

204 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 205

Keith Tantlinger, the inventor of the twistlock

automatically lock itself during stacking of

upper and lower cone locked. This is the

If Malcom McLean was the father of containerisation,

the container on board the vessel. Prior to

locked position, but is also the position

then Keith Tantlinger was the father of the

discharge, the SATs have to be unlocked

when the container is loaded.

shipping container.

following which the container, together with

the SATs in the four bottom corner castings,

Shortly after the introduction of the semi-

Keith Walton Tantlinger was a mechanical engineer

can be discharged ashore. The position of

automatic twistlock, manufacturers started

and inventor. In the course of his professional career,

the upper and lower cone of the SAT can be

experimenting with more revolutionary

Tantlinger was granted 79 United States patents,

changed by an operating wire (see below).

types of twistlocks. These new locking

devices would not require any manual

all related to transportation equipment. Many of his

patents related to container transport, commercial

Depending on the design, SATs have one or

manipulation prior to discharge and

highway freight trailers and transit buses.

two operating wires. The locking cones can

would lock and unlock automatically.

be set in three different positions:

Between 2000 and 2003, manufacturers

upper cone locked, lower cone unlocked,

experimented with several concepts. The

Keith W. Tantlinger in 1958

In the 1950s Tantlinger started to work very closely with

Malcolm Mclean to develop the idea of transporting goods in standardised units. Tantlingers technical inventions
were crucial to this development. His most important inventions for containers were the corner casting and in
particular, the twistlock, a container locking device still in use today.

Tantlinger played a key role in the process of container standardisation, working extensively as a member of a

during discharge of the container

upper cone unlocked, lower cone locked

preferred design, receiving class approval,

had a specially shaped lower cone without

when the SAT is used as a bottom

any rotating elements. Consequently, the

twistlock and needs to stay on board

term twistlock was no longer appropriate

during discharge

for this device, renamed a Fully Automatic

committee of the American Standards Association (ASA) and later with ISO. Tantlingers role in standarisation

Lock (FAL). In 2003, this new concept went

was not only technical but also commercial. Most importantly, it was Tantlinger who convinced McLean to release

into mass production and was delivered in

the patents for the container design, so that other ship operators could adopt the same designs. In 1965, ASA
adopted Sea-Lands / Tantlingers design as a global standard.

Tantlinger was born in Orange Co., California, on 22 March 1919. He was educated at the University of California,
Berkeley, where he was awarded a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering. During his professional
career, Tantlinger worked as chief engineer and vice president of engineering at Brown Trailers; vice president
of engineering and manufacturing at Fruehauf Corporation in Detroit; and senior vice president, ground
transportation systems at Rohr Industries in Chula Vista, California.

In 2010 he was awarded the Gibbs Bros Medal by the National Academy of Sciences for his visionary and

conventional twistlock

semi-automatic twistlock

fullly automatic twistlock

inventive design of the cellular containership and the supporting systems which transformed the world shipping
fleet and facilitated the rapid expansion of global trade.

Keith W. Tantlinger died at his home in Escondido, CA on 27 August 2011, at the age of 92.
Sources: NY Times 7 September 2011. Keith Tantlinger, Builder of Cargo Container, Dies at 92, by Margalit Foxsept
The Telegraph, 15 September 2011. Keith Tantlinger Obituary
The Orange County Obituary Registers

upper cone unlocked, lower cone locked

upper cone locked, lower cone unlocked

upper end lower cone locked

206 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 207

large quantities to the new containerships

lashings are needed. The most commonly

Single mode

Vertical mode (wind lashing)

launched at the shipyards in Asia. In

used method is to apply lashing rods with a

One pair of lashings is applied diagonally

A single vertical lashing is applied to the

subsequent years, the FAL went through

tensioning device, usually a turnbuckle.

to the bottom corner castings of the

bottom corner casting of the container in

a range of modifications to optimise its

The lashing rod is hooked to the corner

container in the second or third tier from

the second or third tier from the anchoring

functionality. Its use has been widely

casting of the container(s) in the lower

the anchoring point.

point. This is a so-called wind lashing and

adopted by the industry. In addition to the

part of the stack and subsequently, via a

fact that no labour was required to unlock

turnbuckle, anchored to a fixed lashing

the FAL prior to discharge and thereby

eye on the vessel. Each turnbuckle has one

making significant cost savings, the time

anchoring point on the vessel. The stowage

containerships had to spend in port was

capacity on deck can be further increased

reduced with several hours for each

by constructing fixed lashing bridges

port call.

between each 40 foot bay. These lashing

is only applied to stacks exposed to wind.

bridges are one, two or three tiers high and

Twistlocks exist in many different versions,

move the anchoring points between the

but their main purpose is to provide a

vessel and the lashing higher up.

minimal tension load. A 500 kN breaking

load is uniform for all types. The basic

A lashing rod must be combined with a

Dual mode

functional requirements, as well as size

compatible turnbuckle. Although both are

One pair of short lashings is applied to the

Parallel internal lashing

tolerances to make the lock compatible

separate lashing elements, the lashing rod

bottom corner castings of the container

This is the most commonly used system

with ISO corner castings, are laid down in

and turnbuckle are used in combinations

in the second tier AND one pair of long

on container vessels today, also called

ISO 1161.

prescribed by the manufacturer.

lashings is applied to the bottom corner

Paralash or Flexilash.

Lashing rods and turnbuckles

The most commonly used system is the

A container stack lashed by twistlocks alone

knobbed lashing rod in combination

double set of short lashings where one

will be limited in height and weight and

with a turnbuckle with one spindle. The

pair is applied diagonally to the top corner

the on deck cargo capacity will be heavily

turnbuckle is tightened with a lever to a

castings of the containers in the bottom

underutilised.

set tension. Manufacturers advise against

tier, and another pair applied diagonally to

castings in the third tier from the anchoring

point. Both pairs are applied diagonally.

The parallel internal lashing comprises a

overtightening the turnbuckle. Some slack

the bottom corner castings in the second

For higher and heavier deck stows, lashing

can develop in the lashing during the

tier. The lashing rods are running almost

calculations will show that additional

voyage, requiring the crew to tighten it.

parallel to each other.

Various additional devices are available

on the market to prevent the lashings
becoming slack during the voyage, e.g.
slack reducer.
The lashings can be applied to the
container stack in different ways.
The following configurations apply for
both ends of the container:
Knob type lashing bar and turnbuckle combination

208 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 209

External parallel lashing

Lashing of containers on inland

This system was introduced around 2005

navigation barges

on top of 40 foot containers as they

implementation of these conventions

with the purpose of further increasing the

There are no international rules or

can only be lashed if they are stowed

depend on ratification by nation states.

stacking heights and stacking weights of

standards for the lashing of containers

symmetrically on top of 40 foot

containers. Their application is similar to

on inland navigation barges as barges do

containers

that of the internal parallel system, although

not navigate in the open sea and are not

the lashing hooks are applied to the lifting

exposed to significant motions.

side of the container stack, as opposed

the off-set stowage of 45 foot containers

the stowage of 30 foot containers

Work Convention, 1973), however, the

There are uniform collective agreements

by the International Transport Workers

in 40 foot cell guides, unless special

Federation (ITF), including the requirement

arrangements are available

that ships crews shall not be involved in the

the stowage of 40 foot containers in

handling of cargo.

to the compressed side as in the internal

Only a very limited number of inland

parallel system.

barges have cell guides. Common practice

45 foot bays on deck. Although this is

in Europe is to secure containers by

possible, the reduced strength of the

On the other hand, a process of

lashings should be considered

deregulation is in progress as a result of

means of stacking cones. These cones are

usually only applied to the most outboard

the stowage of overwide containers in

increased competition between ports

containers at port and starboard, and only

places where there is insufficient space in

and the emergence of private ports and

to those containers which extend above the

the adjacent container stack.

terminals. This has led to situations where

port authorities may decide, for example,

hatch coaming. Although barges are not

exposed to significant motions, sideward

On the other hand, the stowage plan

forces may act on the containers because

assumes a certain lashing arrangement.

of heavy side wind or when the barge is

The maximum utilisation of the vessels

making a turn.

container capacity can only be achieved if

whether to use non-union or casual labour.

the required lashing plan is executed.

Equalash

Container lashing routines

The Equalash system is different as only

The stowage and lashing of containers

The lashing (and unlashing) can either be

one turnbuckle is needed for each pair

are inextricably linked to each other. The

done by the crew or by special lashing

of lashings and the head of the Equalash

stowage must be done in such a way that

gangs. There is an ongoing discussion

turnbuckle is equipped with a double

it makes the lashing plan possible and easy

between the various interests in the

hook system.

to execute.

industry as to who has the right to perform

Container lasher at work

these operations.
Whether the lashing and unlashing is

Below is a list of examples where defective

stowage may conflict with lashing

Shore labour or ships crew

carried out by the ships crew, stevedores,

requirements:

There are no specific international

or special lashing gangs, lashing of

the stowage in the same tier of

regulations relating to port work and cargo

containers is a strenuous and hazardous

containers with different heights using

handling, but the customary understanding

task which requires training and education.

a transverse lashing system with double

is that cargo handling is done by dock

Lashing rods may be up to five metres long

stacking cones and side elements

workers. This may be supported by

and weigh more than 20 kg. The lashings

similarly, if using a transverse lashing

International Labour Organisation

may have to be hooked up in a narrow

system as above, containers with

conventions such as ILO 152, (The American

space, several metres above the deck or

different discharge ports are stowed in

Occupational Safety and Health (Dock

above the outboard water, during the

the same block

Work) Convention), and the ILO 137, (Dock

hours of darkness and on slippery decks,

210 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 211

sometimes covered with ice and snow.

e.g. in Australia, where stevedores refused

Loading

Furthermore, a vessel calling at a port to

to handle the ship because of unsafe

When loading containers, the same

load some 3,000 containers on deck may

working conditions. The vessel in question

operation is carried out but in reverse.

require 10,000 twistlocks and 2,000-3,000

had to return to sea without any containers

lashings to be applied within a tight time

having being handled.

The procedure is different for containers

which are stowed in the base tier on deck.

frame. Lashing of containers by the ships

crew on board large container vessels

Discharge

is therefore often impractical. Common

Once the vessel has been cleared for the

practice is to employ special lashing gangs

operations to commence, the containers

to perform these operations on medium-

to be discharged are unlashed first. These

the foundations on board. These bottom

sized and large containerships, and that

unlashing operations comprise the removal

twistlocks are applied before the containers

the ships crew only get involved in the

of the lashings and the unlocking of the

are loaded to prevent damage to the ships

operations on small feeders or general

semi-automatic twistlocks (SAT), unless fully

container foundations.

cargo ships.

automatic locks (FAL) are used.

These containers are not fitted with semiautomatic twistlocks ashore, but are placed
Ship-owned bins with twistlock on flatrack

on top of the bottom twistlocks fitted to

Once the bottom containers have been

Safety code: Annex 14

The SATs can be unlocked from deck level

loaded, the lashings can be applied.

The hazardous working conditions on

by means of a light-weight aluminium pole

The stevedores foreman will, meanwhile,

board containerships have led to extensive

(an actuator pole), although only containers

regulations covering the operational

up to the fourth tier can be unlocked

condition as well as the design of

this way. The twistlocks of the containers

containerships. These new regulations are

stowed higher up must be unlocked by the

covered in Annex 14 of the IMO CSS Code.

stevedores using a special lifting basket

ashore and placed where the twistlocks are

(see photograph). This is a time-consuming

removed from the vessel. This can be on the

Supervision and checks

In addition, individual ports and terminals

operation. The unlocking of a full deck of

quay or on a special platform on the crane.

During loading operations, the stevedores

may have their own regulations and it is not

containers aboard a very large container

These bins are marked with the name of

will have a deck man in attendance at each

unusual for inspectors to board the vessel

vessel can easily take two to three hours.

the vessel and the type of lashing material

crane, or a combination of cranes, to check

they contain. The stevedores only use the

that the containers are stowed correctly

prior to operations in order to determine

have familiarised himself with the way

Container discharged with (semi-)automatic twistlocks
still attached to bottom corner castings

the lashings need to be applied in order

to meet the requirements of the ships
container securing manual.

whether the working conditions meet local

Prior to discharge operations, the ships

twistlocks in these bins. This procedure is

and properly. The stevedores deck man will

requirements. There have been instances,

steel bins with lashing material are lifted

followed to avoid any accidental mixing

not be engaged with checking the lashings,

of lashing material occurring ashore, e.g.

if the lashings are carried out by a special

mixing with lashing material from another

shore gang. This is usually the task of the

vessel. To remove the twistlocks from

foreman and the vessels crew. In many

the container, the crane driver holds the

ports, stevedores do not permit the vessels

container approximately 1.5 m above the

crew to enter the area of the container

quay or above the cranes lashing platform.

operations for safety reasons and the crew

At each end of the container, one person

will in such circumstances have to check the

from the lashing gang takes out the

lashings after container operations

twistlocks from the bottom corner castings

are completed.

Unlocking twistlocks prior to discharge

left: Using a so-called gondola operated by the crane; right: From deck using an actuator pole

and places the twistlocks in the bins.

212 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 213

The crews inspections will be limited to an

with regard to the lashing and unlashing

Classification Society. In June 2010, the

Lashing Manual, is usually prepared by the

inspection of the lashings and the bottom

operations are limited to an inspection

IMO published MSC Circular 1 / Circ. 1353

suppliers of the lashing manual, employing

twistlocks. If the bottom twistlocks are of

of the correct application of lashing

which is the revised guidelines for preparing

naval architects for this purpose. After

the manual type, the locking position can

material only.

these manuals. The CSM summarises the

completion, the CSM is passed to the

lashing material required on board, the user

vessels classification society for approval.

be checked on the basis of the position

of the lever. This explains the importance

Most of the work by the ships crew will

manual for the lashing material, the general

The classification society verifies that

of using manual twistlocks which all close

take place in the cargo office in the

stowage principles for special cargoes etc.

the maximum permissible forces in the

in the same direction as manufacturers

ships accommodation, from where the

It also provides an explanation on how

containers and lashings are not

produce both right and left hand closing

ballast pumps and loading computers

to calculate forces acting on lashing gear

exceeded according to their own criteria.

twistlocks for the bottom twistlocks.

are operated. An excessive trim or list will

according to the methods described in

The Container Securing Manual must

For the container stowed above the base

complicate the cargo operations and can

Annex 13 of the IMO Code.

receive separate approval from the

tier, the crew will rely on the automatic

be rectified by (de)ballasting, managed

locking function of the (semi)automatic

from the cargo office. Dedicated container

Preparation and approval

(twist)locks, but it is only possible to verify

vessels are often equipped with an

Cargo Securing Manuals are approved

User limitations

that every container is locked for those

automatic anti-heeling system.

by the flag state authority, or by the

When relying on CSMs, the following

classification society if they have been

observations should be noted:

stowed in the lower tiers.

classification society.

As the containers have been lashed for

authorised by the flag state to carry out

The crew will also check if the lashings

a calculated worst case scenario, adding

these inspections on their behalf.

have been applied in accordance with the

lashings during the voyage is not standard

Container Securing Manual and that they

practice. Firstly, all available lashing points

The CSM must contain a separate section

are moderately tight.

on deck are most likely in use already and,

covering the stowage and lashing of

GM value
One of the main design criteria for the
Manual is the vessels stability (GM value).

secondly, lashing containers during heavy

containers if the vessel in question is

Classification Societies set the lowest

After the completion of all lashing

weather is very dangerous. The crews

approved and equipped to carry containers.

maximum GM value the manual must be

operations, the stevedores may ask the

tasks with regard to the container lashings

This is the Container Lashing Manual,

designed for.

Master to sign a voucher stating that the

during the voyage will involve a daily

also known as the Container Securing

operations were carried out satisfactorily.

inspection and occasional additional

Manual. This section lists the permissible

The front page of the CSM usually lists the

tensioning, although no over-tensioning,

weight distribution of the containers in

design GM; see example on the next page.

where necessary.

different bays and stacks for one or more

In summary, on modern large container

GM values. The manual specifies the size

It is important that the user is aware of the

The Cargo Securing Manual (CSM)

of containers for which the manual was

fact that the CSM is invalid if the vessel

Legislation

prepared and thereby, which size containers

operates at a GM value which is higher than

According to the IMO Code of Safe Practice

the vessel can carry. The calculations take

the design GM. This does not mean that

for Cargo Stowage and Securing (The CSS

into account the strength of the container,

the vessel cannot operate at that larger GM

Code), all vessels carrying cargo units,

the strength and application of the fixed

value, but the implication is that the vessel

defined as wheeled cargo, pallets, coils,

and loose lashing gear, the strength of the

must use alternative means to establish

packaged units, etc., must have a Cargo

supporting structure etc. On bay-specific

that the forces acting on the containers

Securing Manual (CSM) on board. The

overviews, the manual clearly indicates

and lashings remain within the permissible

manual is prepared in accordance with the

which lashing element is required in which

values. This can, for example, be done using

IMO Code and the relevant Rules by the

position. The CSM, including the Container

class approved software programmes.

vessels, the duties of the vessels crew

Stevedores deck man in attendance on board during

operations

214 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 215

differs between classification societies as

CSM. This applies particularly to high-cube

the Rules for each classification society are

containers with a high centre of gravity

different. For example, the classification

requiring additional lashing components.

society Lloyds Register calculates the

design GM on the basis of the width of

Container lashing software

the vessel, whilst DNV / GL includes the

Container lashing calculations are very

freeboard distance and stacking height on

complex and cannot be replaced by

deck. Classification societies also stipulate

general rules of thumb or methods based

that the CSM is calculated based on two

on common sense. To complicate things

GM values, for example 2.5 per cent and 7.5

further, the manner of calculation differs

per cent of the vessels width; see the Rules

between the classification societies.

of Lloyds Register.

The vessels staff must evaluate the safety

of the stow in a relatively very short period

Roll angle

of time. It would be impossible to make

Another important design principle for

these assessments for ships carrying several

the Container Securing Manual is the

thousand containers. Therefore, the use

design roll angle. Classification societies

of computer programs with specialised

incorporate in their Rules formulas for

container lashing software has become

calculating the amplitude of the design

standard on board containerships. These

roll angle. Alternatively, the classification

programmes are approved by the relevant

society may take into consideration

classification society and are capable of

additional information provided by the

reading the BAPLIE files (Bayplan occupied

shipowner, such as model tests or computer

and empty containers Edifact message)

simulations. The current range for design

commonly used in the communication

roll angles for containerships varies

between the planners and the vessel.

between 17 and 30 degrees, whereby the

lower range of roll angles applies to the

As previously indicated, the CSM is

valid only for certain GM values, which

Top: Cargo Securing Manual frontpage

Below: Container Securing Manual frontpage

Top: Page from CSM showing container stowage and.

weight overview per bay
Below: Page from CSM showing lashing arrangement

very large ships.

The front page of the CSM usually lists

higher GM value. The following are typical

The ships crew has limited control over

loaded up to its capacity, e.g. China-US and

the design roll angle, otherwise the

examples which describe the problems and

the vessels GM value on every part of

China-Europe.

classification society can provide it.

explain the need for lashing software:

the weight distribution of the containers

It is important to understand the principle

Container dimensions

Example 1

on board. Coastal voyages with only part

of the design GM value and this may be

The Container Securing Manual states the

The CSM for a 6,500 TEU vessel shows a

of the deck space occupied are typically

explained as follows: Classification Societies

container sizes the CSM has been designed

maximum design GM of 1.65 m. The CSM

voyages with high GM values. The GM value

set a certain value of the GM value to

and approved for. Should different

shows that the containers in a particular

will usually be less during ocean voyages,

ensure that the CSM is not designed for

container sizes be carried, the classification

bay on deck can be stowed six tiers high

particularly on transits where the vessel is

an unrealistically low GM. The design GM

society may require an extension of the

only and that the weight in the top tier

is problematic if the ship operates at a

the voyage, as this largely depends on

216 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

should not exceed 7 tonnes. During the

loaded exactly as prescribed by the CSM.

voyage in question, however, the GM

If, for example, the container in the bottom

appears to be 3.30 m. If the Chief Officer

tier weighs 21 tonnes instead of 30 tonnes,

ignored the effect of the actual GM being

the first instinctive reaction may be that the

twice the design GM, the forces acting on

forces will be less than the example given in

the lashings at the base of the container

the CSM, and the stowage would therefore

stack would increase by approximately

be safe. However, the opposite is the case

75 per cent. If the ship were to encounter

as less weight in the bottom tier will create

heavy weather and would roll at its design

higher forces as the centre of gravity of the

roll angle of, for example 22 degrees, the

stack moves upwards.

permissible forces would be exceeded and

the stow would be at risk of collapse.

There are several container lashing

Using lashing software and recalculating the

programmes available on the market.

forces for a GM of 3.30 m, the Chief Officer

Most of these programmes form part of

will establish by how much to reduce the

the ship-specific loading computer.

tier weight and / or stack height to keep the

The advantage of these integrated

forces within permissible limits.

systems is that the results from the stability

calculations can be included in the lashing

Example 2

calculations, meaning that the crew always

The same CSM shows that in a certain bay

has an overview of the actual situation.

on deck the containers can be stacked six

Most programmes will give a warning

tiers high, and that the tier weight from the

indication if any securing components

base to the top is: 30 t, 20 t, 20 t, 15 t,

or individual containers are likely to

10 t, 7 t. The maximum stack weight is then

be overloaded.

102 tonnes. However, containers are never

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 217

5.9

Major containership incidents

Over the last decades, containerships have

temperatures which finally leads to ignition.

been involved in several major incidents.

The causes of spontaneous combustion, or

A review shows that these incidents can

ignition, can be the unstable nature of the

be divided into the following categories

cargo itself, production errors, a reaction

according to the nature of the incident:

with other substances or heating by an

cargo related fires and explosions

external source which starts / accelerates

grounding

capsizing, loss of stability

structural failure

container losses

Major cargo related fires and

explosions
A fire aboard a containership can be
very intense and difficult to control and
extinguish, especially if the fire starts in the
cargo hold. The tight stowage means that

Total devastation of vessel and containers from a cargo

fire / explosion

the source of fire can be difficult to locate

the process of self-ignition. Heat sources

and difficult to access once the fire has

on board a containership can be fuel tanks,

spread to adjacent container stacks.

the engine room bulkhead and strong

sunlight on containers stowed on deck. Fire

Several of these major incidents involved

and explosion incidents are very severe

chemical cargoes liable to spontaneous

and frequently lead to the total loss of the

combustion. This is a process of self-heating

vessel and all its cargo. It may take weeks or

followed by a rapid acceleration to high

even months to extinguish the fire and large

sun

engine room
Containership heat sources

fuel tanks

218 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 219

and, depending on the hazardous nature

of hold ventilation, the electrical equipment

of the cargo, can result in significant extra

and bilge system.

year

vessel(s)

incident / cargo

1996

HANSA CLIPPER

Cargo fire (barbeque coal)

1996

MARLENE S.

Cargo fire (barbeque coal)

1997

BELLATRIX

Cargo fire (barbeque coal)

Clearly, there are significant risks related

which must be followed when stowing

1997

CONTSHIP FRANCE

Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite)

to the carriage of hazardous substances

containers with dangerous cargo on board

which explains why the transport of these

and these must to be taken into account

goods is heavily regulated. The overarching

already at the stowage planning process.

regulations are SOLAS (the International

Usually, the planning of the stowage of the

costs and delays.

There are rules regarding segregation

1998

ACONCAGUA

Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite)

1998

DG HARMONY

Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite). Total loss

1998

CMA DJAKARTA

Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite)

Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea)

container with hazardous cargo is done by

2002

HANJIN PENSYLVANIA

Cargo fire / explosion

and MARPOL (the International Convention

the central planner of the shipping line and

2004

NYK ARGUS

Hot stow

for the Prevention of pollution from ships),

subsequently executed by the terminal.

the regulations of which are contained

On smaller container vessels (e.g. feeders,

in the International Maritime Dangerous

general cargo vessels), the IMDG planning

Goods (IMDG) Code. Around seven to

is done by the Master or the terminal.

2006

HYUNDAI FORTUNE

Cargo fire / explosion

2006

YM GREEN

Cargo fire / explosion

2010

CHARLOTTE MAERSK

Cargo fire

ten per cent of all containerised cargoes

2012

MSC FLAMINIA

Cargo fire / explosion. Loss of life

are hazardous substances in one form or

Each dangerous cargo shipment must

2012

AMSTERDAM BRIDGE

Cargo fire

another. The regulations contained in the

be accompanied by a Dangerous Goods

IMDG Code therefore form part of virtually

Declaration / Container Packing Certificate

all containership operations.

supplied by the shipper. This is a signed

2013

MAERSK KAMPALA

Cargo fire

2013

CMA CGM LILAC

Cargo fire

2013

HANSA BRANDENBURG

Cargo fire

Several hundred thousand substances

others that the consignment, as offered

2013

EUGEN MAERSK

Cargo fire

classified as hazardous may be carried in

for carriage, is properly packaged,

2015

CAPE MORETON

Cargo fire

containers. Each substance is classified

marked, labelled as appropriate and in an

according to its hazardous nature. The

appropriate condition for carriage.

certificate or declaration stating amongst

2015

KAMALA

Cargo fire

2015

HANJIN GREEN EARTH

Cargo fire

classes. If a substance has more than one

Information related to the hazardous cargo

2015

ALULA

Cargo fire

dangerous characteristic, a subsidiary risk is

must be immediately available at all times

added to the classification.

for use in an emergency. This information

2015

MOL CONTRIBUTION

Cargo fire

2015

MARENO

Cargo fire

2015

BARZAN

Cargo fire

IMDG Code has nine hazardous cargo

is contained in separate documents, safety

The vessel must be in possession of a valid

data sheets or the Emergency Response

Document of Compliance. The document

Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous

is issued by the flag state and has an

Goods (EMS Guide) combined with the

quantities of cooling and extinguishing

Other incidents involving hazardous

appendix which sets out, in compliance with

transport document and the Medical First

water are needed. Subsequently, the

cargoes are mainly due to leakage and

the class requirements, the locations where

Aid Guide for use in accidents involving

clean-up and removal of the waste and

disruption caused by mis-declaration of

dangerous goods can be stowed. It is also

dangerous Goods (MFAG).

fire extinguishing water is a very time

the cargo. These irregularities can become

based on the particulars of the fire-fighting

consuming and costly exercise.

apparent when the container has been

and fire / smoke detection systems, the rate

loaded on board or is still at the terminal

The IMDG Code requires the Master to

prepare a list of dangerous cargo on board,

220 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 221

listing the relevant information such as

have a large impact on the navigation of

the seabed. Sometimes it can be enough

(see The grounding of the RENA). In the

container number, line operator, port of

the vessel because of the large number of

to discharge the ballast water and fuel from

meantime, the emergency situation can

loading / discharge, dangerous goods class,

containers on deck.

the vessel, but if more weight needs to be

seriously deteriorate.

UN number, proper shipping name, weight,

removed, containers have to be discharged.

The consequences of a grounding incident

Most modern containerships do not have

Salvors have voiced concerns regarding a

can, however, be much more complex for

on board cranes and, therefore, mobile or

possible casualty involving containerships

containerships.

floating cranes must be used.

as so far, salvage operations of grounded

are engine failure, anchor failure or human

Ships hard aground and unable to be

These cranes are not always readily

sized ships and that no cranes would be

(navigational) error. In that respect, the

refloated using own power or tugs, need to

available and it may take quite some time

available to lighter the latest generation of

risk of grounding is no different for a

be lightered. This is the removal of weight

before they reach the stranded vessel

ultra large container vessels.

containership than for any other type of

from the vessel in order to reduce the

vessel, except that the wind load could

vessels draught, respectively pressure on

flash point, EMS, etc.

Major grounding incidents

containerships have only involved medium-

The most common causes of grounding

The grounding of the RENA

year

vessel(s)

incident / cargo

On 5 October 2011, at 02:20 hrs , while sailing in clear

2001

HEINRICH BEHRMANN

Grounded. Zeebrugge Belgium

weather from Napier to Tauranga, New Zealand and

2001

CMA CGM NORMANDIE

Grounded Singapore Strait

2002

ALVA STAR

Grounded Zakinthos, Greece

2002

CONTI SEATTLE

Grounded Miami, USA

2003

SEALAND EXPRESS

Grounded Table Bay. South Africa

2005

FOWAIRET

Grounded and fractured. Scheldt river, Netherlands

2005

APL PANAMA

Grounded Ensenada beach Mexico

2005

CP VALOUR

Grounded Azores. Oil pollution

2006

SAFMARINE AGULHAS

Grounded Port East London, South Africa

was seen spilling from the vessel. During a storm on

2006

ROKIA DELMAS

Grounding west coast, France

10 October 2011, the vessel changed from a port to a

2008

ISLAND INTREPID

Grounded Miami

starboard list and containers were lost overboard.

2009

WESTERHAVEN

Grounded Belize

2010

PACIFIC VOYAGER

Grounded Jamaica

2011

RENA

Grounding, Tauranga New Zealand

2011

CAFER DEDE

Grounding Syros, Greece

2012

CELIA

Grounded Valencia (storm)

2012

SUNRISE

Grounded Valencia (storm)

2012

BARELI

Grounded off Fuzhou, China

Open Form (LOF) contract between salvors and the owners of the vessel was terminated and the removal of the

2014

YUSUF CEPNIOGLU

Grounding Mykonos

containers was continued under a Wreckhire contract. By June 2012, all containers had been discharged from the

2015

MOL EXPRESS

Grounded Tateyama, Japan

fore ship.

with a speed of 17 knots, the MV RENA ran aground

on the Astrolabe Reef close to Tauranga port. The ship
was carrying 1,368 containers, 1,700 tonnes of heavy
fuel oil and 200 tonnes of marine diesel oil.

The bow section was wedged on the reef and its stern
section was afloat with a significant list to port. Two
of its cargo holds were flooded and there were several

Pacific Ocean

fractures in the hull. The day after the grounding, oil

The entire crew was evacuated from the vessel and

Tauranga
Ta s m a n S e a

NEW ZEALAND

Napier

both oil and containers from the stricken vessel were

washing ashore.

Salvors managed to remove some 1,300 tons of heavy fuel from the vessel and started the operation to remove
the containers. This was a very complex task as the ship was listing nearly 20 degrees. On 8 January 2012, the
fore and aft ship separated during a storm. The fore ship remained on the reef and the aft part sank on the slope
of the reef. In early April 2012, the stern section of the vessel sank in 65 m of water. On 5 April 2012, the Lloyds

222 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 223

Flag states permit vessels to be constructed

Container weights

with a relatively low freeboard in certain

The stability calculations on board are

circumstances. These types of ships are

based on the weights listed in the bay

particularly popular in the short sea and

plan. If these weights are, for whatever

feeder trade.

reason, incorrect, the consequences can be

significant. There are no means available

Grounding of container vessel. Westerschelde approach

to Antwerp. Salvage in progress

Major capsizing incidents

Container centre of gravity

to the vessels crew to visually check the

Errors in the stability calculation can occur

weight of the container. The only option

if the containers centre of gravity has been

available is to check the vessels draught

estimated too low. Classification societies

readings and to compare these readings

use 0.4 or 0.45 times the container height as

with the vessels calculated draught

the containers centre of gravity.

produced by the loading computer. This

difference is referred to as dead load.

year

vessel(s)

incident / cargo

Container height

However, the dead load value gives an

overall indication only and does not indicate
the location of the weight differences.

2000

DONGEDIJK

Capsized in the approach to the Suez Canal

Containers are either 86 (standard

2007

EXCELSIOR

The river Rhine

height) or 96 high (high-cube). While

2010

ANGELN

Ship capsized and sank after departure from St. Lucia

2011

DENEB

Ship capsized at berth in Algeciras

the difference in height is only one foot,

30.5 cm, and a difference in the centre of

The issue of container weights has been

gravity will therefore not be significant for

highlighted in many investigation reports

the individual container, a large number of

following incidents involving aspects of

A ship capsizes because of loss of stability.

holds and the lighter container loaded on

incorrect heights can have an adverse effect

stability, hull strength or lashing failures.

Only rarely does the capsizing (or heavy

deck. This loading sequence will require

on the vessels overall centre of gravity.

This has resulted in new regulations, which

listing) of a containership result in the loss

careful planning as the heavy containers

will come into force on 1 July 2016.

of the vessel. This is mainly due to the fact

need to come alongside the vessel first

(see Chapter 6 Container weights).

that, as the vessel heels over, containers

before the lighter containers are loaded

are lost overboard and the vessel regains

on deck.

Major hull failure incidents

stability and returns to an upright position.

Reduction in freeboard

year

vessel(s)

incident location

It is generally smaller containerships and

Width and freeboard are the main

1997

MSC CARLA

Broken in the Azores

barges which are prone to large reductions

dimension determining the stability of an

2007

MSC NAPOLI

Hull fracture in the English Channel

in stability when loaded.

empty vessel. The wider the ship and the

2013

MOL COMFORT

Broken and sunk in the Arabian Sea

higher the freeboard, the better the ships

The following factors are important in the

stability will be. The freeboard is particularly

stability of containerships:

important as it determines the angle at

which the deck edge is under water.

Loading sequence

As soon as the deck edge is under water,

Stability requirements may demand that the

the stability will decrease.

heavier containers are loaded in the cargo

224 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 225

The consequences of these structural

current regulations for containerships

failures are clearly very significant. With the

operating in seagoing condition as well

total loss of the vessel and 4,382 containers,

as into the effect of improperly declared

the MOL COMFORT became the largest

container weights.

casualty in container shipping (see The loss

of the MOL COMFORT).

Following the MOL COMFORT incident,

IACS developed two new Unified

Container collapse and loss

of containers
Major container loss incidents (total ship losses excluded)
year

vessel

quantity lost / damaged

1998

APL CHINA

406 lost / 1,000 damaged

2000

OOCL AMERICA

350 lost / 217 damaged

2014

SVENBORG MAERSK

517 lost / 250 damaged

All three mentioned incidents occurred

Requirements, namely UR S11A (longitudinal

in the open sea during heavy weather.

strength standard for containerships) and

Another common feature of these incidents

URS 34 (functional requirements for

was that the ships broke around the mid-

direct analyses by finite element method

According to the World Shipping Council,

Various reports and scientific research

ships area. Research into these incidents

of containerships, including a set of

546 containers on average are lost at sea

papers have been published on these

has focussed on the hull strength and

loading conditions).

each year, excluding catastrophic events.

incidents. These listed heavy weather, high

When including catastrophic events, such

sea state and excessive rolling of the vessels

as the RENA and the MOL COMFORT, the

at the time of the incidents as important

average is a total of 1,679 containers.

contributory factors.

The loss of the MOL COMFORT

The MV MOL COMFORT was a post-Panamax containership, built in 2008 at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in
Japan. On 17 June 2013, the vessel broke in two at her mid ships section while transiting the Arabian Sea, on

A major container insurer published

her way from Singapore to Jeddah with 4,382 containers and some 3,000 tonnes of fuel on board. The 26 crew

statistics indicating that every year 10,000

abandoned the vessel and were rescued by other ships

containers are involved in container

nearby diverted to the site of the incident.

collapses and that some 2,000 containers

are lost overboard during these incidents.

Following the structural failure, both sections of the

vessel remained afloat with the majority of the cargo

Whatever the actual number is, the number

intact. Salvors were contracted to tow the sections

of containers lost at sea vary between

to safety. However, on 25 June the stern section sank

incidents: from a single container to

to a depth of 4,000 m before any salvage operation

several hundred on one occasion. Not

could commence.

every collapse of stow results in a loss of

In 2009, a joint industry project led by a

containers overboard. For example,

Dutch research institute looked at the

The tow of the bow section broke free in adverse weather on 2 July and on 6 July a fire broke out in the bow

a collapse of containers under deck does

causes of container losses from several

section, destroying most of the 2,400 containers on board. The following night, the damaged bow section sank

not result in a loss overboard. Collapse

other incidents. They also did a survey

to a depth of 3,000 m.

of on-deck stowed container stows may

amongst masters of containerships. Apart

result in only part of the containers being

from the already mentioned heavy weather

lost overboard.

and excessive rolling of the vessel, the

The sinking of the MOL COMFORT is said to have cost insurers between USD 300-400 million in claims, excluding

Ship in port after having lost containers at sea

investigations by the project team identified

the cost for the loss of the vessel and machinery. After the incident, sister ships of the MOL COMFORT were

When excluding lost containers from a total

issues such as lashing and stowage failure,

loss or ship incident, the largest container

the declared weight of the container, and

In 2014, IACS launched an expert group on structural safety of containerships. The team carried out a review of

losses have been recorded from three major

high vertical accelerations from slamming

the MOL COMFORT incident, which also took into account a number of past incidents.

incidents, see above.

as additional potential factors.

withdrawn from service and their hull structures upgraded to increase the longitudinal strength.

6 THE CONTAINER 227

Chapter 6

The container

The following topics are covered in this

chapter:

Definition

Container owners

Regulations governing the transport of

freight containers

Certification and testing of new

containers

ISO Standards

Requirements on the design and

construction of containers

Types of containers

Labelling and marking of containers

In-service inspections of containers

Maintenance and repair

Container security.

20 foot and 40 foot containers

228 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 229

6.1

6.2

Definitions

Container owners

Many different terms are used when

d of a size such that the area enclosed by

Containers are owned either by shipping

In the 1970s, when containerisation became

companies or container leasing companies.

global, leasing companies emerged in

freight. In its most generic form, a

i at least 14 sq.m. (150 sq.ft.) or

Traditionally, shipping lines owned the

order to offer shipping lines flexibility in

container may be defined as An object

ii at least 7 sq.m. (75 sq.ft.) if it is fitted with

largest number of containers worldwide,

the management of their containerised

but since 2014 this position has been taken

assets. This appeared to fulfil a demand

referring to containers used to carry

for holding or transporting something

the four outer bottom corners is either

top corner fittings.

(Oxford dictionary), or more specific as

The term container includes neither vehicles

by the container leasing companies who

in the market and additional leasing

a large cargo-carrying standard-sized

nor packaging; however, containers when

currently own some 50 per cent of the

companies entered the business in the

container that can be loaded from one

carried on chassis are included.

total word fleet of containers. (Source:

following decades. In the 1990s a period

World Cargo News). In addition, a very

of consolidation took place which resulted

mode of transport to another (Collins

English dictionary) or a standardized

The requirements contained in the

small percentage of containers is owned

in the current position where nearly 50

re-sealable transportation box for unitized

Convention apply to the great majority of

by shippers.

per cent of the globally leased container

freight handling with standardized

freight containers used globally, except

equipment (Business dictionary).

those designed for carriage by air.

Over the years, various organisations

Also used is the term Cargo Transport

90 per cent of the global production of

involved in standardisation and regulation

Unit (CTU), being A freight container,

containers. In 2015, some 60 per cent

The major advantages of leasing containers

in the transport industry have developed

swap body, vehicle, railway wagon or any

of the newly manufactured containers

are flexibility, local availability and,

more refined definitions.

other similar unit in particular when used

were acquired by leasing companies. No

depending on the contract used, the

in intermodal transport (CTU Code: the

shipping line in the world would be able to

possibility of leaving the empty container at

The Convention for Safe Containers 1972

2014 IMO / ILO / UNECE Code of Practice

meet the demand for containers by using

its destination. Furthermore, the lessee, i.e.

(CSC) and ISO Standard 668 both provide

for Packing of Cargo Transport Units). This

their own fleet of containers only and all use

the party which leases the containers from

the regulatory definition of a container

definition is similar to that of an Intermodal

the services of container leasing companies.

the leasing company, is not responsible

as follows: Container means an article of

Transport Unit (ILU).

transport equipment:
a of a permanent character and accordingly

fleet is owned by the four largest leasing

Millions of new containers enter the market

companies, each owning a fleet of more

every year. China accounts for more than

than 1 million TEU.

shipping lines

shippers and others

ISO container

for the maintenance and repair of the

container, its certification etc. This is done
by the lessor, i.e. the leasing company.

strong enough to be suitable for

This term is used in many shipping

repeated use

contracts, classification requirements,

From an operational point of view, leasing

software, on-board manuals etc.

containers is more expensive than owning

transport of goods, by one or more

An ISO freight container refers to a freight

containers. The largest container leasing

modes of transport, without intermediate

container (in the context of the CSC

companies are Textainer, Triton Container

reloading

Convention) complying with all relevant

Int. Ltd., TAL International and Florens.

b specially designed to facilitate the

c designed to be secured and / or readily

handled, having corner fittings for these
purposes

ISO standards in existence at the time of

leasing companies

manufacture (def. ISO 668).

Container owners (2015)

Each own and manage a fleet of several

million containers, through a global agency
network of offices and container depots.

230 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 231

Clear provisions for containers operated

6.3

under the Approved Continuous

Regulations governing the transport of

freight containers

Examination Programme (ACEP) including

detailed requirements for a review of
these programmes every ten years.
Containers where the stacking and
racking values are less than 192,000 kg.
or 150 kN respectively, e.g. certain types

All types of containers have to comply

a welcome means of regulating the

of 30 foot bulk containers, swap bodies

with international regulations governing

construction and safety of containers.

etc., must be conspicuously marked to

ISO standards is not recommended unless

road, rail and sea transportation. This

The Convention contains procedures

clearly differentiate them from standard

specific provisions are in place.

chapter provides an overview of the most

for the approval of new containers

ISO containers. The implication of this

important regulations and codes governing

to be enforced by the State Party, or

new requirement was that all non-ISO

Other IMO regulations

the transport of freight containers.

organisations authorised by such State

containers must to be re-marked before

In addition to the Convention for Safe

Parties. The evidence of such approval, a

1 July 2015.

Containers, there are numerous other

The International Convention for Safe

Containers (CSC) 1972

Safety Approval Plate, is recognised by all

Due to the rapid increase in the use of

would allow the cross border movement of

freight containers and the development of

containers with a minimum of safety and

Serious Structural Deficiencies,

International Maritime Organization (IMO),

specialised containerships, the International

custom formalities. Interestingly, the CSC

listing the most sensitive components

such as:

Maritime Organization (IMO) instigated a

was not introduced for the safety of the

of a container with their maximum

study of the safety of containerisation in

cargo carried in the containers, but for the

permissible damage permitted. This

The Safety of Life at Sea Convention

sea transport in 1967. The container itself

safety of the people working around them.

list was expanded and became more

(SOLAS)

emerged as the most important aspect

detailed following the 2014 amendments.

The SOLAS Convention, including its many

to be considered. IMO, in co-operation

The purpose of this list was to assist

amendments, govern all areas of safety at

with the Economic Commission for Europe

the designated persons (authorised

sea for all types of ships, including purpose-

(UNECE), developed a convention which

officers) in deciding whether the

built containerships and ships that only

was adopted by the United Nations and

movement of a container should be

occasionally carry containers.

the IMO in 1972. This convention is known

stopped or restricted.

once granted by a State Party. The system

Testing and marking requirements for

containers operated with one door off.
The introduction in 2005 of so-called

international rules and regulations which

apply to ships carrying containers, the
most relevant of which are imposed by the

as the International Convention for Safe

Containers (CSC).

Cover CSC

Note
The CSC permits governments to approve

The aim of the Convention is to ensure a

Several amendments to the CSC have been

containers that do not meet the structural

high level of safety for personnel during

implemented since 1972. Most of these

criteria of the International Organization

handling and transport of containers and

were agreed following recommendations

for Standardization (ISO - see below).

also to facilitate international trade by

by the IMO or following reports by

Most stowage systems on board ships and

providing uniform international safety

various Maritime Administrations into

container constructions, however, must

regulations. The CSC made the approval

container casualties. The most important

conform with ISO and, as a result, the use

of new containers mandatory and was

amendments were:

of containers that do not conform with

Cover SOLAS

232 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Cover CSS Code

The Code of Safe Practice for Cargo

6 THE CONTAINER 233

IMDG Code also concerns itself with

Protocol on Preparedness, Response

Other requirements

terminology, classification, documentation,

and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents

Containers may also have to comply with

packaging, labelling, marking, stowage

by Hazardous and Noxious Substances

other requirements including those for

and segregation, emergency response etc.

(OPRC-HNS Protocol)

railway and road transport or for particular

The impact of the Code therefore extends

This protocol entered into force in 2007

uses, such as:

beyond the usual ship and shore side

and aims to provide a global framework for

The US Occupational Safety and Health

operations involving packaged dangerous

international co-operation in the combating

Administration (OSHA) with specific

cargo. The Code is under permanent review

of major incidents or threats of marine

requirements for containerships calling at

and amendments are published at regular

pollution from ships carrying hazardous and

US ports

intervals, usually every two years.

noxious substances (HNS), including those

The International Labour Organization

Stowage and Securing (CSS Code)

carried in containers. One of the important

The CSS Code is referenced in Chapter

requirements of this Protocol is that ships

The WCO Customs Convention

VI of the SOLAS Convention. The Code

subject to the regime have to carry a

The International Union of Railways (UIC)

establishes general principles for safe

Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan

The Association of American Railroads

stowage and securing and is intended to

on board.
In addition to the above, the following more

level of forces likely to be encountered

general IMO regulations are important:

during sea transport. An important

mandatory requirement in this Code is the

Cover MARPOL

The IMO International Ship and Port

be found on board all ships needing to

Regulations for the Prevention of
Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried

the carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail

(RID)
The European Agreement concerning
the carriage of Goods by Road (ADR)
The US Department of Transport

Training and Watch keeping for Seafarers

Regulations CFR 49 for the transportation

(STCW)

of Intermodal and Portable tanks

The IMO Convention for the Prevention

containers, is prohibited under Annex III of

of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)

the IMO Convention for the Prevention of

The IMO Convention on Facilitation

The United Nations Customs Convention

on the International Transport of Goods
under cover of TIR carnets 1975
For foodstuffs and thermal and

Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), unless the

of International Maritime Traffic

action was necessary for the purpose of

(FAL Convention) including binding

reefer containers: The United Nations

securing the safety of the ship and crew.

regulations concerning stowaways

Agreements on the International

These regulations set out packaging and

Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and

stowage requirement for marine pollutants

on the Special Equipment to be used for

to minimise any accidental pollution. These

Goods (IMDG) Code

regulations are also linked to the definitions

This instrument forming part of the

in the IMDG Code.

Apart from carriage requirements, the

The European Regulations concerning

The jettisoning of harmful substances

The International Maritime Dangerous

by sea of packaged dangerous goods.

Facility Security (ISPS) Code

The IMO Convention on Standards for

(FRA)

by Sea in Packaged Form

carried in packaged form, including from

SOLAS Convention governs the transport

The IMO International Safety

Management (ISM) Code

Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) which must

Cover IMDG Code

(AAR)
The US Federal Railroad Association

provide an international standard for the

secure cargo.

(ILO)

such Carriage (ATP Convention)

Cargo liability conventions (Hague-Visby
Rules, Hamburg Rules, Rotterdam Rules,
UNCITRAL), etc.

234 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 235

The IMO / ILO / UNECE Code of Practice for

in CTUs, in particular existing regulations

Packing of Cargo Transport Units

which apply to one mode of transport only,

(CTU Code)

e.g. for transport of cargo in railway wagons

The CTU Code is an important code

by rail only.

6.4

Certification and testing of containers

of practice for the carriage of cargo in

containers. The Code provides advice
on the safe packing of cargo transport

According to the Convention for Safe

units (CTUs) to those responsible for the

Containers (CSC), the government

Approval and certification of new

containers

packing and securing of the cargo and to

of a contracting party under whose

The approval process by the authorised

those whose task it is to train people to

authority containers are approved (the

organisation normally includes:

pack such units. The aim of the Code is

administration) shall have procedures

to provide details of correct packing and

Cover CTU Code

securing of CTUs and it gives practical

advice to ensure the safe packing of cargo

in place for the testing, inspection and

Approval of the manufacturing process

approval of containers. The Convention,

A surveyor from the classification society

however, may entrust these tasks

will carry out an audit of the container

onto or into CTUs. The CTU Code contains

There are several other Guidelines or

to organisations authorised by that

production plant. This is to verify that the

information and advice for all parties in

Codes of Practice applying to containerised

government.

manufacturer has the capability, processes

the supply chain up to and including those

transport, such as for example the The

involved in unpacking the CTU. The CTU

International Maritime Fumigation

Most contracting governments have

produce the proposed container at a

Code is not intended to conflict with, or to

Organisation (IMFO) Code of Practice,

authorised classification societies to

consistent high level of quality. This

replace or supersede, any existing national

providing guidance to fumigators and ships

approve the design, inspection and testing

audit is usually carried out during the

or international regulations which may

masters in respect of the use of pesticides

of new containers. Classification societies

production of the test containers submitted

refer to the packing and securing of cargo

and fumigants.

certify containers just as they do vessels

for type approval.

and procedures in place to continuously

and they were already engaged in the

container certification at the time the CSC
entered into force.
However, organisations which are not

CSC Approval of new containers

Application for approval

classification societies can also be

authorised to carry out such work.
The criteria according to which containers
should be tested, inspected, approved
and maintained are found in Annex 1 of
the CSC.

Review of container design (drawings)

Prototype test

y e ce ticate
(CSC approval nr.)

Production survey and sample testing e

ontaine ce ticate

236 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 237

The classification society will issue a

On completion and satisfactory compliance

certificate on the successful completion of

with the test criteria the classification

the audit.

society will issue a prototype test certificate,

listing, amongst others, the type series of

Design type approval and prototype

the container covered by the test.

testing
This consists of a review of documents and

Survey of the unit once in production

detailed technical drawings followed by a

To ensure that all containers of a given

type approval inspection and test.

type are manufactured in accordance with

The (proto)type approval test includes:

the approved design, the Administration

A visual inspection of each component of

examines or tests as many units as it

the container looking for the presence of

considers necessary, at any stage during

any defects.

production of the type concerned.

A visual inspection to verify that the

CSC approval plate

(CSC Reg. 6, Annex 1). This inspection

about the country of approval (a), approval

of the container. The all-important

type tests and only a number of randomly

reference (b), date of manufacture (c),

proof of compliance with the CSC is

been manufactured within the tolerances

selected containers will be tested. The

manufacturers identification number

the approval plate.

given.

racking and panel tests are normally

(d), maximum gross weight (e), allowable

excluded during the inspection of the unit

stacking weight (f) for 1.8g (9.81 m / s2)

Buyers inspections (optional)

the tare mass (empty weight) of the

in production. Upon satisfactory completion

and transverse racking load value (g).

The buyers of the containers will want

container.

of the inspection, the classification society

Optionally, the plate may also list the end

to know that the containers have been

container is dimensioned according to

comprises the same tests as the proto

the relevant ISO specification and has

A mass measurement to determine

Strength tests. This is the most extensive

will issue a container production certificate.

and side wall strength if this deviates from

constructed exactly as agreed with the

part of the type approval process.

This certificate states the type approval

the CSC criteria which are, respectively 0.4

manufacturer. These inspections may

A range of clearly defined tests is

certificate number and the manufacturers

and 0.6 times the maximum permissible

include items of a less critical nature as to

necessary to determine the strength

serial number.

payload of the container. The plate has

the overall construction, such as, but not

space for adding the month and year of the

limited to, painting, floor fitting, general

the stacking capability and lifting

CSC approval plate

first examination of the new container and

appearance etc. These inspections may

arrangements, the racking strengths

Regulation 1 of Annex 1 of the CSC deals

subsequent examination dates. The plate

be carried out concurrently with the

etc. On completion of these tests,

with the safety approval plate. Each

can also state the strength of the container

examinations undertaken by class during

the container shall show neither any

container constructed in accordance with

with one door off. The CSC plate can be

production, but the buyer may also choose

permanent deformation beyond the

the approved design type and which has

found on the exterior of the container doors.

to have an inspector present during the

applicable criteria, nor any fracture

passed the production unit inspection

Classification societies usually place a

entire production process. The classification

or other abnormality rendering the

carries the CSC Convention safety approval

sticker with their logo on the container

organisation may also be asked to perform

container unsuitable for its intended use.

plate as shown furtheron under this

door, confirming that they carried out the

the buyers inspections. In order to avoid a

heading. The CSC safety approval plate

initial certification of the container itself

conflict of interest, the buyer may, however,

of the test, the interior of the container

must be made of permanent, non-corrosive,

and the factory producing it. This sticker is,

prefer to contract an external party to

must remain dry.

fireproof material, measuring not less than

however, only for marketing and does not

undertake this inspection.

200 mm x 100 mm. It contains information

evidence the approval or maintenance

of the container sides, floor and roof,

A weather tightness test. On completion

238 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 239

Maintenance requirements and

in-service examinations

The Periodic Examination Scheme (PES)

The Approved Continuous Examination

Regulation 2 of Annex 1 of the CSC, lists the

This is a system of regular inspections

Program (ACEP)

specific requirements an ACEP programme

Regulation 2 of Annex 1 of CSC deals

arranged by the container owner every 30

Under this system, the letters ACEP are

must comply with. In summary, these are:

with maintenance and the requirements

months and starting no later than five years

displayed on the CSC plate or on a sticker

The standard for maintaining the

for examination of the container after

after the date of manufacture. Following

next to the CSC plate. Furthermore, the

container in a safe condition must not

manufacturing. The overarching principle

each inspection, the month / year of the

plate also lists the approval number and

be inferior to the Periodic Examination

is that every container shall be maintained

next inspection is stamped on the safety

the reference of the administration which

Scheme.

in a safe condition in accordance with the

approval plate. The CSC also permits the

approved the container. Containers

provisions of Annex 1 (Art. IV.4 of the CSC),

use of stickers to show the next due date

under ACEP are subject to examinations

every 10 years. This audit should cover,

i.e. with a stacking capability of 192,000 kg

of examination. Therefore, for containers

arranged by the owner concurrently with

amongst others, the method, scope

and a racking strength of 150 kN.

certified under the PES it is possible to

major repairs, refurbishments or on / off-

and criteria, the frequency of the

see from the container itself whether it is

hire interchanges. These containers are

examinations, the qualifications of the

within dates.

inspected practically every time they are

personnel carrying out the examinations,

to be approved by a competent authority

used, but under no circumstance can

record keeping etc.

authorised by the relevant government,

inspections take place more than 30 months

subsequent maintenance examinations of

apart. The date of the next examination

Most containers operate under the

an approved container in safe condition is

cannot be seen from the container itself,

ACEP system.

the responsibility of the container owner.

but should be documented by the owner of

For this purpose, the container owner may

the container.

While the CSC requires new containers

choose between two inspection regimes:

The Periodic Examination Scheme (PES)
or the Approved Continuous Examination
Scheme (ACEP). The PES and the ACEP
systems differ from one another only in
the frequency with which the examinations

Inspection sticker to indicate

due date for next examination

are necessary and the marking of the

inspection dates on the containers.
The underlying criteria used during the
inspections are not different.

Maintenance requirements
Owner responsible for maintenance container in safe condition
Maintenance and examination
Periodic examination scheme
(PES)

Approved continuous
examination programme (ACEP)

The ACEP programme must be reviewed

240 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 241

The International Organization for Standarization (ISO)

6.5

ISO (The International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-governmental organisation and

ISO standards

the worlds largest developer of voluntary international standards. The organisation was founded in 1947, and
has since then published more than 19,500 international standards covering almost every aspect of technology
and business. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of 2013 works in 164 countries. The use of

Container Standards can apply at different

modes of transport on a global scale. This

ISO standards assist in the manufacturing of products and creation of services that are safe, reliable and of good

levels and include:

is only possible if the system and containers

quality, while minimising errors and waste.

International standards, prefixed by ISO

comply with a certain set of standards.

The most common standards in container

The organisation today known as the ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National

shipping are set by the International

Standardizing Associations (ISA). It was suspended in 1942 during World War II, but after the war the ISA was

Standard BSI, the German Standard

Organization for Standardization (ISO). In

approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal

DIN, the American Standard ASA etc.

1968, the ISO published its first standard

to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in

Industrial / sector related standards

on freight containers. Since then, some 45

London and agreed to join forces to create the new International Organization for Standardization and the new

standards involving freight containers have

organisation officially began operations in February 1947.

or EN, and sometimes by both

National standards, e.g. the British

Standards have been defined as an agreed,

been published (see insert for an overview

repeatable way of doing something (BSI).

of the most important ISO standards for

The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, who develop the ISO

They are normally published documents

freight containers).

standards. ISO has three membership categories:

containing technical information to guide

Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country.

or define practice in a consistent way, and

Although compliance with ISO standards

are used by designers and manufacturers of

is voluntary and does not have a formal

products as well as service providers.

legal status, statutory documents such as

the Cargo Securing Manual refer to ISO

These are the only ISO members with voting rights.

Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organisations. These members
are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in the standards promulgation.
Subscriber members are countries with small economies. They pay a reduced membership fee, but can follow

The use of standards is voluntary and

freight containers only. This also applies

they do not impose a legal responsibility.

charterparties and carriage contracts and,

However, in some cases legislation may

as such, ISO standards are binding and

ISO members appoint national delegations to the

incorporate a specific standard thereby

almost universally complied with in overseas

standards committees. In all, there are some 50,000

effectively giving it the force of law.

transport of containers.

experts contributing annually to the work of the

Alternatively, their use may be declared by

the development of standards.

ISO. The ISO is funded by its member bodies. The

a manufacturer, contract or classification

An ISO container is a container that fully

subscription amounts are proportional to the gross

society, effectively binding the contracting

complies with all non-optional provisions of

national product and trade figures of each country.

parties to the requirements of the standard.

the ISO standards that were in force at the

Furthermore, the ISO generates income through the

There are many types of freight containers

time of its construction. Accordingly, a non-

sale of standards.

in use today, but the purpose of each of

ISO container is one that does not meet ISO

them is essentially the same, namely quick

standards. Examples are containers with a

Probably ISOs best known and most frequently used

and efficient handling and stowage, and

lower payload, a lesser stacking capability

standard is ISO Standard 31 from 1960 on quantities and units, e.g. metre for distance and second for time,

the interchangeability between different

or racking strength.

better known as the SI system. This standard has since that time been replaced by ISO 80,000.

The founding committe in 1947

242 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 243

Overview of the most important ISO Standards for Freight Containers

6.6

ISO 668

Classification, dimensions and ratings

ISO 830

Vocabulary

ISO 1161

Corner fittings - Specification

ISO 1496-1

Specification and testing Part 1: General cargo containers for general purposes

ISO 1496-2

Specification and testing Part 2: Thermal containers

ISO 1496-3

Specifcation and testing Part 3: Tank containers for liquids, gases and
pressurized dry bulk

The design and construction of containers

of a freight container. The dimensions

ISO 1496-4

Specification and testing Part 4: Non-pressurized containers for dry bulk

must meet certain criteria to comply

of each type of container are defined in

with international rules and conventions.

the appropriate part of ISO 1496, which

The most important regulation is the

is the authoritative document for internal

International Convention for Safe

container dimensions.

Requirements on the design and

construction of containers

ISO 1496-5

Specification and testing Part 5: Platform and platform-based containers

ISO 3874

Handling and securing

ISO 3874:1997/Amd 1

Twistlocks, latch locks, stacking fttings and lashing rod systems for securing of
containers

ISO 3874:1997/Amd 2

Vertical tandem lifting

ISO 3874:1997/Amd 3

Double stack rail car operations

ISO 3874:1997/Amd 4

45 ft containers

standardisation, that is to make the freight

ISO 6346

Coding, identification and marking

containers interchangeable between

Container (CSC). The main purpose

of this convention is the safety of the

Length

personnel working round them. Standards

ISO 668:2013 specifies the following six

have been developed for the purpose of

container lengths:

different modes of transport which can be

ISO 9669

Interface connections for tank containers

ISO 9711

Information related to containers on board vessels - Bay plan system

CSC = Safety

ISO 9897

Container equipment data exchange (CEDEX) - General communication codes

ISO = Standardisation

ISO 10368

Freight thermal containers - Remote condition monitoring

applied on a universal basis. Thus:

container length
denotation
(foot)

nominal
length (m)

actual
length (m)

10 feet

3,038

2,911 mm

20 feet

6,096

6,058 mm

30 feet

9,144

9,125 mm

The CSC and ISO together determine the

40 feet

12,192

12,192 mm

dimensions, mass and volume of containers,

45 feet

13,716

13,716 mm

ISO 10374

Freight containers - Automatic identification

ISO/TS 10891

Freight containers - Radio frequency identification (RFID) - Licence plate tag

ISO 14829

Straddle carriers for freight container handling - Calculation of stability

container body and corner castings, the

The nominal length of a container is

ISO/TR 15069

Handling and securing - Rationale for ISO 3874

strength and arrangement of additional

the length by which a container may be

ISO/TR 15070

Rationale for structural test criteria

features such as forklift pockets, gooseneck

identified. With the exception of the 40

tunnels, anchoring points in the container, etc.

and 45 foot container, this is, however, not

The most important design and strength

the actual length of the container, see last

criteria are discussed below

column above.

Dimensions

The original ISO standard was developed

ISQ 17712

Mechanical seals

ISO 18185

Electronic seals

lSO 18186

RFID cargo shipment tag system

the required structural strength of the

Note

is not the case. The concept of series was

The dimensions of ISO freight containers

as a modular system, using the 40 foot

ISO standards refer to series one freight

initially developed to cover different sizes of

are set out in ISO Standards 668:2013 and

length as a starting point. All the containers

containers. This would suggest there are

containers but this was never developed and

ISO 1496. ISO 668:2013 summarises the

with a shorter length were dimensioned

other series of containers as well, but this

there is no intention to do so in the future.

external and some internal dimensions

in such a way that they allowed a 76 mm

244 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 245

gap inbetween the containers in every

used in intercontinental transport are 40

trans-Pacific trade to Asia. This service using

An external width of an ISO container

configuration in the modular system.

foot containers.

53 foot containers was terminated in 2013.

of 2.438 m gives an internal width of

The 48 and 53 foot long containers continue

approximately 2.33 m, not enough to stow

Therefore, except for the 40 foot container,

all containers in the modular system are

The 30 foot container is particularly popular

to be used in North America in transport by

two ISO pallets (2 x 1.20 m) or three EUR

shorter in length than suggested by their

in the European short sea trade as the most

sea, road and rail.

pallets (3 x 0.80 m) next to one another.

indication in feet; this is done to make

suitable container to carry bulk cargoes.

the modular system work in practice. The

Generally, the 30 foot container, however,

Tolerance

the available space in the container, the

45 foot container is not part of the modular

is not carried on ocean going container

Not every container can be manufactured

so-called pallet-wide container with an

system as it was introduced to the market

vessels, unless special provisions are made.

to the exact standardised length. ISO

external width of 2.50 m was developed.

Therefore, to achieve a better use of

therefore provides an allowance of minus

These containers have about 4 inches (10.2

The 45 foot container may conflict with

(-) 10 mm for 40 foot containers and minus

cm) more internal floor width than standard

road traffic regulations in some areas, e.g.

(-) 6 mm for 20 foot containers. Lengths in

containers. The 45 foot (13.72 m) pallet-wide

excess of the standardised values are not

high-cube shortsea container has gained

45 = 13,716 m

45

the European Union, and is therefore not

permitted everywhere. In September 2014,

permitted under ISO.

wider acceptance, particularly in Europe,

40 = 12,192 m

40

the first steps were taken in Europe to

after the modular system became

the standard.

10

20 = 6,058 m

20

20

10 = 2,991 m

20

10 10
76 mm ISO gap

Modular system incl. 76 mm ISO gap

ISO standard width 8

by allowing these containers to be carried

by road in the Benelux countries. Similar
initiatives took place in other countries as

2.438 m

2.591 m

30

increase the use of the 45 foot containers

well. As a result, it is expected that the 45

ISO container will become increasingly
popular in the international container trade.
48 foot and 53 foot containers

(44.6 feet) swap bodies common in truck

transport in Europe. The EU has started a
standardisation of pallet-wide containers
in the European Intermodal Loading Unit
(EILU) initiative.

standard height 86

30 = 9,125 m

as these containers can replace the 13.6 m

In 1986, the 48 foot (14.63 m.) container

Pallet-wide containers are not ISO

compliant and are therefore usually not
carried on board ocean going vessels in
the intercontinental trade. Warnings are

was introduced by American President

displayed on the outside of a container

The 10 foot container is mostly used in

Lines, mainly for domestic use in the United

Width

to indicate it is over-wide. In addition to

the offshore sector, but is not a transport

States. Three years later the 53 foot (16.15

Standard ISO containers are 8 foot

the 2.50 m wide container, 2.55 m wide

unit seen on board modern commercial

m) container was introduced as well but

(2.438m) wide.

containers are also being used especially

container vessels.

this container was not strong enough to be

However, this width has proven to be rather

in the short sea sector in Europe. Similar

inefficient when stowing standard pallets.

pallet-wide containers are used in Australia,

48

The standard pallet sizes used by the

the so-called RACE containers Railways

48 = 14.63 m

industry are:

of Australia Container Express, for domestic

53 = 16.15 m

53

The ISO (or sea pallet) measuring

transport only.

The 20, 40 and 45 foot containers are

the only ISO containers which are usually
loaded on ocean going container vessels,
provided this is approved in the vessels

1.00 x 1.20 m, and

The EUR pallet measuring 0.80 x 1.20 m

Container Securing Manual. The 45 foot

container can only be carried on deck,

carried on ships. In 2007 APL introduced

unless special cell guides are fitted under

the first 53 foot containers capable of ocean

deck. By far the majority of the containers

transport. These were employed in the

and used by most supermarkets.

Tolerance
Under ISO standard 668, there is a
tolerance in the width of minus (-) 5 mm.

246 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

40 palletwide

6 THE CONTAINER 247

45 palletwide

40

ISO standard 668 lists the gross weights for

20 and 40 foot containers as 24 and 30.480

2.44 m

m.t. respectively. These are significantly

2.33 m

2.44 m

lower than the maximum permissible gross

weights of up to 30.5-34 m.t. for 20 foot
and 34 m.t. for 40 foot containers for which
todays containers are designed. However,
Gooseneck tunnel (view of underside of container)

ISO also recognises that containers are

30 pallets

1.20 x 0.80 m

24 pallets

1.20 x 1.00 m

12.10 m

12.10 m

13.55 m

available with ratings in excess of these

33 pallets

1.20 x 0.80 m

26 pallets

1.20 x 1.00 m

25 pallets

1.20 x 0.80 m

22 pallets

1.20 x 1.00 m

Stowage patterns for standard and pallet-wide containers

Weight

values, but warns that these containers may

Given that there is a variety of types and

not be fully intermodal worldwide.

sizes of containers in use, the weight

Thus:

restrictions related to their carriage varies

R = rating

quite significantly. With this in mind

(maximum permissible gross weight)

and rather than taking each container

T = tare

type in turn, it is perhaps more fitting to

(weight of the empty container)

outline the factors involved and the most

P = payload

common weight ranges. The tare weight

(max. permissible weight of the cargo)

of a container (indicated by the letter

P=R-T

T) is the weight of the empty container

without cargo. This weight will depend on

Furthermore, the stated maximum

the construction material used, additional

permissible payloads are based on the

fittings and will typically range between

cargo being evenly distributed across

Height

taller high-cube container 96 2.90 m

2 and 2.5 m.t. for a 20 foot container and

the container floor so that the loads can

ISO 668:2013 recognises four different

has become very popular in recent years.

3.5 and 4 m.t. for a 40 foot container. The

be safely transferred to all four corners. If

container heights:

Market reports have indicated that by

gross weight of the container is the weight

the weight of the cargo cannot be evenly

96 foot

(2.896 m)

2015, the majority of the containers being

of the empty container (T) plus the weight

distributed, the limitations of the container

86 foot

(2.591 m)

carried by sea are 40 foot long high-cube

of the cargo known as Payload (P). This

floor and the corresponding load spreading

(2.438 m)

containers. As the extended height of

gross weight is also referred to in Standards

should be considered.

2.90 m conflicts with height limitations

as Rating and is indicated by the letter R.

in several countries, the use of a special

This value includes a safety margin to

A way of calculating the permissible load

The standard container height was

lowered gooseneck chassis is needed for

account for the vertical accelerations

per meter length is to divide the payload by

8 feet (2.438 m.) during the early days of

road carriage. The container is fitted with a

during a sea voyage.

the number of cross members supporting

containerisation. This was mainly done

gooseneck tunnel to fit onto the chassis.

Less than 8 (< 2.438 m)

to avoid conflict with the limits on United

the floor of the container. So for example a

The CSC requires that the values for both

30 tonne rated 20 foot container with

States highways and railway passages.

Tolerance

the gross weight and the tare weight are

16 cross members may carry approximately

However, these 8 foot high containers are

The tolerance in height according to ISO

clearly marked on the CSC plate and the

1.8 m.t. per cross member. An often used

no longer in use. Currently, the standard

668 is minus (-) 5 mm.

container itself.

rule of thumb is to keep a maximum of 4.5

height is 86 (2.59 m), although the 1 foot

248 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 249

m.t. per metre for a 20 foot container and

This discussion focussed in particular on the

Legislation as at 1 July 2016

3.0 m.t. per metre for a 40 foot container.

differences between the weight as declared

IMO has amended the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS) and added a requirement in chapter VI, part A,

by the shipper of the container and the

regulation 2 which states that the gross mass of packed containers must be verified prior to stowage aboard a

The issue of container weights has been the

weight as actually loaded into containers

ship. Under this new requirement the shipper is responsible for the verification of the gross mass and for ensuring

subject of considerable discussion.

(see insert).

that the mass is communicated in shipping documents sufficiently in advance to be in the preparation of the
ships stowage plan. In order to achieve a common approach in the implementation and enforcement of the new

Container weights and new IMO requirements on weighing

SOLAS requirement, the IMO has issued MSC circular no. 1 / Circ. 1475 dated 9 June 2014 entitled Guidelines
regarding the verified gross mass of a container carrying cargo.

The issue
Weight declarations are usually made at two different stages of the container carriage. The first is when the

Below is a short summary of the new requirements:

shipper makes a booking with the shipping line. This can be several days, or weeks, prior to the arrival of the

Before a container can be loaded on board a ship, its weight must be determined by weighing. This

container at the terminal. This weight declaration is often an estimated weight.

responsibility lies with the shipper.

This requirement applies to all containers governed by the International Convention for Safe containers (CSC).

The second declaration is when the road carrier picks up the container at the warehouse for transport to the
terminal. At this point, the road waybill is issued stating the container weight as declared by the warehouse.
This weight is declared by the road carrier to the terminal upon delivery.

There are no exceptions to this requirement.

There are two methods for weighing that can be used:
- to weigh the container after it has been packed
- weighing the cargo loaded in the container and add that weight to the tare weight of the container itself as

The data control centre at a modern container terminal will usually check the weight declared by the shipping line
against the weight declared by the road carrier. If a discrepancy is found, the terminal will check with the shipping
line as to the correct container weight to be used and to be entered into the system.

indicated on the CSC plate / door end of the container.

The only exception is that individual, original sealed packages that have an accurate mass of the packages and
cargo items clearly and permanently marked on their surfaces do not need to be weighed again when they are
packed into the container.

It is important that this weight is as accurate as possible as it is used in the preparation of the ships stowage

The carrier may rely upon the shippers weight statement and does not need to verify the actual weight.

plan. On every containership, the maximum container weight of each container tier is strictly limited and should

The weight declaration must be signed by a representative of the shipper, whose name must be stated in

not be exceeded. In general, the higher the container is stowed on the deck of a vessel, the lower the maximum

the document.

permissible container weight will be. Therefore, if the weights declared are not accurate, i.e. the container is in

Estimated cargo weights are not permitted.

reality heavier than the stated weight, it can end up being stowed higher in the stow on deck than its actual

When a terminal receives a packed container for export without a shippers weight statement, the container

weight would allow. This can lead to a failure of the lashings and the containers becoming overloaded.
Secondly, a discrepancy between the total declared weight of all the containers on board and the actual

can be weighed at the port. That weight must then be used for the vessels stowage plan.
Vessel stowage plans should only use verified weights for packed containers loaded on board.

container weight on board, referred to as dead load, may impact the strength calculations for the vessel as a
whole, e.g. bending moments, torsional strength and shear forces.

Strength and structural requirements

e.g. wall pressure, roof and floor load etc.,

New legislation for container weighing was initiated following investigations by the UK Marine Accident

The requirements for structural safety and

the minimum strength criteria, etc.

Investigation Branch (MAIB) into the MSC NAPOLI incident in 2007. The MAIB concluded that misdeclared

tests to be carried out on containers for

More detailed test specifications

container weights were a major factor in the structural failure of the vessel. The second initiative came from a

approval under the Convention for Safe

are provided in ISO Standard 1496

Netherlands-led joint government-industry research project into the lashing of containers at sea, known as the

Containers are described in Annex II of

(Specification and Testing), the most recent

Lashing at Sea project.

the Convention. This section describes

issue is the sixth edition of 1 July 2013.

in general terms how the tests are to be

The Standard consists of five parts, covering

carried out, the elements to be included,

the following types of containers:

250 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Part 1 General cargo containers for

6 THE CONTAINER 251

The container will have its cargo stowed

general purposes, i.e. dry box

in accordance with the recommended

containers

practices of the trade so the cargo does

Part 2 Thermal containers, i.e. reefer

containers

24,000 kg

26,670 t

24 t

26,670 t

24 t

26,670 t

34 t

24 t

26,670 t

34 t

and that the strength of, for example, a

24 t

26,670 t

34 t

20-year old container is expected to be the

24 t

26,670 t

48,000 kg

not impose upon the forces in excess of

those for which it has been designed.

72,000 kg

Part 3 Tank container for liquids, gases and

pressurised dry bulk
Part 4 Non-pressurised containers for dry
bulk
Part 5 Platform and platform based
containers, i.e. flat racks etc.

26,670 kg

24 t

The above implies that the strength

requirements do not include a safety margin

same as that of a new container. In day to

day container operations this is logical, as,

Apart from the strength requirements, ISO

as long as the containers bear a valid CSC

1496 contains very specific requirements for

plate and have complied with the in-service

forklift pockets, gooseneck tunnels etc.

examinations, new containers can be

The design of container corner fittings

stowed mixed with old containers. However,

is specified in a separate ISO Standard

at no stage during the life cycle of the

(ISO1161).

container, will it be subjected to the

192,000 kg

160,020 kg
186,690 kg

26,670 t

24 t

26,670 t

24 t

26,670 t

34 t

ISO 1496-1
(2005)

ISO 1496-1
(2005)

ISO 1496-1
(1990)

68,000 kg
102,000 kg

34 t

24 t

213,360 kg

34,000 kg

34 t
34 t

204,000 kg

Stacking

same level of tests as during the initial

An important principle to consider is that

approval stage.

neither the CSC nor ISO accept that the

of 0.8 x g is assumed, with g being the

Under the 2005 edition of the ISO standard

gravitational acceleration (9.81 m / s2).

1496-1, the superimposed mass to be

strength of the container will degrade

Below is a summary of the most important

When the dynamic force of 0.8 g is added

supported by a fully loaded container was

below its design values during its life cycle

test and strength criteria for ISO freight

to the static force of 1.0 g, the resulting total

increased from 192,000 kg to 213,360 kg.

and that the starting point for all the criteria

containers. However, the classification

force may be taken as 1.8 g. Furthermore, it

For the stacking of 45 foot containers,

is the design strength of the container.

societies also maintain their own criteria

is assumed that containers are stacked nine

special stacking limitations apply for

In this regard, the CSC states in the

which are specified in their Rules. These

tiers high in cell guides with all containers

particular stacking configurations.

introduction to Annex II:

Rules use the ISO Standard and CSC criteria

rated to 24,000 kg. This means that the

In setting the requirements for this

as the minimum requirement.

bottom container must be capable of

Notes

supporting a superimposed mass of 8 x

It is assumed that the containers are

Annex, it is implicit that in all phases of

the operation of containers the forces

Stacking

24,000 kg. = 192,000 kg. The corner posts

stacked in cell guides and that the

as a result of motion, location, stacking

The container structure must have sufficient

of the containers are known to have been

clearance in the longitudinal direction

and weight of the loaded container and

strength to allow containers to be stacked

tested to 86,400 kg (848 kN) under test

is 38 mm and 25 mm in the transverse

external forces will not exceed the strength

when transported by the vessels.

conditions. The vertical force at the base of

direction. This implies that the above

the stack at each corner is then 954 kN.

stacking configuration includes the

of the container. In particular, the following

assumptions have been made:

The vertical accelerations imposed by the

The container will be so restrained that

vessels motions (pitch and heave) must

All containers tested in accordance with ISO

it is not subjected to forces in excess of

be taken into account when considering

Standard 1496-1 of 1990 will be capable of

those for which is has been designed;

stacking capacity. Under the provisions of

supporting the above mentioned loads.

the CSC, a maximum vertical acceleration

containers to be stacked off-set in

accordance with these clearances.
The assumed rated weight of 24,000 kg
is the maximum gross weight of a 20
foot container according to ISO 668.

252 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Today, ISO containers are manufactured

6 THE CONTAINER 253

Large numbers of non-ISO containers are

the vessels roll motion. The design test

with a considerable higher permissible

used in the marine industry, mainly short-

load assumes a uniformly distributed mass

weight and a gross mass of 34,000 kg

sea, with a considerable lower stacking

equal to 0.6 times the rated payload of the

for standard containers is no longer

capacity. Examples of such containers

container to be applied to the side panel.

exceptional. However, when stacking

are the European extra-wide 30 foot bulk

such containers fully loaded up to their

containers, capable of being stacked a

Roof

rated weight, the maximum stacking

maximum of four tiers high. According

The containers roof structure must be

height must be reduced accordingly so

to the latest amendments to the CSC

strong enough to support two workers, with

that the maximum weight of 192,000 kg

Code, these containers must be marked

a weight of 100 kg each. Under ISO 1496,

(ISO 1496-1 of 1990) or 213,360 kg

differently (see 6.8 The labelling and

the test requires a load of 300 kg to be

(ISO 1496-1 of 2013) respectively, is

marking of containers).

uniformly distributed over an area of 600 x

100 kg

30 mm located at the weakest point of the

not exceeded.
The same restriction applies to vessels

100 kg

Panel loads

container roof.

stacking containers up to 10-11 tiers high.

Front and rear end

(or 3,630 kg per wheel), a wheel width of

The weight of each container will have to

The most dominant forces in the

180 mm, a contact area per wheel of 142

be reduced to remain within the stacking

longitudinal (fore aft) direction, are

cm2 and the wheels centred 760 mm apart.

weight limit.

those experienced during rail transport

There is no system known to separate

and when the emergency brake is applied

Racking

containers with the higher stacking

when the container is transported by road.

The container must be rigid enough to

capacity of the 2013 ISO Standard from

The design test load assumes a uniformly

withstand the racking affecting the bottom

containers with a lower stacking capacity

distributed mass equal to 0.4 times the

container in a stack of containers carried

from the 1990 Standard. Therefore

rated payload (P) of the container to

Floor

on deck under conditions affording limited

in considering maximum permissible

be applied on the front or rear end of

The base structure of the container must be

external racking restraint. The front and rear

stacking weights the lowest value of

the container.

capable of withstanding the forces imposed

panel should be capable of withstanding

during cargo operations involving powered

a racking force of 150 kN during test load

Side panel

industrial trucks. The minimum required

conditions. The minimum required racking

The determining factor for the required

strength (ISO 1496-1, 2005) is calculated

force in longitudinal direction is 75 kN.

strength of the containers side panels is

from the vertical pressure from a tired

the transverse acceleration resulting from

vehicle with an axle weight of 7,260 kg

192,000 kg may preferably have to be

used to avoid overloading.

150 kN

0.6 P (payload)

forces on side panels

0.4 P (payload)

forces on front and rear end

Racking

75 kN

254 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 255

6.7

Container types and their main features

General purpose containers may be made

The roof, front panel and side panels are

of aluminum or steel. Cost advantages,

corrugated steel profiles to give strength

however, have led to the predominant use

and rigidity. The roof in way of the four

of steel. The steel used for manufacturing

corners, adjacent to the corner castings are

containers is COR-TEN, a registered

usually constructed with steel reinforcement

trademark of US Steel Corporation and the

plates to provide additional protection

The basic design of a shipping container

different applications, mainly depending

abbreviation stands for CORrosion resistant

from incorrect application of the container

consists of a rectangular steel frame with

on the type of cargo to be carried.

and TENsile strength. This is a weathering

handling equipment.

steel corner fittings (castings) at all eight

The ISO recognises five main categories

steel that is more resistant to long term

corners welded to the corner posts, top

of containers:

corrosion, rendering it more suitable for

The doors are made of steel or ply metal

and bottom side and front rails and rear

General purpose containers

salty conditions.

(steel faced) panels, opening 180 degrees

door sill and header.

and with sealing rubbers to provide

Thermal containers or reefer containers

Tank containers for liquids, gases and

pressurized dry bulk

Non-pressurized containers for dry

bulk cargoes
Platform and platform-based containers

(flat racks).

General purpose containers can be divided

weather tightness. Locking mechanisms

into three categories:

with sealing devices are fitted to secure the

Closed freight containers

container doors.

Ventilated containers, including

fantainers
Open top containers, including hard-top
containers.

be fitted with labyrinth protected openings

for venting (pressure compensation),
although these openings are not supposed

These will be described in further

detail below.

The side panels of the closed container may

Closed freight containers

to measurably support air exchange with

Side panels, a front panel, roof and floor

ambient atmosphere. This is different from

General purpose containers

are attached to the basic framework. The

the special purpose ventilated containers

As the name suggests, this container

container space can be accessed through

providing natural ventilation inside the

The function of the corner posts is mainly

is suitable for the carriage of all types

two hinged doors at the rear end. Some

container (see Ventilated containers).

to transfer the vertical forces occurring

of general cargo and, with appropriate

containers have doors at either end or

during storage and transport. The corner

temporary provisions, also for the carriage

doors in the side panel, but these are

The floor is usually made of 25-30 mm hard

castings are essential for lifting, lashing and

of bulk cargoes, both solid and liquid, e.g.

generally rare.

or soft laminated plywood and supported

stacking the containers and have to be able

flexi tanks.

by steel cross members. Today, bamboo

is being used more and more in the

to absorb a great deal of forces. The design

of corner castings is therefore carefully

By definition it is a freight container, totally

construction instead of plywood. The floors

detailed in a separate ISO Standard (ISO

enclosed and weatherproof, with a rigid

in general purpose containers have been

1161). The corner castings at the bottom of

roof, rigid side walls, and floor, having at

treated against pests and infestations by

the container are shaped differently to the

least one of its end walls equipped with

insects. Various national requirements apply

corner castings at the top of the container.

doors and intended to be suitable for the

to such preventive treatment. Closed freight

Every type of container (with the exception

transport of cargo of the greatest possible

containers may be equipped with additional

of flatrack containers and some types of

variety (ISO 830).

features such as:

tank containers), will consist of this basic

framework and serves as the basis for many

20 foot general purpose (dry cargo) container

256 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 257

locking bar

Forklift pockets

Cargo securing systems

These allow empty containers to be

These are permanent fittings to which

handled with forklift trucks. Packed

lashings such as ropes, straps, wires or

containers must not be picked up in this

chains may be attached. They are not

way unless specifically permitted to do

intended to be used for any other purpose

so as there is a risk that the container and

than securing the cargo in the container.

truck will topple over. Forklift pockets

The fittings are either hinged or sliding

are installed mainly in 20 foot containers

eyes, rings or bars. Depending on their

and are arranged parallel to the centre

position in the container, these fittings

line of the container in the bottom side

are either classed as anchoring points or

rails. According to ISO 1496-1 (2013), 30

lashing points.

locking bar

top side rail

corner casting
door panel
hinges
customs catch
door locking handles

door header

top side rail

door sill

side panel
forklift pocket
corner casting

corner casting

foot, 40 foot and 45 foot containers shall

door panel

not be provided with forklift pockets. The

Anchoring points

reason for this provision is that such larger

These are located in the base

hinges structure of

containers are more difficult to balance.

the container. Typically:

However, there are 30 foot and 40 foot

40 and 45 foot containers have 16

containers with forklift pockets.

door header

anchoring points,

corrugated wall

corner post

customs catch
door locking handles

30 foot containers have 12 anchoring

Gooseneck tunnel
Many 40 foot containers have a recess in
the floor at the front end which helps to

points,
20 foot containers have 10 anchoringdoor sill
points,

centre the containers on the gooseneck

equally spaced between the left and right

chassis. These recesses allow the containers

hand side of the container.

side panel

forklift pocket

bottom side rail

corrugated wall

to lie lower and therefore to be of a taller

construction. Gooseneck tunnels are often

According to ISO Standard 1496-1, each

needed on high cube containers

anchor point shall be designed and

in particular.

installed to provide a minimum rated load

cross members

of 1,000 kg applied in any direction.

Particular modifications of closed

Grappler pockets

Open side, or curtain-sided containers

Containers are generally handled by top

Lashing points

freight containers

for side loading. The strength of the end

spreaders using the corner fittings or corner

These are the securing devices located in

Depending on its intended use, the closed

walls is similar to that of a closed freight

castings. However, some containers have

any part of the container other than the

freight container can be modified in many

container but the curtain side of the

grappler pockets for handling by grapplers

base structure.

different ways, for example:

container provides limited strength and

Containers for garments on hangers

no restraint capability. These containers

applied to the bottom fittings.

According to ISO Standard 1496-1, each

(GOH) fitted with an internal string or

lashing point shall be designed and

bar system or a combination of both, for

installed to provide a minimum rated load

the transportation of garments in the

of 500 kg applied in any direction.

same way as one sees in retail shops, also

called hangtainers.

are therefore not covered by the

ISO standards.
Containers with double load floors for
the carriage of cars.

258 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 259

external power source. Ambient air is drawn

The reduction in strength of the container

into the floor of the container through an

must be taken into account when

especially designed perforated lower front

stowage and stacking the container on

sill. he cargo is stowed on pallets to create

board a vessel.

a false floor forming an air duct under the

cargo. The hot and moist air is removed
through the extraction fan. The aim is to
remove any heat developed by the cargo
and align the temperature of the air within

Hangtainer

the container with that on the outside to

Containers with large flexi-tanks for

the ventilation openings. Cooler air then

prevent condensation.

the carriage of (non-hazardous) liquids

enters the container at the bottom through

in bulk.

the floor ventilation strips. The ventilation

Fantainers are mainly used for the transport

arrangement is such that there is no

of onions over long distances, e.g.

Ventilated containers

ingress of water. These containers are

Australia / New Zealand to Europe or to

The construction of these containers is

mainly used for the transport of organic

Asia. A common variation of the fantainer

more or less the same as that of the general

cargoes with a high moisture content such

is the so-called one door-off variant. In

purpose container except for the inclusion

as cocoa and coffee beans, hence their

this configuration using a closed freight

of full length ventilation galleries located

name coffee containers.

container, one container door is removed

one door off value

and replaced with a plywood bulkhead

along the top and bottom side rails. These

openings allow for a limited exchange of

Fantainers

where the extraction fan is mounted. The

air and humidity between the interior of

The fantainer is a ventilated container,

container door is reinstalled after discharge

the container and the ambient atmosphere

albeit not classified as such under the

of the cargo at the place of destination.

outside. The air exchange is based on

ISO type code. These are essentially

As freight containers carried with one door

the principle of pressure differences and

general purpose containers fitted with a

off or one door open will have reduced

convection: the warm air inside the loaded

hatch in one of the doors allowing for the

allowable stacking mass and racking

container rises and exits at the top through

fixing of an electric extraction fan with an

strength, the practice is discouraged as it

Open-top container

is dangerous and only legal if it is marked

This is a general purpose container without

accordingly on the CSC plate.

a rigid roof commonly used for the carriage

full length ventilation gallerie

40 foot open top container

of heavy and awkward cargoes requiring

top-loading. It is also used for cargoes
with a height in excess of that which can be
stowed in a general purpose container. The
door header can be removed or swivelled
out as well to allow loading either directly
through the roof aperture or through the
door using overhead lifting equipment.

full length ventilation gallerie

Left: ventilated container; right: fantainer

Roof protection, if required, is provided by

Ventilation gallery under the top side rail

a tarpaulin-type cover made of canvas or

260 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 261

reinforced plastic material supported by

proper name is temperature controlled

The porthole container

container is that normal reefer units are

(re)movable roof bows. The purpose of the

container. The transport of cargoes

The porthole container was particularly

designed to maintain cargo temperatures

roof bows of an open-top container is not

requiring accurate temperature control

popular during the early days of

only. This means that the cargo must

solely to support the tarpaulin, but also to

during the voyage is a large and steadily

refrigerated container transport in the

be cooled to the required carriage

contribute to the containers stability.

growing business and not just limited to

1960s and 70s and has remained in use

temperature prior to the container being

fruit, vegetables and meat. Approximately

until very recently. The container, also

stuffed. This is particularly important for

Hard-top container

70 per cent of world seaborne trade in

known as a ConAir container, is insulated

palletised commodities with a compact

This container can be classed as an

perishable cargoes is carried in reefer

to a similar extent as the integral reefer

manner of stacking and packing.

open-top container, but has typically two

containers and their share of this market

container, but does not incorporate

distinguishing structural features:

segment is continuously growing at the

refrigeration equipment or fans. One end

It is equipped with a removable steel

expense of carriage by specialised reefer

of the container is fitted with two porthole

roof. In some types, the roof has points to

vessels. Most containerships are designed

apertures connected to a system of air

accommodate the use of forklift trucks,

to carry large numbers of reefer units.

ducts in the vessels hold through which

allowing the roof to be lifted by forklift

This design necessitates the availability

cold air is supplied from a central battery of

truck. The roof weighs approximately

of power connections on deck or in the

air coolers. A clip-on unit supplying air has

450kg.

hold and auxiliary equipment to provide

to be connected to the porthole apertures

a power supply. The latest generations of

when the container is stored ashore or

very large containerships may have a reefer

transported by land. This, together with

container capacity of up to 15 per cent of

the significant investment needed in the

These two structural features greatly

the total container intake capacity. Some

on-board reefer and air ducting system,

The container body is insulated by a thick

simplify the process of packing and

specialised reefer container carriers have

lead to the phasing out of this

layer of fibreglass matting or synthetic foam

unpacking the container. In particular,

even greater capacity and some specialised

container type.

with aluminium or stainless steel cladding.

it is very easy to pack and unpack the

carriers operate ships capable of exclusively

container from above or through the doors

carrying reefer containers. These ships have

The integral reefer container

T-sections providing a longitudinal double

by crane or crab when the roof is open and

the capacity of carrying as much as 2,200

Integral refrigerated containers have, as

floor for the passage of cold air into the

the door header is swivelled out. In the

reefer TEUs on one trip.

the name suggests, a refrigeration unit

container stow. The principle of cooling is,

that is an integral part of the container

therefore, based on the so-called vertical

The door header can also be

swivelled out.

case of transport of an over height cargo,

40 foot high cube reefer container

The container floor is made from aluminium

the container roof may be left open and

This book only deals with the different

body. Electric power is supplied via a cable

air supply. Air circulation fans in the reefer

fastened directly to an inner side wall of

types of reefer containers used in sea

plugged into the ships or terminals power

unit introduce cooling air into the cargo

the container. The roof only needs

transport. For further information on the

supply system. If electric power supply is

space through a supply in the bottom

approximately 13 cm (51 / 8 inches) of space

transport requirements for individual

not possible or available, the units must be

of the container via the T-barred floor.

for this to be done.

commodities requiring temperature or

supported by a diesel-operated generator

Subsequently, the cooling air is forced

atmospheric control, please refer to specific

set (a so-called genset).

upwards through the cargo and returned

Thermal containers

to the refrigeration unit via the void space

information provided by shippers and carriers.

Thermal containers are designed to

Integral containers are typically designed

below the container ceiling. When passing

carry perishable cargo in a temperature

Generally, there are two main types of

to maintain the temperature of perishable

through the refrigeration unit, the air

controlled environment. More commonly,

reefer containers:

goods at levels from -30C to +30C, in

is cooled again to the required supply

these containers are called reefer or

The porthole container, and

ambient air temperatures from -10C to +

temperature and, if needed, mixed with

refrigerated containers although their

The integral reefer container.

38C or more. An important feature of this

fresh air to avoid the build-up of respiration

262 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 263

return air
thawing heater

fans

temperature sensor
location

evaporator coil
airduct

control unit

condenser fan
condenser

Frederick McKinley (Fred) Jones,

the inventor of the refrigerated transport unit
The reefer transport technology applied to
preserving perishable goods in transport containers
was invented by Fred Jones, who in 1938 received
patent for his invention.

power cable

compressor

Fred Jones was born on 17 May 1893 in Covington

supply air

d ted

Kentucky as the son of a black mother and a white

railroad employee of Irish ancestry. Already at an

early age, Fred exhibited great interest in mechanical

Air flow, parts and terminology

workings and cars. At the age of twelve he ran away

gases, for example during the carriage of

air to reach all corners of the cargo hold.

fruits and vegetables.

Results may not always be satisfactory,

from home and began working in a garage, doing the cleaning and sweeping.

particularly when the vessel is passing

Most of his time, however, he devoted to watching the mechanics as they worked on the cars. His observations,

The majority of the reefer containers used

through an area with a tropical climate with

along with a passion for learning through reading developed within Fred a deep knowledge of motor vehicles.

today are 40 foot long high-cube containers

high ambient and seawater temperatures.

Within three years, he became the foreman of the garage. Later, he began designing and constructing race cars.

and are carried on deck, up to the third

The presence of heated bunker tanks

In his thirties, Jones started working with Joe Numero, at that time head of Ultraphone Sound Systems. At some

tier. Stacking reefer containers higher up

and hot engine room bulkheads impose

point in time Numero was asked to develop a device which would allow large trucks to transport perishable

is often impossible because of the length

additional requirements on the air

goods. Jones was set to work and developed a cooling process that could refrigerate the interior of a tractor

of the power cable and inaccessibility,

ventilation system to remove the heat from

trailer. In 1939 Fred Jones and Joe Numero acquired a patent for this invention and Numero sold his business and

including the danger of crew falling when

the cargo hold.

together they founded a company named after their first vehicle air-conditioning system, called Thermo King.

reefer unit during the voyage. Some carriers

Controlled atmosphere (CA) containers

For the next 20 years, Jones and Numero introduced improvements to existing devices and created new

employ specialised reefer engineers for this

In a normal reefer unit, the cooling air is

inventions when necessary. In 1942, Jones developed the first portable refrigeration units for troops stationed

purpose, particularly where large numbers

ambient air composed of approximately

overseas during World War II. He also introduced the first refrigerated boxcars in the 1940s, which made fresh

of reefers are carried on board. Some

21 per cent oxygen, 78 per cent nitrogen

produce more widely available and affordable to the public.

reefers are equipped with a water cooling

and 1 per cent other gases, amongst which

system that can be used to remove

0.3 per cent CO2 or nitrogen. In such an

Frederick McKinley Jones died in February 1961. During his life, Jones was awarded 61 patents of which 40 were

the heat generated if the reefer unit is

atmosphere, fruits and vegetables ripen

for refrigeration equipment. He was inducted into the Minnesota Inventors Hall of Fame in 1977. Joseph Numero

stored below deck on a vessel without

and respire at normal rates.

passed away in 1991 at the age of 94.

Manufacturers of refrigeration equipment

The same year (1991), both were awarded The US National Medal of Technology by President George Bush

As water cooling systems are expensive,

and carriers of reefer containers, together

because of their contribution to revolutionising the transport of perishable goods. Jones was the first African

vessels rely more on forced air ventilation to

with shippers and receivers developed new

American to receive the award and became known as one of the most important black inventors ever.

remove heat from cargo holds. The success

techniques to control the atmosphere in the

Today, Thermo King continues to be one of the largest manufacturers of refrigeration units for containers.

of under-deck carriage of reefer containers

container and, thereby delay the ripening

depends heavily on the amount of air

process and to increase the post-harvest life

ventilation and ability of the ventilation

of the produce.

inspecting, respectively, repairing the

adequate ventilation.

Sources: Thermo King; African-American Inventors, Capstone Press, 1998; The New York Times

264 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 265

The basic principle of a controlled

will reduce the O2 content to approximately

Tank containers

atmosphere is mainly to remove the oxygen

17 per cent. The combined percentage of

The tank container comprises two basic

from the air and to replace it with a different

O2 and CO2 will always remain at 21 per cent

elements, the tank shell and the framework.

type of gas mostly CO2. Different systems

using this system. The required air condition

The frame must be compatible with

exist, from integral units built into the reefer

can subsequently be maintained by simply

standard container dimensions

container, via units adjusting the level of

admitting fresh air into the containers

(CSC / ISO) to render it suitable for

ventilation to systems whereby the ambient

interior. This system has the advantage that

intermodal transport.

air in the container is flushed out by a gas of

it does not require an expensive nitrogen

a different composition than air.

separator. The disadvantage is, however,

The specifications of the shell and the

that good control is difficult to maintain

fittings determine the class of the tank and

when the respiration rate of the fruit is low.

thereby the type of products it can carry.

The development of a controlled

The frame is designed to support the tank

atmosphere started around 1990, once the

nitrogen separator became commercially

AFAM and AFAM+ system

when fully loaded. Most ISO tank containers

available at reasonable costs. This separator

A cost effective way to alter the atmosphere

are 20 foot long. Capacities generally range

not only eliminated the need to carry a

in a refrigerated container is the Automated

from 15,000 to 27,000 litres. There are

large supply of liquid nitrogen but also

Fresh Air Management system, which uses

several different designs for the frame and

made it possible for CA storage to be used

a motorised fresh air exchange system

tank construction:

in sea-going transport. Reefer containers

and CO2 and O2 sensors to control the

Frame tank; this is a full frame with side

using a nitrogen separator, use nitrogen to

respiration gases naturally produced by the

reduce the oxygen level in the container to

fruit in transit. The system maintains the

a certain fixed point. A computer monitors

optimum CO2 levels throughout the voyage.

and controls the atmosphere in the

AFAM uses a small motor to control the

has a lower tare weight and therefore

container and may adjust the levels of the

fresh air exchange; AFAM+ adds a gas to

higher payload capacity

different gases by varying the volume and

the unit to vary the air exchange based on

Collar tank

purity of the nitrogen applied. This system

O2 and CO2 levels.

Ten tank

rails connection between the end frames

and is the most common tank container
Beam tank has only end frames; this tank

Other reefer containers

and the dimensions are small meaning it

These include:

A filling port/manhole is located on the top

can be integrated in the cooling unit of an

Special integral containers for the

of the tank and a dip rod with calibration

integral container without occupying extra

carriage of flower bulbs and products

scale is provided. Other fittings include a

cargo space.

requiring humidity control;

pressure / relief valve to protect the tank

Integral containers with additional

20 foot tank container - beam type

against over pressure or a pressure valve to

There are also systems taking advantage of

cooling capacity such as Magnum for

protect against excess external pressure,

the fact that the respiration of fruit converts

-35 C freezing and Superfreezers for

airline connections for pressuring the

oxygen into carbon dioxide (CO2). In gas

quick cooling down cycles to -60 C.,

tank during discharge / testing or vapour

tight cells, the CO2 content produced by the

e.g. for the transport of raw fish for

recovery and a discharge pipe valve and

breathing fruit is allowed to increase. The

the sushi industry as well as certain

cap at the bottom rear end. Loading and

oxygen content is reduced similarly, so an

pharmaceuticals.

discharge may be done using a top outlet

increase of say 4 per cent in the CO2 content

20 foot tank container - frame type (top view)

The swap tank.

has the advantage that is has few moving

parts, it controls the atmosphere accurately

20 foot tank container - frame type

valve connected to vertical siphon pipe.

20 foot tank container - swap tank

266 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 267

Steam or electric heating systems can be

polished smooth interiors to prevent the

Different test requirements apply to each

fitted to the tank container and are usually

accumulation of contaminants.

type of tank container. These are set out

capable of maintaining air temperatures up

There are hundreds of tank container

in ISO Standard 1496-3. Tank containers

to 110C. Reefer tanks are also available.

operators worldwide and they can differ

must be at least 80 per cent full to prevent

Insulation is usually in the form of expanded

considerably in the service they offer. The

dangerous surging of the liquid during

polyurethane. Tanks capable of carrying

bigger operators typically offer a wide

transit. There is also a general rule that

dangerous cargoes conform to IMO

range of services, while smaller operators

the tanks should not be filled more than 95

requirements and are classed according to

may only offer services in one region or with

per cent to allow for thermal expansion of

how hazardous the cargo is and whether

one type of tank.

the liquid.

30 foot bulk container

commonly referred to as type 0 tanks and

Tank containers can be grouped according

Typical for tank containers particularly in the

containers are usually not fitted with the

are suitable for the transport of food stuffs

to their test requirements and intended use:

short sea trade in Europe is the variation in

hinged doors of closed freight containers.

intended for human consumption, although

IMO type 0 food grade tank container

the dimensions of the containers available,

They are commonly fitted with mild steel

some alcohols / spirits may fall within

IMO type 1 hazardous cargo

not always meeting the ISO standard.

floors to enable easy cleaning. ISO type

the IMO dangerous good requirements.

IMO type 2 semi / non-hazardous cargo

Examples are the 30 foot bulk container

bulk containers are usually 20 foot long.

These tanks and their fittings are usually

IMO type 5 gases and other explosives

with a capacity of 40,000 litres, the wide

The 30 foot bulk container is particularly

body tank, and the swap tank where the

popular in the European short sea sector.

exterior of the tank protrudes beyond the

This container has a container-wide

forward and aft tank frame. There are also

discharge hatch at the rear end, with or

40 foot tank containers with a capacity of

without hinged container doors above.

it is a liquid or gas. Food grade tanks are

constructed of stainless steel with highly

walkways

manhole

pressure/vacuum relief valves

air inlet connection

56,000 litres, mainly for the transport of

di

r e

e in

int

Platform containers

by shippers, logistic service providers or

These containers, commonly known as flat

production facilities.

racks or flats, are designed to facilitate the

carriage of cargo with dimensions in excess

access ladder

insulated tank shell

date plate
thermometer/
steam heating

Bulk containers

of the space available in general purpose

These containers are officially known as

or open top containers. They consist of a

non-pressurized dry bulk containers.

flat bed with either fixed or collapsible end

They are general purpose containers

walls, i.e. flat racks, or just flats without end

specially designed to carry bulk cargoes

walls (platforms). There are no side walls

such as dry powders and granular cargoes

or a roof. Despite this, the tare weights of

and are capable of withstanding the loads

platform containers are generally greater

resulting from filling, transport motions and

than for general purpose containers

discharging . There are bulk containers for

because of their heavy construction.

tipping discharge which have filling and

tank rear end

discharge openings and a door.

bottom outlet

Tank container

dry bulk. Many of these tanks are owned

ISO frame 20x8x8.6

remote shut off control handle

for emergeny operation of bottom outlet foot valve

The bottom structure consists of at least

two strong longitudinal H-beam girders,

Another type of bulk container is the

connected by transverse stiffeners and

hopper type for horizontal discharge. These

lined with solid wooden boards. Strong

268 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 269

which cannot be stacked when loaded with

cargo. Therefore, on board ships, they are
usually loaded in the top tier on deck or in
the hold.

6.8

The labelling and marking of containers

Platforms consist solely of a floor structure

40 foot flatrack with collapsible end walls

with an extremely high loading capacity;

The international standard dealing with

The mandatory requirements were limited

they have no side or end walls. This high

the coding, identification and marking of

to the marking of the owners code, the

loading capacity makes it possible to carry

containers is ISO Standard 6346.

equipment category, serial number, check

heavy weights in small areas. The platform

The first edition of the Standard was

digit, size and type codes. There was no

lashing points are welded to the outer

consists of a steel frame and a wooden floor

published in 1984 and an amended

way to distinguish non-ISO containers

sides of the longitudinal bottom side rails.

structure and are used mainly for oversized

edition was published in 1995. The 1995

from ISO containers through the type

Flat racks may be provided with stanchions

and very heavy cargo.

amendment not only included a new

codes used.

when carrying certain types of cargo. The

regulatory regime on the mandatory status

maximum payload can be used only if the

A combination of two or more platforms

for marking, but also completely revised

As already mentioned, this changed with

load is distributed evenly over the floor

can be used to form a temporary platform

the marking and identification codes.

the 2012 amendment and the introduction

structure. If the weight of the cargo is

to load very large items which cannot be

In 2012 the Standard was amended

of type codes for non-ISO.

applied to only a small proportion of the

placed in containers. This way, cargo to be

again to accommodate and distinguish

floor, it must be distributed evenly and the

transported on board a cellular container

non-ISO containers.

manufacturer of the flat racks may have

vessel on a port to port basis is carried as

to be consulted on safety issues. Platform

it would have been on board a conventional

The ISO Standard 6346 and its changes can

being in use today. The first set of codes

containers are the only ISO type containers

break bulk vessel.

be summarised as follows:

will be found on containers built between

The ISO 6346 Standard of 1984 did not

1984 and 1995. The second set of type

contain a mandatory requirement to mark

codes is found on containers built after

the containers. It only provided a standard

1995, whilst the third set of type codes

to be used if marking the containers.

applies to containers which are approved

Therefore, it is possible that ISO containers

under the requirement of the Convention of

built before 1984 will not carry size and

Safe Containers (CSC) but do not meet the

type codes.

requirements of ISO standard 1496-1.

of size codes and three sets of type codes

This changed with the 1995 edition of ISO

Standard 6346, published on 12 January
40 foot flatrack with collapsible end walls

The above changes resulted in two sets

1995. It stated that every ISO container shall

be marked with the appropriate size and
type codes described in the Standard.

Identication system ISO 6346

TRIU 044668 0
owner
code
category
identier

ISO Standard 6346

serial
number
check
digit

270 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 271

size and type code

Below is a summary of the mandatory

requirements of the latest ISO 6346

22G1

Standard.

code RO

a mechanically refrigerated

stated on the CSC plate. If there are any

container with full stacking and

variations, the mass mentioned on the CSC

racking capability

plate will prevail.

code RA same as R0 but with reduced

Identification system
This consists of the following four elements:
The owners code three letters
Every container owner has a unique
number registered with the Bureau
International des Conteneurs, based
in Paris.

size code
22
20 foot long
8 foot wide
8,5 foot high

type code
G1
general purpose

Size and type code

The equipment category one letter

This is the letter U for all freight
containers.

code 22 20 foot long, 8 foot wide and

8.5 foot high
code L5 45 foot long, 8 foot wide and

123456, or 001234.
The check digit one numeral

Another mandatory marking applies to

capability.

containers with heights in access of 2.60 m,

e.g. high-cube containers. These must be

ISO 6346:1995 / Amd.3:2012 requires

marked as follows:

that containers with reduced stacking or

On both sides, the height in metres and

reduced racking strength shall have the size

feet, to one decimal / inch, rounded off

type code marks on the front (blind end)

to the highest decimal / inch. This mark

and on the roof at either end.

should be displayed at both ends of

Example (2012 edition):

The serial number six numerals

This number consists of six numerals, eg.

stacking and / or racking

9.5 foot high

code 2N 20 foot long, more than 2,500 mm

The check digit is the result of a

wide and 9.5 foot high

mathematic formula, derived from the

the container

Weight markings (mandatory)

An area of yellow and black stripes on

According to ISO 1496, other mandatory

the top members of each end container

markings are those that indicate the

frame and side wall, e.g. to warn

maximum gross mass and the tare

crane drivers that the container is a

(empty) mass of the container. It is not

high-cube container.

mandatory to show the permissible

payload of the container, but this is usually

Other markings

done in practice.

All other permanent markings on

owners code, the equipment code and

Type code

the container number, and is ten digits

This is also a two digit code. The first

long. The calculation of the check digit is

digit represents the container type whilst

The maximum gross mass of the container

Standard. A container can display many

to verify that the entire serial number of

the second character indicates the main

must always be in accordance with the value

markings, labels or placards required by

the container, e.g. when entered into a

characteristics of this container type.

various regulatory bodies or imposed

computer, has been entered correctly.

The latest ISO 6346 Standard provides the

by international regulations to display

coding of 67 different types of containers.

warnings or information about the cargo

containers are optional under the ISO 6346

Size and type codes

This is a four digit code, e.g. 22G1.

in the container. An obvious example is

Example (1995 / amd.3:2012 edition):

the hazardous cargo labels as required by

code G1 a general purpose container

the IMDG Code. The ISO Standard 6346

Size code

with full stacking and racking

only requires that these other markings are

The first two digits indicate the container

capability, without ventilation but

displayed in such a way that they do not

size. The first digit represents the length

with passive vents at the upper

interfere with the marks required under

of the container whilst the second digit

represents the width and height of the
container.

part of the cargo space

code GB

same as G1 but this container

has been designed and tested
with reduced stacking and / or
racking capability

Weight markings

the Standard.

272 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 273

to be taken out of service immediately or

6.9

In-service inspections of containers

be free from nails in the floor or other

when the movement of the container was

protrusions which could damage the

to be restricted. For example, the new

cargo, etc.

regulations stated that a container with a

corner casting that was deformed or worn

These are the responsibility of the container

beyond certain defined criteria (in mm), had

operator / carrier who makes the container

In service-inspections of containers can

this inspection, all load bearing parts and

to be taken out of service immediately. This

available to the shipper of the goods,

be divided into statutory inspections and

structural components should be examined

was an important step in promoting safe

however, the container operator will mostly

routine operational inspections.

and checked for corrosion, mechanical

container handling as such measures were

rely on the container depot contracted

damage, wear and tear etc. The condition of

not mentioned in the previous editions of

to store and inspect the containers for

Statutory inspections (CSC)

the welding and riveting should be checked

the CSC.

these tasks. The reality is, however, that

Statutory inspections must be carried

visually as well.

out for the container to comply with the

containers may move directly from the

Routine operational inspections

consignee to the next packing station

IMO Convention of Safe Containers. This

The container owner must keep a record

In addition to these standard periodical

without passing through a depot or

Convention requires that a party operating

of the findings of the examination and to

inspections, containers are inspected for

intermediate inspection.

containers internationally by sea, has in

retain these records until the completion

various other reasons, each inspection

place a system of examination, maintenance

of the next inspection. The CSC delegated

serving a particular purpose:

and record keeping, to ensure that the

the control of the movement of unsafe

container fleet is maintained and operated

containers to governments. Such unsafe

Cargo worthiness inspections

packing station / shipper from their

safely. This system must be approved by a

containers may be allowed to proceed

These inspections verify that the container

obligation to inspect the containers prior

competent government authority.

to the place of unloading, but cannot be

is not only fit and safe for international

to stuffing. The inspection is fairly easily

loaded again until a further examination,

transport but that it is also suitable to load

undertaken and is based on common sense.

repairs and updating have taken place.

the intended cargo. The purpose of the

For example the weather tightness can be

inspection is to minimise the risk of damage

checked using a day-light check, preferably

to the cargo during the voyage.

with the container doors closed. Some

As described above, this system can

be either an Approved Continuous
Examination Programme (ACEP) or a

Until 2005, the CSC did not specify when

Periodic Examination Scheme (PES).

a container was to be classified as unsafe.

This carriers responsibility for maintaining

the containers does not discharge the

container operators have warnings posted

In 2005, an amendment to the CSC (IMO

Taking a standard dry box container as

inside the container, informing the shipper

Evidence of the container being in

Circular CSC / Circ. 134 of 27 May 2005)

an example, for the container to be cargo

to ensure that the container is fit for use

compliance with the CSC, and thereby

identified the critical safety components of

worthy it must:

before loading.

approved for use under either of these

a container and the maximum permissible

have a valid CSC plate

inspection regimes, is the CSC plate being

deformation to these components. This list

be weathertight

Responsibility inspections / Equipment

stamped with the Next Examination Date

was referred to as the Serious Structural

have properly closing doors

Interchange Report (EIR)

(NED) for a container operating under a PES

Deficiencies.

be free from adhesive labels, e.g. IMDG

During a normal journey, the container

In a new amendment, which entered into

be free from cargo residues

The general principle of responsibility is

The CSC inspection is a visual inspection

force in July 2015, the subject of out of

be free from infestation by animals,

that any damage to a container requiring

only to be carried out by a competent

service determinations was further specified

person. With the exception of tank

in a new Annex III to the CSC. These new

containers, tests are not required. During

guidelines set out when containers were

regime, or with an ACEP approval decal.

placards from previous cargo

insects or any other living organisms

be neutral in odour

crosses many lines of responsibility.

repair or cleaning will have to be paid by the

party in whose custody the container was at
the time of the incident. It is therefore in the

274 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 275

container being loaded. The speed of

the world to make containers easily and

loading, together with the large number

readily available to container operators.

of containers passing the ships railing

When a leasing company (lessor) delivers

moved by multiple cranes working

a container to a client (lessee), the latter

simultaneously have made inspections

will want to assess the condition of the

by the crew practically impossible. The

container. The opposite is the case when

vessels crew relies on the stevedores deck

the client redelivers the container to the

men to find and report any damage to the

leasing company.

container during the loading or discharge

Daylight test

operations. This is not always the case and

Surveyors are usually engaged at the

the damage to the container may only be

hand over points to carry out condition

found when the container is landed ashore

assessments for and on behalf of their

at the next port. At that time, a dispute

client. This can be a survey conducted by

may arise between the vessel, the loading

two different surveyors appointed by either

and discharge terminal as to the exact time

party, or may be one independent surveyor

when the damage occurred.

acting jointly for both the lessor and lessee.

interest of all parties involved that there is

found on the container. During delivery or

system in place for accurate documentation

redelivery of a container, an EIR can serve as

of container damage at the points of any

a valid contract between the shipping line,

On / off-hire inspections

The contract between the leasing

hand-over. These are the points where,

or appointed sub-contractor, and the road

Container leasing companies keep large

company and the client sets out the criteria

for instance, the road truck delivers a

carrier.

amounts of containers in stock for leasing

for these inspections and when damage will

to container operators. These stocks piles

require repair or not. See Inspection and

are situated at strategic points all over

repair criteria.

container at a depot or where a container is

discharged from a vessel or barge.

An EIR is not necessarily issued every time.

For example, large container terminals use

Equipment Interchange Reports (EIR) are

cameras with Optical Character Recognition

usually issued at the various hand-over

(OCR) at the entry gates. The cameras

points. A container interchange report

automatically identify and record the

is a document that provides a detailed

arriving container using its unique 7-digit

description of the external condition of

reference number, seal status, direction of

the container at the time of transfer of

the door, and any container damage. If the

responsibility from one party to another.

system detects any irregularities with the

By preparing an interchange report for each

container, it can automatically prevent the

transfer, it can easily be established when

container from entering the terminal.

any damage to a container occurred, and

identify the party who had the container in

There is one party in the transport chain

his possession during that period and can

which does not inspect every container

be held responsible. This document can be

entering their area of responsibility.

either in an electronic format or in paper

That is the vessel itself. In the past when

form and contains diagrams to be used

loading rates were low, it was still customary

for marking where the defects have been

for the on board crew to inspect every

276 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Container repair terminology

Several specific terms are used when dealing with container repairs although some degree of variation in these
definitions may exist depending on the standard being used:
Straightening

6 THE CONTAINER 277

6.10

Maintenance and repair

To mechanically or hydraulically restore a damaged component as close as possible to its

original shape without the removal of any portion of the component, although in certain cases
adjacent components may have to be unfastened from the component being straightened.

All containers must be maintained in a safe

container loaded with cargo, particularly

Welding

To fuse two separated pieces of metal together using heat and a third piece of metal.

condition and must be repaired to comply

if the damage is such that the container

Inserting

To restore a damaged component to its original size, shape and strength by cutting out a

with mandatory regulatory requirements

can no longer be transported safely. In

portion of the component that is less than the full-profile section and welding or fastening

valid at the location in which they were

such an event, the cargo may first have

replacement material of the original size, shape and strength in place. The replacement part

placed at the time, including but not

to be re-stuffed into a replacement

itself is called an insert.

limited to CSC requirements.

container before the damaged container

Patching

Sectioning

Replacement

Wear & tear

can be transported to a repair facility. To

The same as inserting, except that the replacement material is slightly larger than the material
being removed, and its edges overlap the parent material. The replacement part itself is called a

Only a few container owners have

demonstrate a certain minimum standard,

patch. Note: Except for on panels, patching is mostly not allowed.

preventive maintenance programmes

repair facilities may decide to apply for

To restore a damaged component to its original size, shape and strength by cutting out a

in place for their container fleet. Such

accreditation by a classification society.

portion of the component that extends through its full profile and welding or fastening

preventive maintenance, if undertaken,

Most repair shops in large container ports

replacement material of the original size, shape and strength in place. The replacement part

is usually limited to the treatment of rust

are in possession of such an accreditation.

itself is called a section.

spots, fixing paint damage etc. A more

During the accreditation process, the repair

To remove an entire damaged component and weld or attach a complete new component of

common way of maintenance is to carry out

facility must demonstrate knowledge of

the original size and strength. In some cases, a different shape may be permitted.

repairs in accordance with in-service repair

the supply of materials, quality and the

An unavoidable change or deterioration of the container brought about by routine

standards. The reporting mechanisms will

manufacturers specifications. Furthermore,

operational use.

ensure that the container owner is informed

an inspection system must also be in place

about any damage to the container which

providing satisfactory quality control of all

will require repair.

the repairs performed. To ensure that the

right level of quality control is maintained,

Repair facilities

the classification society will conduct

Container terminals do not usually allow

regular audits, e.g. annually or every

container repairs to be carried out at their

two years.

premises. This means that the container

has to be taken out of service temporarily
and brought to a repair facility. These
repair facilities are usually located at, or in
the close vicinity of the empty container
depots. The most inconvenient situation
for a carrier is repairs required to a

Repair workshop

278 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 279

Repair standards and procedures

repairs are to be carried out. The IICL

Company specific requirements

The usual procedure when containers need

Container repairs are needed when:

has the strictest repair criteria for

Several of the major shipping lines

repairs is that the repair company prepares

any damage to the container which

used containers.

maintain their own inspection and repair

a cost estimate to be approved by the

requirements. These may well differ from

container owner prior to commencement of

integrity or cargo worthiness of the

Since 1971, the IICL has produced over

the more universally applied standards

the repairs. Container owners may also have

container, or

twenty publications covering container

referred to above.

their own in-house inspectors or engage

affects the safe handling, structural

the repair is identified as being

inspection, repair, cleaning and

the services of independent surveyors to

necessary by industry in-service repair

refurbishment, chassis inspection and

monitor and check the repairs.

standards, or because of specific

maintenance, as well as other topics.

instructions / requirements by the

The latest edition for container repairs is

container owner or manufacturer.

the IICL-5 standard which was introduced

in 2007. The publication is over 100 pages

Technical Reference for Freight container equipment interchange

receipt TR39:2015

All necessary repairs must be undertaken

long, describing in great detail how repairs

On 29 January 2015, the Manufacturing Standards Committee (MSC) under the purview of the Singapore

in accordance with the applicable repair

are to be carried out for each individual

Standards Council (SSC), SPRING Singapore and Singapore Manufacturing Federation Standards Development

standards. There are different standards in

item of a freight container.

Organisation (SMF -SDO) launched the Technical Reference TR 39: 2015 for freight container equipment

use in the industry. The standard to be

interchange receipt.

used will be stated in the contract with

CIC (Common Inspection Criteria)

the container owner. The standards differ

In 2005, a group of leasing companies

This TR serves as a reference and guide on the conduct of visual survey and inspection, accurate reporting and

from one another quite significantly

began a study to determine if the

updating of the condition of the freight container at each point of handing and taking over. It establishes the

with regard to the tolerances and list

inspection standards used for the

baseline on common definitions and terminologies, visual qualitative and quantitative survey and dissemination

of permitted damages. There are also

interchange of containers between leasing

of the information on the conditions of the freight container to minimise disputes and delays at each point of

separate repair standards for refrigerated

companies and shipping lines could be

the interchange.

and tank containers.

revised to bring them more in line with

the standards used by shipping linesin

This TR is expected to be referred to by the shipping lines, container owners, container lessors, terminal

UCIRC (Unified Container Inspection

the in-service operation of their

operators, logistics service providers, container depot operators, consignees and shippers. TR39:2015, Technical

and Repair Criteria)

container fleets.

Reference for freight container equipment interchange receipt covers the following:

This is the main standard used by most

The scope of the TR

container shipping lines. The last edition

The revised inspection criteria used under

Definitions of all the terms for the purpose of the TR

of the Standard dates from 2004. For

the CIC standard are based on UCIRC, the

Reporting criteria for the condition of freight containers

refrigerated containers a separate standard

shipping industrys in-service inspection

Guidelines on the conduct of visual survey and inspection on freight containers

may be used: the Unified Reefer Inspection

standard, and the Institute of International

Relay and acceptance of the condition of freight containers

and Repair Criteria (URIRC).

Container Lessors IICL-5 interchange

Standardised container equipment interchange receipts forms for both General and Tank containers

standard. This alignment between container

The various types of reportable container conditions

IICL Institute of International

operators and leasing companies has

A feedback form.

Container Lessors

simplified operations by improving the

This organisation includes some of the

efficiency of repair depots and reducing

largest container and chassis leasing

the number of unnecessary repairs, whilst

companies worldwide. The IICL sets repair

lessening the confusion among surveyors

standards for its members by which all

and estimators.

280 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 281

The Container Security Initiative (CSI)

6.11

This program is led by the United States

Customs and Border Protection (CBP) within

Container security

the Department of Homeland Security

cleared for entry into the United States and

(DHS) focussing on screening containers

can be loaded. For this purpose, foreign

whilst still located at foreign ports. The CSI

ports may apply for approval to become a

Since their first appearance in the 1950s

In particular the threat of a Chemical,

programme is part of the CPBs layered

CSI port. One of the conditions that must

the shipping container has revolutionised

Biological, Radiological or Nuclear (CBRN)

cargo security strategy.

be fulfilled in order to achieve this status

the international transport of goods to the

weapon being delivered in an anonymous

extent that most of the worlds non-bulk

shipping container has become the primary

CSI deploys expert teams to address the

The World Customs Organization (WCO),

cargo is now carried in freight containers.

terrorism threat to containerised transport.

threat to US border security and global

the European Union (EU), and the G8

One of the reasons for its success is the

This has become the principal driver of

trade posed by the potential terrorist

support CSI expansion and have adopted

strength of the container box, shielding

international transport security policy

use of a maritime container. These teams

resolutions implementing CSI security

the cargo from the environment and

since 2001. Understandably, after 2001 the

target and examine high-risk cargo before

measures introduced at ports throughout

protecting the goods.

United States government in particular

it is laden on board a vessel bound for the

the world. At the time of publication, over

implemented a set of new regulations.

United States. The practical implication of

80 per cent of all maritime cargo imported

this rule is that, at least 24 hours prior to

into the United States is subject to prescreening.

However, this closed construction can also

is to have approved scanning equipment.

be a disadvantage from a security point of

Generally speaking, the measures put into

loading, the shipping lines have to send

view. In the absence of scanners that scan

place following the September 11 attacks

the manifest data for all cargo destined for

the entire box, it is practically impossible

fall into the following five categories:

the US to the CBP. The CBP transmits the

to establish exactly the contents of the

Measures seeking to scan or otherwise

data to the US National Targeting Centre

container. The only option would be to

physically confirm the contents of

Cargo (NTCC) for screening to identify

open the doors and to carry out a manual

the container

high-risk cargoes. When suspicious cargo

inspection, in practice, a time consuming

and virtually impossible task to conduct on
large numbers of containers.

Measures seeking to ensure the physical

integrity of the container
Measures aimed at ensuring the

is identified, US CSI officials exchange

information and work closely together
with the customs of the host country.

security of the container environment as

This cooperation is usually confirmed in a

The security of the container has been a

it moves and is handled in the container

declaration of intent between the custom

major problem ever since its introduction.

transport chain

administrations of the host country and

The main issues involve the theft of goods,

illegal immigration, smuggling of illegal
goods, weapons and drug trafficking. In

Measures seeking to track and trace the

container in the supply chain
Measures centred on the provision and

the United States of America and is based

on legislation and mutual administrative
assistance. It enables customs in the host

addition to these criminal matters, a new

use of information relating to

country to make a better selection of

security threat was revealed after the

the shipments.

containers that have to be screened or

scanned before leaving the port bound for

September 11 attacks in the United States.

Many countries realised that they had

This chapter provides an overview of

relatively little control over the possible

the most relevant security regulations

misuse of the maritime container by

and how these impact the international

international terrorists.

container trade.

the United States. Non-suspicious cargo is

Container scanner

282 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 283

The Customs Trade Partnership

against Terrorism (C-TPAT)

receiving nation, based upon a comparable

procedures, security patrols, establish

their shipments often opt to travel in

risk targeting methodology, the sending

restricted areas, personnel identification

convoys, employing armed guards and

This is a voluntary compliance program

nations Customs administration will

procedures, access control measures, and/

storing the containers at protected

for companies to improve the security of

perform an outbound inspection of high

or installation of surveillance equipment.

parking spaces. Another method used to

their corporate supply chains. It is led by

risk cargo and/or transport conveyances,

Another requirement of the ISPS Code

steal goods in containers is through fraud.

US Customs and Border Protection (CBP)

preferably using non-intrusive detection

was the installation of an Automatic

Forged documents are used to obtain the

and focusses on improving the security

equipment such as large-scale X-ray

Identification System (AIS) on board

release of the containers from ports or

of private companies supply chains with

machines and radiation detectors. And

ships. The AIS requires vessels to have a

container yards.

respect to terrorism. The program was

lastly, the SAFE Framework suggests the

permanently marked and visible identity

launched in November 2001 with seven

benefits provided by Customs to

number and a record must be maintained

It is worth noting that the techniques used

initial participants, all large US companies.

businesses that meet minimal supply chain

on board of its flag, port of registry and

for gaining access to containers can also be

The program has more than 10,000

security standards and best practices.

address of the registered owner. Ships

used for placing items into a container.

members today.

Amongst others, the SAFE Framework

fitted with AIS must maintain the AIS

In order to prevent this from happening,

recommends that customs implement a

in operation at all times except where

the Customs Convention on Containers

Companies who achieve C-TPAT

container integrity programme involving

international agreements, rules and

(1972) and the TIR Convention (1975) set

certification must have a documented

the use of high security seals meeting ISO

standards provide for the protection of

out technical specifications on secure

process for determining and alleviating risk

Standard 17712.

navigational information.

containers and sealing. This may also

Container security measures

low risk, resulting in expedited processing

The Global Container Control

Programme (CCP)

The shipping container, in its basic form, is

ISO Security Standards

of their cargo, including fewer customs

This is a joint United Nations Office on

a simple reinforced steel box with one point

In 2004 ISO published the Publicly Available

examinations.

Drugs and Crime (UNODC)/World Customs

of entry a double sided door on one end

Specification (PAS) for mechanical door

Organization (WCO) initiative. The objective

- that is closed using a locking bar system.

seals. This standard was replaced by ISO

The SAFE Framework

of this initiative is to establish effective

Once the container is stuffed and leaves

Standard 17712 in 2007. ISO Standard 17712

The World Customs Organization (WCO)

container controls at selected ports across

the shippers premises, the container is

describes three types of mechanical seals:

adopted the Framework of Standards

the globe with the aim of preventing

vulnerable to interception and tampering

High security seals

to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade in

the trafficking of drugs, chemicals and

with its content.

Security seals

2005. This framework consists of supply

other contraband and to facilitate trade

chain security standards for customs

by strengthening cooperation between

The most common method used to steal

administrations. The SAFE Framework

the customs, trade and enforcement

the contents is to break the seal on the

consists of four core elements. Firstly, it

communities.

container door and to replace or repair

throughout their international supply chain.

This allows companies to be considered

involve the sealing of an empty container.

Indicative seals.

it afterwards. There are ways a seal can

harmonises the advance electronic cargo

outbound and transit shipments. Secondly,

The IMO International Ship and Port

Facility Security (ISPS) Code

countries joining the SAFE Framework

This Code came into force on 1 July 2004.

commit to employing a consistent risk

Under the Code, vessels and port facilities

A not uncommon method for stealing

management approach to address security

must conduct vulnerability assessments

containers is simply to hijack the truck

threats. Thirdly, the framework requires

and develop security plans that may include

carrying it. Road truckers trying to protect

that, at the reasonable request of the

passenger, vehicle and baggage screening

information requirements on inbound,

appear to be intact when it has in fact been

tampered with.

Security door seal

284 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

6 THE CONTAINER 285

The Standard sets out best practices for

containers. The objective of this

seal manufacturers. The objective of these

amendment was to address the vulnerability

recommendations is to ensure that seals are

of the traditional door handle seal location

only delivered to bona fide users and that a

and to impose additional requirements for

record is kept of the seals delivered and the

door seals.

numbering of seals.
ISO 18185 deals with the specific
In 2006, ISO published a fifth amendment
to ISO 1496-1 applicable to new built

requirements for electronic door seals.

7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 287

chapter 7

Container Insurance
(by Geir Kjebekk, Gard)

Container and Equipment Insurance

different in that respect as it is intrinsically

Gards container and equipment cover (CEI)

linked to the cargo-carrying equipment.

has been developed to meet the insurance

For example, an overriding condition for

needs of owners, operators or lessees of

the P&I cover to apply is that the liability

containers, which are typically liner vessel

has arisen in direct connection with the

operators or non-vessel operating common

operation of the entered ship see Rule 2.4

carriers (NVOCCs).

of the Gard Rules for Ships.

Scope of cover

Types of property covered

The CEI cover is a property cover and

The CEI cover is tailored to cover cargo-

responds to the damage to and loss,

carrying equipment, which is in practice

including theft, of containers, flat racks,

primarily containers. However, the cover

MAFIs and similar equipment used for

also includes other cargo-carrying

carrying goods. The cover also responds

equipment such as MAFIs, roll trailers,

to the container owners duty to contribute

bolsters, bogies etc., whether on or off a

to salvage and/or general average. The

ship at the time of the insured event.

CEI cover is not limited to loss or damage

occurring during sea transport as it also

Amounts recoverable

responds to loss of or damage to containers

Owned containers and equipment

stored at a shore-side terminal or during

Loss: The replacement value of the

inland transport by truck. Being property

container or other equipment, but not

insurance, the CEI complements liability

exceeding the insured value at the time of

covers such as P&I and the Comprehensive

the loss.

Carriers Cover (CCC). However, whilst

marine liability insurance is normally closely

Damage: The reasonable repair costs of

linked to the insured ship, the CEI cover is

the container or other equipment, but

not exceeding the replacement value or

288 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

insured value, whichever is less, at the time

of damage.

7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 289

Mechanical/electrical breakdown or
malfunction

Underwriting Department for updated

information.

Mysterious disappearance or

Delivery of cargo without production (at

the time of delivery) of negotiable bills of
lading or other documents

Inherent vice, quality or defect

Comprehensive Carriers Liability

Cover

The issue of ad valorem bills of lading

Loss: The amount payable to the owner

under the terms of the lease agreement, or

Insolvency or financial default

Gards Comprehensive Carriers Liability

Contracting on terms more onerous to

the replacement value of the container or

Unfitness of conveyance for safe carriage

Cover (CCC) is a named risk insurance,

the carrier than those of the Hague or

other equipment, whichever is less, but not

Embargo, requisition or compulsory

which covers a number of liabilities arising

Hague-Visby Rules.

Leased containers and equipment

exceeding the insured value at the time of

inventory loss

order of any authority.

Vessel dry-docking with cargo onboard

from events on or off the ship, and which fall

outside standard P&I cover. The CCC cover

Furthermore, the CCC cover provides cover

Limit and deductible

is only available to Members with ships

for liabilities in respect of cargo, property,

Damage: The reasonable repair costs, or

The following limits and standard

entered in Gard for P&I.

personal injury and pollution arising under

the amount payable under the terms of

deductibles apply:

the lease agreement, or the replacement

For any and all claims arising from any

the loss.

value of the container or other equipment,

whichever is less, but not exceeding the
insured value at the time of damage.

Conditions
The assured is covered for the loss,

various approved contracts with:

Scope of cover

Shippers and receivers of cargo

event off the ship: limit of USD 50 million

The CCC cover provides cover for liabilities

Terminal operators and owners

per event

in respect of cargo, lost or damaged

Ship agents

property, personal injury and pollution that

Clean-up contractors

event on board the ship: limit of USD 30

arise in connection with, or result from:

Shipowners/charterers in connection with

million per event

Transshipment of cargo in breach of

For any and all claims arising from any

For any and all claims arising out of any

damage, costs or expenses that have arisen

one event, including any legal and other

out of the activities and/or operations

costs and expenses a deductible of

customarily carried on by, or at the risk

USD 25,000.

contract of carriage
Land carriage of cargo in breach of
contract of carriage
Prolonged landside storage of cargo
Geographic deviations from the

and responsibility, of the assured in his

capacity as an owner, lessee, or operator

The limit of cover may be tailored to meet

of the containers and/or other equipment.

the needs of the insured, but subject to

Otherwise, Conditions and Exclusions

a maximum limit of USD 50 million for all

apply as set out in Gards Additional

claims arising out of one and the same

Covers Standard Terms and Conditions,

event. The amount of compensation will

Section 17.F.

be based on insured values as declared by

that named in the bill of lading/contract

the assured. If the market value of the lost

of carriage

Special exclusions

or damaged property is higher than the

Loss, damage, costs or expenses arising

insured values the CEI cover will be limited

from or attributable to:

to the insured values.

Shipyards
Port authorities
Sub-contractors, including rail and
trucking companies
Tug owners.

contractual voyage in breach of contract

of carriage
Carriage of cargo on deck in breach of
contract of carriage
Cargo loading at a port other than

Delivery of cargo at a port other than

Exclusions
Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses
arising from performance guarantees
provided by the assured.
Liabilities arising from warranties given by
the assured of the assureds or any other

that named in the bill of lading/contract

partys strict compliance with applicable

of carriage

laws and regulations.

Lightering of cargo in breach of the

Wear and tear, corrosion, rottenness,

inadequate maintenance and similar

USD 50 million is the maximum limit at the

Errors in design/manufacture or faulty

time of publication. This may be subject to

material

blending operations

change over time. Please contact the Gards

contract of carriage
Cargo carried on vessels other than
those stated in the bill of lading/contract
of carriage

Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses

resulting from delay, including but not
limited to, the vessels delayed arrival.

290 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 291

Operational costs and expenses including

uniquely positioned to understand how

but not limited to taxes, fees or charges.

risks fit together, and identify the best

choice of products, ensuring seamless

Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses

coverage and service. Innovation has always

arising out of the assureds products or

been a cornerstone of Gards business

reliance upon a warranty or representation

model and, over the years, we have refined

made in respect thereof.

and extended our standard products

and introduced a range of additional

Providing the widest range of risk

solutions

products, responding to special needs and

In a world of increasing complexity,

marine industry.

requirements from different parts of the

Gards objective is to help our Members

and clients manage the totality of

Further information can be found on our

their exposures both to existing and

webpage (www.gard.no) under

developing risks.

Products, or from the Associations

underwriting department.

As a multi-line insurer with the strongest

rating in the marine market Gard is

292 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 293

Glossary of Terms

Acceptance of goods

The process of receiving a consignment for on-carriage from a consignor, usually against the
issue of a receipt. As from the time and at the place stated the carriers responsibility for the
consignment begins.
Accompanied transport

Transport of road vehicles by another mode of transport, e.g. train or ferry etc., accompanied by
their respective drivers.
Ad valorem

Meaning in proportion to the value; a phrase used to describe freight or customs duties levied
on goods, property, etc., calculated as a percentage of their value.
ADR

The European agreement covering the international carriage of dangerous goods by road.
The letters stand for Accord europen relatif au transport international des merchandises
Dangereuses par Route.
Advance freight

Freight paid in advance of the actual carriage.

Advanced interline

An interline carrier that picks up cargo from the shipper and delivers it to another carrier for
shipment to the consignee.
Anti-rack device

Hardware normally attached to doors to provide additional strength and stiffness to the
container door and end frame assembly. The device enables containers to withstand greater
twisting transverse (racking) forces.
Apparel

- A vessels outfit, such as rigging, anchor and life boats.

- A term used to describe a single piece of clothing, a garment, in the distribution/transport of
clothing.
ACEP Approved continuous examination programme

Agreement between the owners of the equipment and the responsible government body to
allow the continuous examination of the equipment, i.e. containers.
Arrival notice

A notice sent by a carrier to a nominated party advising the arrival of a given shipment (ANF in
US).
Automated Ctr/B/L tracking and tracing

These allow the customer to check the latest status of his cargo and/or documents at any time.
Automated guided vehicle system

Unmanned vehicles fitted with automatic guidance equipment which follow a prescribed
path, stopping at each station for automatic or manual loading or unloading of containers at a
terminal.
Automatic container landing systems

Fitted to modern gantry cranes to achieve precise motion control of the container during
landing on the terminal vehicle.
Automatic track control

Fitted to modern gantry cranes which allows the spreader to follow set paths along the trolley to
automatically position the spreader above the container stacks. The driver takes control during
the last few metres before the spreader is lowered on to the container or into the cell guides.

294 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Average adjusters

A person who calculates and apportions the cost of damage to or loss of a ship or the cargo it
carries for insurance purposes between the parties with an interest in the maritime venture. They
also prepare the claims being submitted to hull and machinery insurers.
Average

In marine insurance: loss or damage to or in respect of goods or equipment.

Axle loading

The total downward pressure exerted through any given axle, which may be transmitted through
two or four wheels.
Ballast

Materials solely carried to improve the trim and the stability of the vessel. Water is usually carried
in tanks specially designed for this purpose.
BAPLIE

The electronic data interchange (EDI) message contains information on vessels bay plans to
be used for the exchange of information between agents, ships planners, terminals and vessels
about the stowage of containers on board including their cell positions and place of loading/
discharge.
Bar coding

Electronic tracking of goods using bar code and bar code readers.
Barge

Flat bottomed inland cargo vessel with or without own propulsion, used on canals and rivers for
the purpose of transporting goods.
Bay plan

A stowage plan showing the locations of all the containers on the vessel.
Bay

A vertical division on a vessel used as a part of the indication of containers stowage location.
The bay number indicates the stowage position along the vessels length. Bay numbers run from
forward to aft.
Bending moment

The result of vertical forces acting on a ship due to local differences between weight and
buoyancy. The total of these forces should be zero, as otherwise a change in draft of the vessel
will occur. At sea the bending moment will change due to wave impact which will periodically
change the buoyancy distribution.
Berth

A location in a port where a vessel can be moored, often indicated by a code or name.
Berthing window

Period of time that a vessel is allowed to berth, usually agreed between the terminal operator
and the shipping line to grant a vessel some degree of guaranteed berthing time.
Bimodal trailer

- A road semi-trailer with retractable running gear to allow mounting on a pair of rail boogies.
- A trailer capable of carrying different types of standardised units and loads, e.g. a chassis
suitable for the carriage of one FEU or two TEUs.
Block train

A number of railway wagons loaded with containers, departing from a location and running
straight to a place of destination, without marshalling, transhipping or any coupling or
decoupling of wagons.
Bogie

A removable, self-contained assembly of axles, wheels, springs, suspension and brake

components built specifically to be used as rear wheels under a chassis. Assemblies which are
not removableare known as undercarriages or running gear.
Bonded

The storage of goods in the custody of customs, i.e. under customs seal, until the import duties
are paid or until the goods are exported.
- Bonded warehouse a place where the goods can be placed under bond.
- Bonded goods goods for which customs duties have not yet been paid, i.e. goods in transit or
warehoused pending customs clearance.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 295

Booking reference number

The number assigned to a booking by the carrier or his agent.

Bordereau

Document used in road transport, listing the cargo carried by a road vehicle, often referring to
appended copies of the road consignment note.
Bottom lift

Handling of containers with equipment attached to the four bottom corner fittings (corner
castings).
Bottom slamming

Also referred to as pounding: the ships bottom suffering a severe impact upon re-entering
after it has emerged from the water.
Bow flare slamming

When the upper flared part of the ships bow is forced deeper into the wave, the buoyancy of the
bow section increases proportionally over time, thereby progressively dampening the downward
movement of the bow.
Bridge fitting

A fixture with integrated turnscrew to keep top sides of adjacent containers together. Part of the
lashing equipment.
Bulk container

A container designed for the carriage of free-flowing dry cargoes, which are loaded through
hatchways in the roof of the container and discharged through hatchways at one end of the
container.
Bunker

Tank spaces on board a vessel to store fuel.

Bushing

A synthetic or non-ferrous lining located between the hinge and hinge pin on a container to
reduce electrolytic corrosion and provide ease of rotation. A synthetic lining does not need
lubrication.
Cabotage

Pricing packages designed to encourage repositioning of containers into areas with a container
deficit. Also refers to foreign vessels operating in domestic trade.
Cabover

Style of truck that has a vertical front or flat face, with the cab of the truck sitting above, or
forward of, the front axle, offering greater manoeuvrability and a better overview for the driver.
This contrasts with a conventional truck, where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. Also
known as a flat-nose truck.
Cam retainer

Female component which retains the cam locking device, sometimes called a keeper.
Cam

The part of the door securing device (locking bar) that engages the female retainer (see cam
retainer above) which, by a lever action, together forms the cam lock.
Camber

Slightly arched container floors used to strengthen the construction.

Cargo closing time

Containers for export are not allowed to enter the terminal after this time. The terminals data
control centre will verify that all the booked containers have arrived at the terminal.
Cargo opening time

Usually approximately one week before the vessels expected date of arrival. The terminal grants
trucks access to deliver the containers for export, and the container gate system assigns a
section of the stacking area to the vessels berth.
Cargo restriction code

A code indicating that the use of the container is restricted to a particular type of cargo.
Cargo tracer

A document sent by the agent to all the relevant parties, stating that cargo is either missing or
overhauled.

296 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Cargo

- Goods transported or to be transported, and all goods carried on a ship covered by a bill of
lading.
- Any goods, wares, merchandise, and articles of any kind whatsoever carried on a ship, other
than mail, ships stores, ships spare parts, ships equipment, stowage material, crews effects,
containers and passengers accompanied baggage (IMO).
Carriage

The process of transporting (conveying) cargo from one point to another.

Carrier haulage

The inland transport service performed by the sea carrier under the terms and conditions of the
tariff and the relevant transport document.
Carrier

The party undertaking transport of the goods from one point to another.
CAD Cash against documents

Terms of payment; the buyer of the goods pays for the goods against transfer of the documents,
entitling him to obtain delivery of the goods from the carrier.
Cattle container

A partly open container equipped with rails, boxes, and cribs for the transport of livestock.
Cell guides

The guidance system enabling containers to be lowered into and lifted from the hold of the
vessel. The holds have vertical guides into which the containers are lowered to form secure
stacks restrained at all four corners.
Cell

Stowage location on board a container vessel for one container.

Cellular vessel

A vessel fitted with cell guides and specially designed and equipped for the carriage of
containers.
Central planner

A planner or planning centre, usually located at the ships operators offices, preparing a prestow plan with the input from booking forecasts, slot-charterers and booking information from
their own agency.
Centre of gravity

Point at which the weight of a body may be considered as concentrated so that if supported at
this point the body would remain in equilibrium in any position.
Certificate of origin

A certificate, showing the country of original production of goods. Frequently used by customs
to assess duties under preferential tariff programmes or when regulating imports from specific
sources.
CWE Cleared without examination

Cleared by Customs without inspection.

COU Clip on unit

A portable refrigeration unit designed to clip on to insulated containers which normally rely on a
central refrigeration system for their cold air supply.
Closed ventilated container

A closed container, similar to a general purpose container, but specially designed for the
carriage of cargo requiring natural or mechanical (forced) ventilation.
Cofferdam

An empty space between two bulkheads or two decks on board a vessel separating oil tanks
from each other and/or the engine room or other compartments.
Collapsible container

A container with walls that are hinged, at the front and back ends in collapsible flat racks, or
removable so that its volume may be reduced for transporting in an empty condition.
Combined transport operator

A forwarder providing combined transport and operating as carrier (see MTO).

Commercial invoice

A document showing the commercial value of the transaction between the buyer and seller.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 297

Commodity box rate

A rate classified by type of commodity and quoted per container.

Commodity code

Code used in the harmonised system for the classification of the most commonly produced and
traded goods.
Commodity

Indication of the type of goods. Commodities are coded according to the harmonised system.
Cones

Devices for facilitating the positioning and lashing of containers. The cones are inserted into
the bottom castings of the container. A cone does only provide sideward restraint, no vertical
restraint. Synonym: locating pins.
Conference

Also referred to as a liner conference. A group consisting of two or more vessel-operating

carriers, providing regular services for the carriage of cargo on a particular trade route and
which has an agreement or arrangement to operate under uniform and common freight rates
and any other agreed conditions. e.g. FEFC = Far Eastern Freight Conference.
Consignee

The party stated in the transport document to whom the goods, cargo or containers are to be
delivered.
Consignment

A separate identifiable number of goods to be or being transported from one consignor to one
consignee using one or more than one modes of transport and specified in one single transport
document. Synonym in the USA: Shipment.
Consignor

Also referred to as shipper. The person by whom, in whose name or on whose behalf a contract
of carriage of goods has been concluded with a carrier or any party by whom, in whose name
or on whose behalf the goods are actually delivered to the carrier in relation to the contract of
carriage.
Consolidate

To group and stuff several shipments together in one container.

Consortium

A form of co-operation between two or more carriers to operate in a particular trade.

Container bolster

A container floor without sides or end walls which does not have the ISO corner fittings and is
generally used for Ro/Ro operations.
Container chassis

A vehicle specially built for the purpose of transporting a container so that when the container
and chassis are assembled, the complete unit serves as a road trailer.
Container depot

Storage area for empty containers.

CFS Container freight station

A facility at which (export) LCL cargo is received for loading (stuffing) into containers or at which
(import) LCL cargo is unloaded (stripped) from containers and delivered.
Container head

Refers to the end opposite to the doors. Also known as the container front or bulkhead.
Container lift truck

Container terminal equipment used to lift containers. Rubber-tyred vehicle powered by a diesel
or hybrid diesel-electric engine, using a telescopic lifting frame in front of the vehicle to lift fully
loaded containers. Containers are lifted vertically using the side apertures of the top corner
castings.
Container load plan

A list of items loaded in a specific container and, where appropriate, their sequence of loading.
Container load

A consignment which fully occupies the internal capacity of one container or reaches the
maximum payload for that particular unit.

298 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Container manifest

The document specifying the contents of freight containers or other transport units, prepared
by the party responsible for their loading into the container or unit.
Container moves

The number of actions performed by one container crane during a given period.
Container number

Identification number of a container, consisting of a prefix, serial number and check digit.
Container part load

A consignment which neither occupies the full capacity of a container nor equals the maximum
payload and will, therefore, allow the addition of other part loads.
Container platform

A container floor without sides or walls, which can be loaded by a spreader and is used for Lo-Lo
operations.
Container pool

Stock of containers used by several container carriers and/or leasing companies.

Container Safety Convention

International convention for safe containers 1972.

Container service charges

Charges to be paid by cargo interests according to the agreed tariff.

Container yard

Location at container terminal where containers are stored temporarily and which links the
waterside and landside operations. Also known as a storage area.
Container

An item of equipment as defined by the Convention of Safe Containers and International

Organisation for Standardization (ISO) to be used for transport purposes.
Controlled atmosphere

Can be used in addition to temperature control to prolong the storage life of fruit.
Convention International concernant le transport des Marchandises par chemin de fer (CIM)

International agreement between 19 European railway companies setting out the conditions for
international railway transport of goods and the liabilities of the carrier.
Convention relative au contrat de transport international de Marchandise par Route (CMR)

The Convention for the international carriage of goods by road, setting out the conditions of
carriage and the liabilities of the carrier.
Converter dolly

An auxiliary undercarriage assembly consisting of a chassis, fifth wheel and towbar used to
convert a semi-trailer or a container chassis into a full trailer.
Corner fitting

A corner fitting is a fixture consisting of standard apertures and faces which provide a common
interface for handling and securing containers.
Corner post

Vertical structural posts at either side of containers end frame joining a top and a bottom corner
fitting and thereby forming a corner structure.
Corrugated container

A container with corrugated walls and ends for added strength.

CSC plate

Refers to the plate affixed to the door of a container recording the containers serial number,
technical data (MGW, tare, payload etc.), as well as information on its manufacture, owner and
the date of last CSC inspection.
Curbside

The side of the container/chassis nearest to the curb when the container/chassis is on the
road driving on the right-hand side; i.e. the right hand side when travelling in the USA. and the
European continent. Opposite to roadside.
Customs seal protection cover

Rain cover fastened over door handle retainer to which the customs seal is affixed.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 299

Customs seal retainer

Retainer to which customs seal is affixed, usually positioned by the door handle on inner bar of
closure door.
Customs

The department within the Civil Service that deals with the levying of duties and taxes on
imported goods from foreign countries and the control of the export and import of goods, e.g.
quotas, prohibited goods etc.
Dangerous Goods Declaration

Document issued by a consignor in accordance with applicable conventions or regulations,

describing hazardous goods or material for transport purposes, and stating that the latter have
been packed and labelled in accordance with the provisions of the relevant conventions or
regulations.
Dangerous goods

Goods which must be considered dangerous if the transport of such goods might cause harm,
risk, peril, or other danger to people, the environment, equipment or any other property
whatsoever.
Data plate

A plate affixed to a container giving details of gross and tare weights and the external
dimensions of the container.
Deadfreight

Slots paid for but not used.

Deadload

The difference between the actual and calculated ships draft.

DWT Deadweight

The total weight of cargo, cargo equipment, bunkers, provisions, water, stores and spuare
parts which a vessel can lift when loaded to her maximum draught as applicable under the
circumstances. The deadweight is expressed in tonnes.
Decal

Pressure sensitive label printed with the appropriate numbering, letters or symbols for
identification purposes.
Demurrage

Fees charged when containers are left inside the terminal for longer than the agreed free days,
and applies to all containers that remain at the terminal.
Depot

The place designated by the carrier where empty containers are kept in stock and received from
or delivered to the container operators or merchants.
Design gross weight

The weight rating on which the structural design of the container is based, and is to be equal to
or greater than the maximum gross weight.
Design load factor

Takes into account, insofar as practicable, the static and dynamic loads and other applicable
considerations.
Design load

The minimum statically applied load which the container is designed to withstand.
Detention

Fees charged when containers are held outside the terminal longer than the agreed free time.
All units will continue to incur a daily charge while in the custody of the consignee until returned
to the shipping line.
Devanning

Sometimes used for the process of unpacking a container.

Direct interchange

Transfer of leased (container) equipment from one lessee to another.

Disbursement

Sums paid by a ships agent at a port and recovered from the carrier.
Dispatch bays

The point from which containers are physically loaded or unloaded.

300 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Displacement

The weight of the water displaced by the vessel. The displacement of the vessel on her light
draft represents the weight of the vessel ready for use including stores etc.
Dispositioning

All activities relating to the inland movement of empty and/or full containers.
Distribution

Activities which ensure the availability of goods in customers desired quality, quantity, place
and time.
Dock leveller

A device used to span the difference in level between the loading bank and the container floor.
It also bridges the gap between the bank and the container.
Dolly

A set of wheels placed under the front of a container to provide support when the unit is
disconnected.
Door-to-door transport

The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises of the consignee.
Known as house-to-house in Europe or point-to-point in the US.
Double stack train

Railway wagons, usually a block train, on which containers can be stacked two-high.
Draft

Also referred to as draught. The draft of a vessel is the vertical distance between the waterline
and the underside of the keel of the vessel. During the construction of a vessel the marks
showing the draft are welded on each side of the vessel near the stem, the stern and amidships.
Drayage

Road transportation between a railway terminal and the stuffing/stripping place.

Dricon

A chemical used in the treatment of timber against wood-boring insects.

Drop off charge

Charge made by the container owner and/or terminal operators for delivery of a leased, or pool
container into depot stock.
Dry port

An inland terminal which is directly linked to a maritime port. )

Dual trolley system

A dual trolley gantry crane with a manned main trolley which moves the container from the
vessel on to a platform and an automatic trolley which moves the container from the platform to
the quay (or in reverse).
Dunnage

Stowage material, mainly timber or boards, used to prevent damage to cargo during carriage or
to spread the load.
Duty free zone

An area where goods or cargo can be stored without paying import customs duties, awaiting
further transportation or manufacturing.
EDI link

Connection between customer and carrier, allowing electronic data interchange (EDI).
EDI Electronic Data Interchange

The electronic transfer of structured data, by agreed standards from applications on the
computer of one party to the applications on the computer of another party.
End load

The end load is the combined static and dynamic load imposed by the cargo on the container
walls or doors, or both, which are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the container.
EDR Equipment Damage Report

Written statement covering damage to the equipment, based on a physical inspection.

EIR Equipment Interchange Receipt

Physical inspection and transfer receipt.

ETA Estimated Time of Arrival

The expected date and time of arrival in a given port.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 301

ETD Estimated Time of Departure

The expected date and time of departure from a given port.

Fairway

A navigable channel for vessels, often the regular or prescribed track a vessel will follow to avoid
hazards.
Feeder ship

A container vessel used in coastal trade serving ports where deep-sea containerships do not
call.
Feeder

A vessel normally used for local or coastal transport, for the carriage of cargo and/or containers,
to and from ports not scheduled to be called by the larger oceangoing vessel, directly
connecting these ports to the oceangoing vessel.
Fetch

The horizontal distance over which wind blows from one constant direction.
Fifth wheel

A device used to connect a truck tractor to a chassis in order to permit articulation between
the units. It usually consists of a trunnion plate and latching mechanism mounted on the truck
tractor.
Fish plate

A plate which is welded or bolted across the joint of two connecting members in order to
provide structural continuity at the joint.
Flash point

The lowest temperature at which a product or substance produces enough vapour to form a
flammable mixture with air.
Flat bed trailer

A wheeled trailer or a semi-trailer with a flat cargo carrying surface or deck but without any
superstructure.
Flat rack container

A container with two end walls and open sides. Synonym: flat.
Flat

A container with two end walls and open sides. Synonym: flat rack container.
Flat-nose truck

Body style of truck that has a vertical front or flat face, with the cab of the truck sitting above (or
forward of) the front axle, offering greater manoeuvrability and a better overview for the driver.
This contrasts with a conventional truck, where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. Also
called a cabover.
Floor load

The combined static and dynamic load imposed on the floor by the cargo and by the wheels of
the handling equipment.
Floor loading

The static and dynamic loads imposed on the floor by the payload and the wheels of the
handling equipment.
Footprint

The area of the tyre which comes into contact with the surface on which it is operating under a
given load, measured in square inches. For the purposes of container floor design, the footprint
of a pneumatic and cushion tyre is estimated at 22 square inches.
Fork lift truck

Container terminal equipment used to lift containers. Rubber-tyred vehicle powered by a diesel
or hybrid diesel-electric engine, used to lift fully loaded containers. Containers are lifted by
inserting the prongs into the forklift pockets in the containers base frame.
Fork pockets

Openings or recesses in a side of a container for insertion of the forks of a fork lift truck.
FEU Forty foot equivalent unit

Unit of measurement equivalent to one forty foot container.

302 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Forwarder

The party arranging the carriage of goods including connected services and/or associated
formalities on behalf of a shipper or consignee.
Forwarding instruction

Document issued to a freight forwarder, giving instructions to the forwarder for the forwarding
of the goods described therein.
Franchise

The amount which will have to be borne by the assured in a claim for damage.
Free In and Out

Transport condition denoting that the freight rate excludes the costs of loading and discharging
and, if appropriate, stowage and lashing.
Freeboard of a vessel

Vertical distance from the main deck to the surface of the water measured at the middle of the
vessels length.
Freight collect

Freight and charges to be paid by the consignee.

Freight prepaid

Acknowledgement of payment of freight by shipper.

Freight

The amount of money due for the carriage of goods and payable either in advance or upon
delivery.
Front pin locking device

A container securing device that, when locked, prevents the container from disengaging from
the chassis.
FCL Full container load

A container stuffed or stripped under risk and for account of the shipper and/or the consignee.
Full tilt container

A container with full sides and roof, occasionally also the ends, covered by tarpaulin, drop sides
notwithstanding.
Fumigation

Exposing the insides of a container to toxic gas, in line with regulations, to prevent certain
parasites and bacteria from entering a country.
Gantry crane

A crane or hoisting machine mounted on a frame or structure spanning an intervening

space, which often travels on rails. Designed for loading / discharging containers onto / from
containerships.
Garments on hangers

Garments prepacked onto hangers and hung from rails during transit, reducing any handling of
the garments.
Gen-set

Motor generator set as power source for, e.g. thermal containers.

Gooseneck

The upper level of the front of the chassis and the structure which connect the chassis to the
lower level. The gooseneck rails normally fit into the tunnel recess of containers constructed for
this purpose.
GRT Gross Tonnage

The measure of the overall size of a vessel determined in accordance with the provisions of
the International convention on tonnage measurement of ships 1969, and usually expressed in
registered tons.
GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating

The structural capacity of a chassis supported at the kingpin and axles with the load uniformly
distributed along its length. In some countries other than the United States this includes the
weight of the tractor.
Gross weight

The weight of a chassis and a container together with the weight of its entire contents.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 303

Groupage

The collection of several small consignments and the formation of one large shipment from
these smaller consignments.
Hard-top container

A closed container with a roof that opens or lifts off.

HS Harmonised System

A numeric multipurpose system, developed through customs co-operation.

Hatch cover

Means of closing the hatchway of a vessel.

Haulage

The inland carriage of cargo or containers by truck between named locations/points.

Header bar

A beam or bar, usually above the end doors of an open-top container, which may be swung to
one side or removed to improve access.
Heave

Linear motion: vertical, or up and down movement of a vessel.

Hinterland

The inland area served by a port.

Hogged

The loaded condition of a vessel in such a way that the centre of the vessel is slightly raised arching upwards at the centre.
Hold

The space below the deck of a vessel, used to carry cargo.

Home port

The vessels the port of registration.

Horn

A structural part on the front of a chassis that serves as a gathering device for guiding a
container into its proper place on the chassis for securing. In transit, the horn provides a
mechanical stop to prevent forward movement of the container with respect to the chassis. The
horn frequently serves as a mounting place for the connection box. Also known as container
guide or stop.
House Bill

A bill of lading issued by a groupage/consolidating agent to his customers for goods

consolidated into one container, for which the carrier issues a bill of lading to the agent.
House-to-house transport

Term used in Europe. The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises
of the consignee. Also termed door-to-door, or point-to-point (US).
House-to-pier

A container packed inland but unpacked at the pier of the destination port.
Hub

Major ports where containers are transferred between oceangoing containerships and feeders.
Hull girder theory

Theory which thinks of a vessels hull as a floating single steel beam. Applies to strength load
calculations.
Hull

Outer shell of a vessel, made of steel plates or other suitable material to keep water on the
outside of the vessel.
Husbanding

Taking care of a vessels non cargo related operations as instructed by the master or owner of
the vessel.
Idle time

The amount of ineffective time whereby the available resources are not used, e.g. a container in
a yard.

304 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Importer

The party responsible for the import of goods. For customs purposes, it is the party who makes,
or on whose behalf an agent makes, an important declaration. This party may be the party who
is entitled to possession of the goods or to whom the goods are consigned.
In transit

The status of goods or persons between the outward customs clearance and inward customs
clearance.
Incoterms

Provides internationally accepted definitions and rules of interpretation for most common
commercial terms. First published by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936, and have
been regularly updated since that time.
Indemnification

Compensation for loss, damage and/or expenses incurred.

Infrastructure

System of roads, waterways, airfields, ports and/or telecommunication networks.

ICD Inland clearance depot

A common-user inland facility with public authority status, equipped with fixed installations and
offering services for the handling and temporary storage of goods, including containers, carried
under customs transit by any applicable mode of inland surface transport, and placed under
customs control to clear goods for home use, warehousing, temporary admission, re-export,
temporary storage for onward transit, and outright export.
Inland Container Depot

A common-user facility with public authority status equipped with fixed installations and offering
services for the handling and temporary storage of import/export laden and empty containers
carried under customs transit by any applicable mode of transport and placed under customs
control. All the activities related to clearance of goods for home use, warehousing, temporary
admissions, re-expert, temporary storage for onward transit and outright transport, and
transhipment take place from such facilities.
Inland freight terminal

Any facility, other than a port or an airport, operated on a common-user basis, at which cargo in
international trade is received or dispatched.
Inland port

Located inland, generally far from seaport terminals; and supplies the region with an intermodal
terminal offering value-added services or a merging point for different modes of traffic involved
in distributing merchandise that comes from ports.
Inland Waterways Bill of Lading

Document made out to a named person, to order or to bearer, signed by the carrier and handed
to the sender after receipt of goods to be carried by inland waterways craft.
Insulated container

A container with insulated walls, roof, floor, and doors which reduce the effect of external
temperature on the cargo without the use of cooling and/or heating devices.
Interface

The point at which two systems meet, i.e. road transport and terminal terminal and ship.
Intermodal freight centre

A combination of financially independent freight and supplementary service companies located

within an area where a change of transport units between traffic modes can take place.
Intermodal transport

The movement of goods (containers) in one loading unit or vehicle using several modes of
transport without need for handling of the goods themselves when changing transport mode.
IACS International Association of Classification Societies

An organisation where the major classification societies are members, and whose principal aim is
the improvement of safety at sea standards.
ICS International Chamber of Shipping

A voluntary organisation consisting of national shipowners associations with the objective of

promoting the interests of its members, primarily within the technical and legal areas of shipping
operations.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 305

ILO International Labour Organisation

A United Nations agency, dealing with employment rights and working conditions both at sea
and in ports.
IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code

Classification of dangerous goods as defined by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO)

and in compliance with international legal requirements.
IMO International Maritime Organization

A United Nations agency concerned with safety at sea. Its work includes codes, conventions
and rules relating to the tonnage measurement of vessels, load lines, pollution and the carriage
of dangerous goods. Previously the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization
(IMCO).
ISO International Organisation for Standardization

A world-wide federation of national standards institutes (ISO member bodies).

Itinerary

The route undertaken by a transport carrier, indicated by the names of the ports of call or other
locations, often including estimated arrival and departure dates.
Joinable container

A container whose dimensions and specifications are fixed to permit the loading of the
containers onto a container flat enabling the complete unit to be handled as one ISO container.
Jones Act

Merchant Marine Act of 1920. US federal rule that supports the promotion and maintenance of
the American merchant marine. Regulates, amongst others, matters of maritime commerce in US
waters and between US ports.
Keel

Longitudinal girder at the lowest point of a vessel from which the framework is built.
King pin

The coupling pin, welded or bolted in the centre of the front underside of a semi-trailer chassis,
which joins it to the fifth wheel of the towing tractor or dolly converter.
Land bridge

Overland transit between two ocean passages during a containers journey from starting point
to destination.
Landing gear

Devices, generally adjustable in height, used to support the front end of a chassis in an
approximately level position when disconnected from the towing vehicle. Also known as
supports.
Landing legs

Vertically adjustable supporting legs on landing gear to which sandshoes or wheels are
attached.
Landside area

Location at a container terminal where containers are delivered or leave the terminal by road, rail
or barge.
Latticed-sided

An open or closed container with at least one side consisting of elements with openings
between them.
LCL Less than Container Load

An LCL container is a container in which multiple consignments or parts of consignments are

shipped, and where the carrier is responsible for packing and/or unpacking the container.
Lessee

The party to whom the possession of property has been transferred for a period of time in return
for rental payments.
Liner conference

Also referred to as a conference. A group of two or more vessel-operating carriers, which

provides regular services for the carriage of cargo along a particular trade route and which has
an agreement or arrangement to operate under uniform and common freight rates and any
other agreed conditions (e.g. FEFC = Far Eastern Freight Conference).

306 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

LIFO Liner In Free Out

Transport condition denoting that the freight rate is exclusive of the sea carriage and the cost
of loading, the latter in accordance with the custom of the port. It also excludes the cost of
discharging.
Liner terms

Condition of carriage stating that costs for loading and unloading are borne by the carrier
subject to the custom of the port concerned.
Loading list

List of containers to be loaded and discharged, containing information such as unique container
identification numbers, weight, and other references such as IMO class and if necessary, the
required setting temperature. The list is provided by the local ships agent of each slot charterer
to the terminal operator.
Loadmaster

A load calculator designed for a specific vessel and approved by its classification society for
calculation of the vessels stability.
Locating pins

Devices for facilitating the positioning and lashing of containers. The cones are inserted into the
bottom castings of the container. Synonym: cones.
Logistic centre/freight village

Group of independent companies and bodies involved with freight transport (for example
freight forwarders, shippers, transport operators, customs) and accompanying services (for
example storage, maintenance and repair), including at least a terminal.
Logistics

The planning, execution and control of the movement and placement of people and/or goods,
and the support required to perform those tasks.
Mafi trailer

German brand name of a roll trailer used for RoRo purposes.

Malaccamax

Term used by naval architects when referring to the largest ship capable of passing through the
25 metre deep Strait of Malacca.
Maximum gross weight

R or rating is the maximum permissible combined mass of the container and its cargo for which
the container ihas beens tested and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds.
Merchant haulage

Inland transport of cargo in containers arranged by the merchant.

MTO / Carrier Multimodal Transport Operator / Carrier

The party on whose behalf the transport document or any document evidencing a contract
of multimodal carriage of goods is issued and who is responsible for the carriage of goods
pursuant to the contract of carriage.
Multimodal transport

The carriage of goods (containers) by at least two different modes of transport.

Net tonnage

The measure of the useful capacity of a vessel determined in accordance with the provisions of
the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Vessels 1969.
Net weight

The weight of goods, excluding all packaging.

NVOCC Non Vessel Operating Common Carrier

A party who undertakes to carry goods and issues in his own name a bill of lading for such
carriage, without using own means of transport.
Notice of Readiness

Written document or telex issued by the master of a vessel to the charterers advising them the
when a vessel is ready to load or discharge.
Notify Address

Address of the party other than the consignee to be advised of the arrival of the goods.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 307

On-carriage

The carriage of goods (containers) by any mode of transport after discharge from the ocean
going vessel (the main means of transport) at the port (place) of discharge to the place of
delivery.
Open-sided container

Container with wire-mesh frames at the sides covered by a tarpaulin which can be rolled up to
give unrestricted access to the sides of the container for loading or discharging.
Open-top container

A freight container similar in all respects to a general purpose container except that it has no
rigid roof, but may have a flexible and movable or removable cover (called a tilt).
OOG cargo Out-of-gauge cargo

Cargo of a size exceeding the standard dimensions of a 20 or 40 foot container, e.g. overlength,
overwidth, overheight, or a combination thereof.
Packing list

Document specifying the contents of each individual package.

Pallet

A platform on which goods can be stacked in order to facilitate movement by a fork lift or sling.
Panamax size

The maximum measurements and dimensions of a vessel able to go through the Panama Canal.
Parametric rolling motion

Large unstable rolling motion suddenly occurring in head or stern seas.

Payload (container)

The maximum weight of cargo that can be loaded in a container (payload = MGW tare)
Payload

P or payload is the difference between R and T and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds.
Payment against documents

Instructions given by a seller to his bank to the effect that the buyer may collect the document
necessary to obtain delivery of the goods only upon payment of the invoice, i.e. a documentary
collection.
Pendulum motion control

Equipment found in modern gantry cranes which eliminates the effects of wind and container
imbalance.
Piggyback

The carriage of road vehicles and trailers on railway wagons.

Pilferage

Theft of goods from a ships hold, container, cargo shed or warehouse.

Pitch

Rotational motion: movement along the transverse axis, causing the bow and stern of the ship to
move up and down.
Place of acceptance

The location where a consignment (shipment) is received by the carrier from the shipper, i.e.
the place where the carriers liability for the goods commences. Also referred to as the place of
receipt.
Place of delivery

The location where a consignment (shipment) is delivered to the consignee, i.e. the place where
the carriers liability for the goods ends.
Place of receipt

The location where a consignment (shipment) is received by the carrier from the shipper, i.e.
the place where the carriers liability for the goods commences. Also referred to as the place of
acceptance.
Plymetal

Panel construction consisting of a plywood core and galvanised steel or aluminium facing.
Point-to-point transport (US)

The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises of the consignee.
Known as house-to-house in Europe, or door-to-door.

308 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Poop

Aft part of a vessel where the steering engine is located.

Portainer (crane)

A port (vessel) container gantry crane.

Pounding

Also referred to as bottom slamming: the ships bottom suffering a severe impact upon
re-entering after it emerging from the water.
Precarriage

The carriage of goods (containers) by any mode of transport from the place of receipt to the port
(place) of loading onto the oceangoing vessel.
Precarrier

The carrier used to move the goods prior to the main transport.
Precision vehicle positioning

Equipment on modern gantry cranes used to align the vehicles on the quay in an optimal
position for loading or unloading.
Prefix

Container alpha prefix which forms part of the containers identification number. The 4 letters
that proceed the 6-digit serial number and check digit on a container.
Preliminary stowage plan

Stowage plan produced by the terminal planner based on the pre-stowage plan, the inbound
stowage plan from the previous port of call, and the loading list with the containers to be
loaded. Purpose of the preliminary stowage plan is to assign container numbers to positions on
board the vessel by adhering to general principles of stowage. The preliminary stowage plan is
compiled shortly before the vessels arrival.
Pre-shipment inspection

Goods are surveyed by an independent surveyor (the inspection company) before shipment
for the purpose of determining the quantity and/or quality of the goods and for phytosanitary,
sanitary and veterinary controls.
Pre-stowage plan

Prepared by the terminals planning centre on the basis of booking information received to
ensure that all containers can be carried on board in a safe manner and that the cargo is loaded
in such a way as to avoid re-stows in future ports of call.
Pre-trip inspection

Technical inspection of reefer containers prior to positioning for stuffing.

Process of quay planning

Booking an intended quay position and allocating cranes to a vessel, taking into account the
vessels technical requirements and the restrictions at the berthing place, such as air draught,
water draught, outreach of the crane, etc.
Protection and indemnity (P&I) association

An association of shipowners providing insurance protection against liabilities incurred by

carriers on a mutual basis.
Prototype

A representative unit of a series of identical containers built under conditions which duplicate,
insofar as is practicable, the conditions under which all of the containers in the series are to be
manufactured.
Racking force

One of three strength criteria for containers: force that changes the shape of a container from a
rectangle to a parallelogram, ultimately folding it flat.
Rails

Main horizontal frame components attached to the corner fittings and corner posts at top and
bottom of a container.
Rating

A crew member who is not an officer.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 309

Reach stacker

Also called a top picker. Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Rubbertyred vehicle powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid diesel-electric engine, and used to lift
fully loaded containers. A telescopic arm with a spreader device attached to the top lifts the
container by the top corner castings. Can stack containers five tiers high.
Reconditioning

All activities connected with restoring and/or adjusting the packaging of a product in such a
manner that it can be presented to the customer in the required form.
Reefer cargo

Cargo requiring temperature control during the carriage.

Reefer container

A thermal container with refrigerating appliances (mechanical compressor unit, absorption unit,
etc.) to control the temperature of cargo.
Reference mass

The mass which is to be multiplied by the design load factor to obtain the design load.
Regroupage

The process of splitting up shipments into various consignments (degroupage) and combining
these small consignments into other shipments (groupage).
Road carrier

The party undertaking the transport by road of goods from one point to another as set out in the
contract (also known as a haulier).
Roadside

The side of the container/chassis furthest away from the curb when driving on the road on the
right-hand side. Opposite to curbside.
Roll trailer

Special trailer for terminal haulage and stowage on board Roll-on Roll-off vessels. Also known as
a Mafi trailer.
Roll

Rotational motion: movement along the longitudinal axis of the ship, causing the port and
starboard sides to move up and down.
RORO Roll-on Roll-off

Loading and discharging a vessel whereby the cargo is driven on and off the vessel by means of
a ramp.
Roof bows

Transverse components attached to the containers top side rails, supporting the roof.
Roof load

The combined static and dynamic load imposed on the roof of a container.
Roof reinforcement plate

An additional plate attached to the container roof, adjacent to the top corner fittings, providing
additional roof protection from handling equipment.
Rotation

The sequence in which a vessel calls at the ports on her itinerary.

Row

A vertical division of a vessel from starboard to port side, used as a part of the indication of a
stowage place for containers. The numbers run from midships to both sides.
Russian stow

Stowage where a 40 foot container is placed on top of two 20 foot containers. The basic
principle behind this type of stowage is that containers can only be stacked with the ISO corner
castings resting on top of one another.
SWL Safe working load

The maximum load any lifting appliance can handle.

STC Said to contain

Term used in a bill of lading to indicate that the carrier is unaware of the nature or quantity of the
contents of, e.g. a container, carton, crate, container or bundle and is relying on the description
furnished by the shipper.

310 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Seal

A device used on containers, locker, trucks or lorries to prove to the relevant parties that they
have remained closed during transport.
Semitrailer

A vehicle without motor power and with one or more axles designed to be drawn by a truck
tractor and constructed in such a way that a portion of its weight and that of its load rest upon,
e.g. the fifth wheel of the towing vehicle.
Service bill

A contract of carriage issued by one carrier to another carrier for documentary and internal
control purposes only.
Setting/air delivery temperature

Content of the bill of lading stating the air supply temperature to the container.
Shear forces

Vertical forces acting along the length of a ship which are locally not balanced with the overall
buoyancy force acting on the exterior of the ships hull, and which will cause the hull girder to
shear.
Ship operator

A ship operator is either the shipowner or the (legal) person responsible for the management of
the vessel and its crew.
Shipowner

The (legal) person officially registered as such in the vessels certificate of registry.
Shipment (USA)

Also referred to as consignment. An identifiable number of pieces of goods (available to be)

transported from one consignor to one consignee via one or more modes of transport and listed
in one single transport document.
Shipper

Also referred to as consignor. The merchant (person) by whom, in whose name or on whose
behalf a contract of the carriage of goods has been concluded with a carrier or any party by
whom, in whose name or on whose behalf the goods are actually delivered to the carrier in
relation to the contract of carriage.
Shipping line booking system

System used to book cargo shipments finding the best route for each shipment to its final
destination. Input supplied by shipper and shipping lines agency.
Shipping marks

Marks shown on individual packages in order to identify them and to enable the cargo to be
checked against transport documents.
Side load

The combined static and dynamic load imposed by the cargo on the containers walls or doors,
or both, which is perpendicular to the transverse axis of the container.
Side loader

A lift truck with the lifting equipment for handling containers operating to one side.
Significant wave height

Statistical term, indicative of a certain range of wave heights which is an average of the largest
waves, meaning that individual waves may be higher.
Single trolley system

System whereby a single trolley crane transports the container in one move from its stowage
position on board to the quay or on to a terminal vehicle.
Skeletal trailer

Road trailer consisting of a frame and wheels, specially designed to carry containers.
Slamming

A ships hull impacting heavily with the water surface.

Slot charterer

A charter where the shipowner agrees to place a certain number of container slots
(TEU and / or FEU) at the charterers disposal.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 311

Slot

The amount of space on board a vessel required by one container, mainly used for administrative
purposes.
Snake loading

Loading a product into a container in the sequence that the goods will be unloaded and stored
at its destination.
Specified dimensions

The length, width, and height of a container which are the maximum permissible external
dimensions.
Spreader

- Device used for lifting containers and unitised cargo.

- Beam or frame that holds the slings vertical when hoisting a load, to prevent damage to the
cargo.
Springing

Strong hull girder vibration due to oscillating wave loads.

Stack car

Railroad car designed to carry containers used in intermodal freight transport. Also known as a
well car or double-stack car.
Stack

An identifiable number of containers stowed in an orderly way in one specified place at an

(ocean) terminal, container freight station, container yard or depot.
Stacking cone

A fitting piece between two containers located at each corner, to provide sideways restraint
only.
Staggers Rail Act

Deregulation law covering rail transport in the US (1980), providing rail operators with the
possibility of establishing their own rates and contracts with shippers. The Act was named after
its sponsor, Harley O. Staggers.
Stem

The foremost part of a vessel.

Stern slamming

The underside of the vessels stern impacting with the water surface.
Stern

The aftermost part of a vessel.

Stevedore

A party running a business involved in the loading, stowing and discharging of vessels.
Still water bending moment

Result of an unevenness in the weight distribution acting downwards and the buoyancy force
distribution acting upwards, causing the hull girder to bend.
Storage area

Location at a container terminal where containers are stored temporarily and which links
waterside and landside operations. Also called container yard.
Storage on chassis

Terminal storage system where containers are placed on a chassis consisting of a simple steel
frame resting on supporting legs, with guides to allow easy and correct positioning of the
container. Particularly popular in the US.
Stowage factor

Ratio of a cargos cubic measurement to its weight, expressed in cubic feet to the tonne or cubic
metres to the tonne, used to determine the total quantity of cargo which can be loaded in a
certain space.
Stowage

The placing and securing of cargo or containers on board a vessel, or of cargo in a container.
Straddle carrier

Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Straddle carriers pick and carry
containers while straddling their load and connecting to the top lifting points of the container
using a container spreader. Can stack containers up to four tiers high.

312 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Straddle crane

A crane, usually running on rails and spanning an open area such as rail tracks, roadways or
container yards.
Stripping

A term sometimes used for unpacking a container.

Stuffing

A term sometimes used for packing a container.

Surf riding

Acceleration of a ship located on the steep forefront of a high wave in following and quartering
seas.
Surge

Linear motion: longitudinal (fore to aft) movement.

Swap body

Separate unit without wheels used to carry cargo by road, sometimes equipped with legs and
used to carry intermodal cargo within Europe.
Sway

Linear motion: lateral (side to side) movement.

Synchronous rolling motion

Large rolling motions of a ship, occurring when its natural rolling period coincides with the wave
encounter period in following and quartering seas.
Tandem lift

The lifting of two (or three) containers side by side.

Tank container

A tank, usually surrounded by a framework with the overall dimensions of a container for the
transport of liquids or gasses in bulk.
Tare mass of container:

Mass of an empty container including all its fittings and appliances associated with that
particular type of container in its normal operating condition. Also referred to as tare weight of
container.
Tare weight of container

Mass of an empty container including all its fittings and appliances associated with that
particular type of container in its normal operating condition. Also referred to as tare mass of
container.
Tare weight

The weight of a chassis without the container.

Tare

T or tare is the mass of the empty container, including its normal complement of fittings,
equipment and devices, and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds.
Terminal planner

Vessel planner at the terminals planning department responsible for preparing the preliminary
stowage plan and the division of work between the gantry cranes and other related equipment.
Central point of contact for all planning activities during the vessels stay at the terminal.
Terminal

A location at either end of a transportation line which includes servicing and handling facilities.
Tier

A horizontal division of a vessel from hold bottom to top. The numbers run from hold bottom
to deck and from deck upwards and are used as a part of the indication of a stowage place for
containers.
TCT Timber component treated

The treatment of all exposed wood components in containers to protect them from insect
infestation is a requirement of the Commonwealth of Australia. Permanent protection is usually
accomplished by treatment with approved preservatives. A list of approved preservatives and
the minimum retention requirement can be found in Quarantine Aspects and Procedures issued
by the Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 313

Top picker

Also called a reach stacker. Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Rubbertyred vehicle powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid diesel-electric engine, used to lift fully
loaded containers. A telescopic arm with a spreader device attached to the top lifts the
container by the top corner castings. Can stack containers five tiers high.
Torsional stresses

Forces twisting the ships hull along the longitudinal centre line.
Track & trace

The pro-active tracking of the product along the supply chain, and the flow of paper information
relating to the other.
TOFC Trailer on flat car

Carriage of piggyback highway trailers on specially equipped railway wagons.

Trailer

A vehicle without engine power, designed for the carriage of cargo and to be towed by a motor
vehicle.
Tramp vessel

A vessel not operating on a regular schedule.

Trans Siberian Landbridge

Overland route from Europe to the Asia via the Trans Siberian Railway (TSR).
Transhipment

A shipment under one bill of lading, whereby sea (ocean) transport is divided into two or more
parts. The port where the sea (ocean) transport is divided is the transhipment port.
Transit cargo

Cargo located between outward customs clearance and inward customs clearance.
TIR Transport International by Road

A set of rules developed following a customs convention to facilitate the international European
transport by road with minimal interventions under cover of TIR carnets.
Truck tractor

A motor vehicle used for pulling a chassis or semitrailer which carries part of the chassis weight
and load.
Tugmaster

Brand name of tractor units used in ports to pull trailers. They are equipped with a fifth wheel or
a gooseneck type of coupling.
TEU Twenty foot Equivalent Unit

Unit of measurement equivalent to one 20-foot container.

Twin lift

The lifting of two 20-foot containers at the same time in a 40-foot spreader.
Twistlock

A securing device consisting of a rotatable head and fixed collar that is inserted into the bottom
aperture of a bottom corner fitting to prevent the disengagement of the container from the
chassis when the rotatable head is in the locked position.
Undercarriage

Consists of the complete subframe suspension, with one or more axles which may be
interconnected, together with wheels, tires and brakes.
UN / ECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

The UN/ECE is one of a number of Economic and Social Commissions established by the
General Assembly of the United Nations. Despite its name it embraces both Europe and North
America. The aim is to advance the economic development of Europe and associated countries
through trade facilitation and common agreements.
Vanning

An American term sometimes used for packing a container.

Vendee

Buyer.
Vendor

Seller.

314 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Ventilated container

A container with openings in the side or end walls to allow for the ingress of outside air when the
doors are shut.

ABBREVIATIONS 315

Abbreviations

Vertical compression forces

One of the three strength criteria for containers: force acting vertically on the compression side
of a container through the corner posts.
Vertical tandem lift

The lifting of two containers locked one above the other in one operation.
Vertical tension forces

One of the three strength criteria of containers: force acting on the container through the
corner posts, causing a container to tip or pull out of its corner fittings and/or from the bottom
foundation on the hatch covers.
Waterside area

Location at container terminal with quay wall, apron and cranes where ships and barges are
discharged and loaded.
Wave height

Distance measured from the trough to the crest of a wave.

Wave length

Distance between successive wave crests or troughs.

Wave period

The time that elapses between the passing of successive wave crests or troughs.
Wave steepness

The slope determined by the ratio between wave height and wave length.
Waybill

Non-negotiable document evidencing the contract for the transport of cargo.

Well car

Railroad car designed to carry containers used in intermodal freight transport. Also known as a
stack car or double-stack car.
WWT Wind and water tight repair criteria

Criteria under which containers would literally be wind and water tight. This commonly used
criteria makes no reference to the quality of the understructure of the container and should
therefore not be considered as safe for the transport of cargo unless it was explicitly confirmed
that the containers meet the CSC.
Yard crane

Container terminal equipment used to stack containers, consisting of a steel portal frame, a
trolley and a spreader. The crane drives on either rubber tyres (TG rubber tyred gantry) or
moves on a rail system (RMG rail mounted gantry).
Yard

Fenced off, outdoor storage and repair area.

Yaw

Rotational motion: movement along the vessels vertical axis, causing the bow and stern to move
sideways.

ABS American Bureau of Shipping

ACEP Approved Continuous Examination

Programme
ACP Panama Canal Authority
ADR Accord europen relatif au transport
international des merchandises Dangereuses
par Route. (The European agreement
concerning the international carriage of
dangerous goods by road.)
AF Advance freight
AGV Automated guided vehicle
AGVS Automated guided vehicle system
AHR Antwerp-Hamburg range (of ports)
ALV Automated lifting vehicle
AND Agreement on the transport of
dangerous substances by inland waterway
ANSI American National Standards
ARMG Automated rail mounted gantry crane
(also referred to as ASC)
ARTG Automated rubber-tired gantry crane
ARTUBAR Articulated tug barge
ASA American Standards Association
ASC Automatic stacking crane (also referred to
as ARMG)
B/L Bill of lading
BIC Bureau International des Containers. Paris
based organisation that maintains the official
registry of alpha container prefixes used to
identify containers.
BSC British Shippers Council
BSI British Standards Institution
BV Bureau Veritas
CA Controlled atmosphere
CAD Cash against documents
CAF Currency adjustment factor
CCS China Classification Society
CCTV Closed-circuit television
CDIC Container damage inspection criteria
CDNI Convention on the treatment of waste
produced during inland navigation
CEN Comit Europen de Normalisation
CFO Container flow operation
CFS Container freight station
CIC Container inspection criteria
CIF Cost, insurance and freight
CIM Convention International concernant le
transport des Marchandises par chemin de
fer
CINS Cargo Incident Notification System (see
www.cinsnet.com)

CLNI Convention on the limitation of liability

in inland navigation on the Rhine and

elsewhere
CLP Container load plan
CMNI Convention on the contract for the
carriage of goods by inland waterway
CMR Convention relative au contrat de
transport international de Marchandise par
Route
COARRI Container arrival message
COC Carrier owned container. A container
owned or leased by a shipping line new or
used to transport goods by providing both
the container and the transportation service.
COC is the opposite of an SOC
CODECO Container departure confirmation
COFC Container on flat car
COG Centre of gravity
COPARN Container pre-arrival notice
COPRAR Container pre-arrival message
COREOR Container Release Order
CORTEN or COR-TEN is a registered trade
mark of the United States Steel Corporation.
Commonly referred to as CORTEN, this
type of steel is carbon enriched to make it
stronger (than mild steel) and more resistant
to corrosion
COTIF Convention Concerning International
Carriage by Rail (CIM/CIV)
COU Clip on unit
CRS Croatian Register of Shipping
CSC Container Safety Convention. The
1972 Convention for Safe Containers
to maintain a high level of safety of
human life in the transport and handling
of containers by providing generally
acceptable test procedures and related
strength requirements and to facilitate
the international transport of containers
by providing uniform international safety
regulations
CSM Cargo securing manual (IMO/SOLAS)
CSS Safe practice code for cargo stowage and
securing (IMO)
CTO Combined transport operator
CW Cargo-worthy certificate. Certificate
issued by a surveyor pursuant to an
inspection confirming a container is suitable
for transportation under TIT/UIC/CSC
CWE Cleared without examination (at
Customs)
CY Container yard

316 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

ABBREVIATIONS 317

DNV GL Classification society, result of

IACS International Association of Classification

NHTSA US National Highway Traffic Safety

TCT Timber component treatment.

merger between Det Norske Veritas and

Germanischer Lloyd, 2013
DPP Damage protection plan. Damage
protection offered by containers lessors who
are not technically allowed to offer insurance
which is a regulated market
DWT Deadweight
ECE Economic Commission for Europe (UN)
ECH Empty container handler (front loaders
capable of up to 9-high stacking ashore)
EDI Electronic data interchange
EDIFACT Electronic data interchange for
administration, commerce and transport
EDP Electronic data processing
EDR Equipment damage report
EIR Equipment interchange receipt.
Document established at the time a
container arrives in or leaves from a depot
that will serve to document the transfer
of responsibility. While not systematic,
most EIRs will record the verification of a
containers condition at the time of transfer
EMS Guide Emergency response procedures
for ships carrying dangerous goods
EMS Emergency medical service
EMS European modular system
EMSA European Maritime Safety Agency
ESN European shortsea network
ESPO European Sea Ports Organisation
ETA Estimated time of arrival
ETD Estimated time of departure
FAL Fully automatic lock
FCC Fully cellular containership
FCL Full container load
FCR Forwarders certificate of receipt
FEFC Far Eastern Freight Conference
FEU Forty-foot equivalent unit (2 TEU = 1 FEU)
FILO Free in liner out
FIO Free in and out
FOB Free on board
FOT Free on truck. Generally accepted
acronym (not an INCOTERM) that implies
that containers are delivered on to the truck
and implies that the seller is responsible for
the cost of loading the container on to the
truck.
FWC Fully-loaded weight and capacity
GA General average
GIWW Gulf intracoastal waterway
GL Germanischer Lloyd (Classification society)
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety
Service (Signal)
GRT Gross tonnage
GVWR Gross vehicle weight rating
HS Harmonised system

Societies
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
ICCO International Council of Containership
Operators
ICD Inland clearance depot
ICHCA International Cargo Handling
Coordination Association
ICS International Chamber of Shipping
IICL Institute of International Container
Lessors. Washington DC based organisation
which groups the largest container and
chassis leasing companies in the world
ILO International Labour Organization
IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous
Goods Code
IMGS International Medical Guide for Ships
IMO International Maritime Organization (UN)
INSA International Shipowners Association
IRS Indian Register of Shipping
ISM The International Safety Management
code (IMO)
ISO International Organization for
Standardization. International organisation
based in Geneva that works towards
harmonising worldwide technical standards
including those governing the construction
of shipping containers
ITF International Transport Workers
Federation
KR Korean Register of Shipping
L/C Letter of credit
LCL Less than container load
LCV Long combination vehicle, or road train.
There are several different arrangements:
B-double (20 + 40 or 20 + 20)
B-triple (20 + 20 + 40)
Double road train / pocket train (40 + 40)
AB-triple (40 + 20 + 40)
BAB Quad (20 + 40 + 20 + 40)
ABB Quad (40 + 20 + 20 + 40)
Triple road train (40 + 40 + 40)
2AB Quad (40 + 20 + 20 + 40)
Powertrain (40 + 40 + 40 + 20 + 40 + 40 + 40)
LIFO Liner in free out
LOC Letter of compliance
LR Lloyds Register
MFAG Medical First Aid Guide for use in
accidents involving dangerous goods
MH Merchant haulage
MOS Motorways of the sea
MSC Maritime Safety Committee
MTO Multimodal transport operator
MTS Multi trailer system
MTU Multi trailer unit

Administration
NK Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK)
NMB National Maritime Board
NVO(C)C Non vessel operating (common)
carrier
OH Over height
OHB Overhead bridge crane
OOG Out of gauge
OOGC Out of gauge cargo
OSHA US Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
P&I Association Protection and indemnity
association
P&I Protection and indemnity
PHA Port health authority
PLOD Place of delivery
PLOR Place of receipt
POD Port of discharge; place of delivery
POL Port of loading
PRS Polish Register of Shipping
PSI Pre-shipment inspection
PTI Pre-trip inspection
RAO Response amplitude operators
RHA Road Haulage Association
RID International Regulations concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods
by Rail
RINA Registro Italiano Navale
RMG Rail mounted gantry crane
RORO Roll-on roll-off
RS Russian Maritime Register of Shipping
RTG Rubber-tired gantry crane
SAT Semi-automatic twistlock
SC Straddle carrier
SCA Suez Canal Authority
SDR Special Drawing Rights
ShC Shuttle carrier
SLBS Shipping line booking system
SOC Shipper owned container. A container
owned or leased by the shipper new
or used to transport goods. SOC is by
opposition to COC.
SOLAS International Convention on the Safety
of Life At Sea
STC Said to contain
STS Ship-to-shore, for instance STS crane (a
type of quay crane)
SWL Safe working load
SWSF Still water shear forces

quarantine regulations established by the

Australian health ministry (AQIS = Australian
Quarantine and Inspection Service
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry). Includes detailed requirements for
the treatment of containers wooden floors
to avoid the proliferation of pests. Required
for the containers to be able to transit
through Australia
TEN-T Trans-European transport networks
TEU Twenty foot equivalent unit. Usually refers
to a standard (although could be special)
container of 20 feet in length. Commonly
used to express vessel capacity or
throughout at container factories and ports
TIF International transit by rail
TIR Transports Internationaux Routiers
(International Road Transport). An
international harmonised system of customs
control that facilitates trade and transport
whilst effectively protecting the revenue
of each country through which goods are
carried. In order for containers to be able
to transport goods under custom seal they
need to meet TIR requirements
TOFC Trailer on flat car
TOS Terminal operation system
TTU Terminal tractor with trailer unit
UCC Ultimate container carrier
UCIRC Unified container inspection and
repair criteria. An International Chamber
of Shipping guide available to be used for
in-service and on/off hire inspections
UIC Union International de Chemins de fer
(International Union of Railways). Containers
need to meet UIC requirements in order to
be able to transport goods on the rail.
UN / ECE United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe
UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe
UR Unified requirement
WWT Wind and water tight repair criteria

318 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

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PHOTO CREDITS 321

Photo Credits
Introduction / Chapter 1

Mischa Keijser

Michel Uyttebroeck Piccaya sprl

Maersk Line

http://korabli.ucoz.ru/

US Air Force - gallery, National Museum

Chapter 2

Groeneveld

Chatchawan / Shutterstock

ECT

Bangsbo Museum. Frederikstad

Bangsbo Museum. Frederikstad

Danish Maritime Museum

Unknown source

Archive de Haas

Ivan Meshkov

NOAA

www.kelvindavies.co.uk

GeorgHH

Nightman 1965 / Shutterstock

Alf van Beem

Klaus Kehrls / Fleetmon.com

Chapter 3

Gerard Koudenburg / Shutterstock

Richard Thornton / Shutterstock

Tim Roberts / Shutterstock

Gerard 's-Gravendijk

Tumarkin Igor - ITPS / Shutterstock

Dirk Tscherniak / Shutterstock

Huhu Uet / Shutterstock

Osprey Line

322 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

PHOTO CREDITS 323

Ian Law / Shutterstock

Christophe Eyquem

Aeroview-Rotterdam

Public domain

Ste Kruebe

Anneka / Shutterstock

DP World London Gateway

J2R / Shutterstock

Joop van Houdt / foto Rijkswaterstaat

Port of Cleveland

BMT

BMT

Port of Virginia

Dave Gingrich

London Gateway

BMT

Oliver Laumann

PRILL / Shutterstock

Wikimedia Commons / Stefan Bundes

SOMKKU / Shutterstock

Oliver Laumann

Henry vb

Daniel Linsbeuer / Wikimedia Commons

BMT

sspopov / Shutterstock

Mafi.eu

BMT

JPMueller99

US Public domain

Chung King / Shutterstock

ECT

alenvl / Shutterstock

Doug Wertman

Wesseltje14

Maersk

Sean Lamb

J. de Haas

S.Oleg / Shutterstock

Joedamadman

Taina Sohlman / Shutterstock

Thomas Isle

Johan Bouma

20th Century Fox

Shutterstock

ptnphoto / Shutterstock

Corbis

Cheng H

Unknown source

Evren Kalinbacak / Shutterstock

Mischa Keijser

BMT

BMT

BMT

BMT

[email protected] / Shutterstock

Fair Use; New York Times

Chapter 4

Public domain

Mandritoiu / Shutterstock

ECT

Chapter 5

EXT

Sheila Fitzgerald / Shutterstock

Hapag-Lloyd

tcly / Shutterstock

MAN-B&W

BMT

Alexkol Photography / Shutterstock

324 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

INDEX 325

Index
Danny Cornelissens / Wikimedia Commons

BMT

BMT

BMT

BMT

BMT

BMT

Crown 2011, NZ Defence Force

beeldbank Rijkswaterstaat

BMT

Chapter 6

IANS, Marine Traffic.com

My name is boy / Shutterstock

ISO

Nico Blaauw

Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons

Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons

BMT

Public domain

CIMC

CIMC

CIMC

CIMC

James Marshall Studios

Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons

BMT

CIMC

BMT

BMT

Chapter 7

Lars Heineken

Mischa Keijser

ACEP 231, 238 239, 272 , 293, 315

ACONCAGUA m.v. 218
ADN agreement 80
ADRIAN MAERSK m.v. 30
AFAM 264
AGV 131132 , 135 136, 315
AIS 283
Alliance 114, 140, 146 147, 164
2M 164
CKYHE 164
G6 164
Ocean Three 164
ALSTER EXPRESS m.v. 38
ALULA m.v. 218
ALVA STAR m.v. 220
American Interstate Highway 101
American President Lines seeAPL
AMERICAN RACER m.v. 29
AMSTERDAM BRIDGE m.v. 218
Anchoring points, in container 206, 243, 256
ANGELN m.v. 222
ANL 33
APL 3233, 40 41, 92 93, 164, 220, 225, 244
APL CHINA m.v. 225
APL PANAMA m.v. 220
APM terminals 62 , 98, 117119, 130
Approval and certification 235
CSC approval plate 236
design type approval 236
of new containers 235
of the manufacturing process 235
prototype test 236
Approved Continuous Examination
Program seeACEP
ASC 134 136, 315
end-loading system 135, 137
side-loading system 135, 137
Automatic Stacking Cranes seeASC

BAPLIE 138, 150, 215, 294

BARELI m.v. 220
Barge seeInland navigation
BARZAN m.v. 218
Bay of Biscay seeBiscay, the Bay of
Bay-row-tier system 182
Beam tank 265
BELLATRIX m.v. 218
Berthing window 140 141, 294
bilge system 157, 219
Bilge systems 157, 219
Biscay, the Bay of 179 180
Block storage 125
Blue Star Holding 162
BNSF Railway 91
Booking system 148, 310, 317
SLBS 148
Broaching 175
Brush, Graham 22
Bulk containers 49, 69, 100, 231, 252 , 267

C
Cabotage 73, 295
Cabover 104
CAFER DEDE m.v. 220
Call-size 114, 141, 143
Canadian National Railway 91
Canadian Pacific 91
CAPE MORETON m.v. 218
Capsizing / loss of stability
container height 223
containers centre of gravity 223
container weights 223
loading sequence 222
reduction in freeboard 222
vessels involved 222
Cargo closing time, terminal 143, 149
Cargo opening time, terminal 143, 295
Cargo Securing Manual 150, 167, 197, 212 , 214,
232 , 240
Annex 13 213
container securing manual 211
legislation 212

326 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

MSC Circular 1/Circ. 1353 213

preparation and approval 213
user limitations 213
Carrier haulage 54
CBP 281282
CCC 287, 289
CCNR 80
CCP 282
CDNI convention 80
CEI 287288
CELIA m.v. 220
Cell guides 38 39, 69, 79, 130, 157, 166, 184,
197199, 208 209, 244, 251, 293, 296
Central Commission for the Navigating of the
Rhine seeCCNR
Certification of containers seeApproval and
certification
CHARLOTTE MAERSK m.v. 218
Check digit 269 270, 298, 308
China 21, 32 , 57, 62 , 64 66, 73, 75, 86 90, 98 99,
103, 117119, 159, 164, 167, 180, 214, 220, 229,
315
China Merchants Holding Int. seeCMHI
Chongqing 66, 86 87
CIC 278, 315
Classification society 71, 166, 168, 171172 ,
181, 192 , 196, 213, 215, 235 236, 240, 277, 306
CLNI convention 80
CMA CGM 33, 44, 46, 162 , 164, 218, 220
CMA CGM Explorer Class 44
CMA CGM LILAC m.v. 218
CMA CGM MARCO POLO m.v. 44, 46
CMA CGM NORMANDIE m.v. 220
CMA DJAKARTA m.v. 218
CMHI 62 , 117
CMNI convention 80
Coastguard 166
Code
CSS 210
CTU 228
IMDG 232
ISM 233
ISPS 233
COFC 91, 315
Collaboration 163
Collar tank 265
Comanav 33
Common Inspection Criteria seeCIC
Comprehensive Carriers Cover seeCCC
Conference 56, 79, 297, 305, 316 317, 320

INDEX 327

Connectivity 56
Connectors 72
Construction of containers 243
height 246
length 243
Container, definition of a 228
height 246
length 243
Container Equipment Insurance seeCEI
Container On Flat Car seeCOFC
Container owner 238, 270, 272 , 277279, 287,
300
Container Securing Manual 212215, 244
Container Security Initiative seeCSI
Container transport by barge seeInland
navigation
CONTI SEATTLE m.v. 220
Controlled atmosphere 262 , 298, 315
AFAM 262
temperature controlled container 260
CONTSHIP FRANCE m.v. 218
Convention
ATP 233
CDNI 80
CLNI 80
CMNI 80
CSC 243
FAL 233
MARPOL 219
SOLAS 219
STCW 233
TIR 233
UNCITRAL 233
WCO 233, 281
Convention for Safe Container 243
Corner castings 21, 28, 70, 128, 133 134, 183,
184, 194, 203, 205 207, 211, 243, 254 256, 295,
297, 309, 313
Corridors 72
Costamare 162
CP VALOUR m.v. 220
Crane sequencing 144
Crane split 144
Crew 81, 146, 153, 159 160, 162 , 165 166, 173,
179, 206, 209 212 , 214, 216, 221, 224, 232 , 262 ,
274, 275, 296, 308, 310
Crossings 72
CSC
approval plate 236 237, 238
CSI 281

CSS Code 210, 212 , 232

Annex 13 213
Annex 14 210
CSX Transportation 91
C-TPAT 282
CTU Code 228, 234, 320
Customs and Border Protection seeCBP
Customs Trade Partnership against
Terrorism seeC-TPAT

ESPO 68, 316

EUGEN MAERSK m.v. 218
European E-road system 102
European Modular System seeEMS
European Sea Ports Organisation 68, 316
European Shortsea Network 68
Evergreen 30, 162164
EXCELSIOR m.b. 222
Explorer Class seeCMA CGM Explorer Class

Daylight test 274

Deep sea transport 55
Delmas 33
DENEB m.v. 222
Department of Homeland Security 281
Design and construction of containers 243
height 246
DG HARMONY m.v. 218
DHS 281
Dimensions of ISO freight containers 243
Dohle, Peter 162
Dolly 105, 298, 305
DONGEDIJK m.v. 222
Door-to-door 300
Double-stack 93 94, 97 99, 311, 314
Douglas Sea Scale 174
DP World 62 , 117, 119
DSR Senator Lines 33
Dual trolley 130
Dwell time 120

FAIRLAND m.v. 29
FAL Convention 233
FCL/FCL 50
FedEx 54
Fifth wheel coupling 105
Fire and explosion 217
causes 217
IMDG Code 219
vessels involved 218
Fire-fighting systems 157, 219
Flag state 71, 166 167, 213, 219
Flat / Flat rack 301
Flexilash 207
Flexi-tanks 258
Floor strength 253
Florens 229
Forces, container
compression 196
dynamic 186, 193
racking 194, 308
shear 150, 195
static 186, 251
tension 195, 198
wind load 187, 193 194, 220
Forklift pockets 133, 243, 250, 256, 301
Forklift truck 260
FOWAIRET m.v. 220
Frame tank 265
Freight forwarder 54, 165, 302
Fuel consumption 46, 96

E
EC Directive
96/53 104
2006/87/EC 81
Edifact 215
EIR 273
ELBE EXPRESS m.v. 38
ELLY MAERSK m.v. 44
EMMA MAERSK m.v. 33, 46 47, 159
Empty container depot 120, 277
EMS 104, 219 220, 316
EMSA 167168, 316
ENCOUNTER BAY m.v. 39
End-loading system 135, 137
Engine room 44, 158 160, 182 , 217, 262 , 296
Equalash 208
Equipment Interchange Report 273
ESN 68, 316

G
Gantry crane 123, 127128, 130, 136, 300, 308,
315, 317
dual trolley 130
single trolley 130
tandem lift 129
twin lift 129
vertical tandem lift 129

328 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

Gateway 31, 52 , 62 , 64, 111, 121, 123

GATEWAY CITY m.v. 24, 38
Gateway terminal 123
General purpose container 258 259, 270, 296,
307
anchoring points, in container 243
definition 255
dry cargo container 255
forklift pockets 256
gooseneck 247
grappler pockets 256
lashing points 256
particular modifications 257
Global Container Control
Programme seeCCP
Gross tonnage 161
Grounding 217, 220 221
causes 220
vessels involved 220
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway 82

H
Hall, Herbert 27
HANJIN GREEN EARTH m.v. 218
HANJIN PENSYLVANIA m.v. 218
HANSA BRANDENBURG m.v. 218
HANSA CLIPPER m.v. 218
Hapag-Lloyd 38, 162 , 164
Hard-top container 260, 303
Height of container 246
tolerance 246
HEINRICH BEHRMANN m.v 220
Hinterland 31, 52 , 62 , 65, 97, 111, 126
Hogging 170
HPH 62 , 117
Hub 50, 55 56, 62 64, 67, 87, 111, 123
Hub function 62
Hull 156, 223, 303
construction 156
hull failure 224
Hutchinson Port Holdings 62 , 117
HYUNDAI FORTUNE m.v. 218

I
IACS 14, 167, 171172 , 190, 192 , 224 225, 304,
316, 319
IDEAL X m.v. 24, 25, 115
IICL 278, 316
ILO 209, 228, 233 234, 305, 316

INDEX 329

IMDG Code 150, 219, 232 , 271, 305, 316

Container Packing Certificate 219
Dangerous Goods Declaration 219
Document of Compliance 219
EMS Guide 219
hazardous cargo classes 219
ignition 217
incidents 217218
MFAG 219
spontaneous combustion 217
Inland navigation
ADN agreement 80
Brazil 88
CCNR 80
CDNI convention 80
CEMT classes 79
China 86
Chongqing 66, 86 87
CLNI convention 80
CMNI convention 80
Container on Flat Barge 85
EC Directive 2006/87/EC 79
Europe 76
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway 82
Kieserling 76
lashing and securing 80
Main Donau Canal 76
Mekong 89
Montreal 83
North America 82
Operations Manual US 85
regulations 80
Rhine 7778
Ruhr area 52
Russian Federation 88
Saint Lawrence Seaway 83
Scheldt Rhine Canal 78
South East Asia 89
stability requirements 81
Three Gorges Dam 87
transport volumes Rhine 77
Volkerak Locks 78
Inland terminal
empty container storage 65
Inspections of containers 272
ACEP 272
by buyer 237
cargo worthiness 273
daylight test 274
in service-inspections 272

interchange reports (EIR) 274

maintenance 277
on/off hire inspections 317
PES 238, 272
responsibility inspections 273
routine operational inspections 272
Serious Structural Deficiencies 272
statutory 272
unsafe containers 272
Institute of International Container
Lessors seeIICL
Insurance, container and equipment 287
CCC 287, 289
CEI 289
conditions 288
exclusions 289
limit and deductible 288
scope of cover 287, 289
special exclusions 288
Intermodalism 23, 28, 49
International Labour Organisation seeILO
International Organization for
Standardization seeISO
International Transport Workers
Federation 209
ISLAND INTREPID m.v. 220
ISO 19, 26, 231, 240 241, 250, 252254, 298, 305
definition 240
organisation 241
overview of standards for containers 242
ISO gap 184
ITF 209

J
Janney coupler 99
Jones Act 73
Jones, Fred (Frederick McKinley) 73, 263, 305,
318
JUTLANDIA m.v. 39

K
KAMALA m.v. 218
Kansas City Southern Railway 91
Kingpin 70, 105, 302
KOORINGA m.v. 39
Khne & Nagel 54

L
Labelling and marking of containers
category identifier 269
check digit 269, 270
development 279
identification system 283
owners code 269
reduced stacking capability 270 271
serial number 269
size code 270
type code 270
weight markings 271
Land-bridge 92 93
Lashing and securing 197
anchoring points 206, 243, 256
Annex 14, CSS Code 210
block 208
breaking load 195 196, 206
Cargo Securing Manual 212
cell guides 198, 208
container lashing routines 208
Container Securing Manual 213
dual mode 207
Equalash 208
equipment and systems 200
fixed lashing equipment 201
Flexilash 207
forces 198216
ILO 209
independent stacks 199
ITF 209
lashing bridges 189199, 206
lashing points 201216
lashing rods 197216
lashing software 215
loose lashing equipment 202
maximum securing load 195
methods of lashing and securing 197
OSHA 203
Paralash 207
proof load 195
routines 208
ships crew 209
shore labour 209
single mode 207
stacking cones 197198, 202 , 208
strength 195216
supervision 211
terminal stacker 202
transverse 208

330 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

turnbuckles 206
twistlock 201, 203 205, 211, 317
vertical mode 207
Lashing bridge 199
Lashing points, in container 256
Lashing software 215
Leasing company 54, 229, 275
Legislation 73, 103, 240, 248, 281
Length of container 243
design requirements 243
ISO gap 244
modular system 243
tolerance 245
Line load 183
Liner Shipping Connectivity Index 56
LIVERPOOL BAY m.v. 39
Logistics management 53
Loss of containers 225
average per year 225
causes 217225
vessels involved 217225
LSCI 56

M
MacAndrews 33
MAERSK KAMPALA m.v. 218
Maersk Line 33, 41, 44, 63, 97, 162 , 164, 318
MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER m.v. 34, 46
MAFI trailer 132
Magnum, container 264
Main Donau Canal 76
Maintenance of containers 238
ACEP 238279
PES 238, 272
requirements 238
Malaccamax 60, 306
MARENO m.v. 218
Marine Highway 72
Maritime and Coastguard Agency 166
Marking of containers seeLabelling and
marking of containers
MARLENE S. m.v. 218
Matson 24, 26, 30
MCA 166
McLean, Malcolm 2224, 33, 38, 91, 93, 115
Merchant haulage 54
Modal split 52
MOL COMFORT m.v. 223, 224 225
MOL CONTRIBUTION m.v. 218
MOL EXPRESS m.v. 220

INDEX 331

Montreal 66, 83 84
Motor boating effect 108
MSC 30, 33, 44, 46, 63, 117, 162 , 164, 175, 177,
213, 218, 223, 248 249, 279, 316
MSC CARLA m.v. 223
MSC Circular 1/Circ. 1353 213
MSC DANIELA m.v. 44
MSC FLAMINIA m.v. 218
MSC NAPOLI m.v. 223
MSC OSCAR m.v. 46

N
National Targeting Centre Cargo 281
Nedlloyd 33, 41, 97, 318 319
NEDLLOYD DEJIMA m.v. 40
NEDLLOYD DELFT m.v. 40
Nicaragua Canal 57
Non Vessel Operating Common
Carriers seeNVOCC
Norasia 41
Norfolk Southern Corporation 91
NTCC 281
Numero, Joe 263
NVOCC 54, 162 , 164 165, 306
NYK ARGUS m.v. 218

O
OCR 122 , 274
Offen, Claus-Peter 162
On/off hire inspections, UCIRC 317
OOCL 41, 164, 225
OOCL AMERICA m.v. 225
Open-top container 259
Optical Character Recognition seeOCR
OT Africa Line 33
Owner of a ship 148, 165
Owner of container 238 seeContainer owner
Owners code 269

P
PACIFIC VOYAGER m.v. 220
Pallet-wide 245, 246
Panama Canal 32 , 39 40, 44 45, 56 59, 95, 307,
315
Panamax 37, 39 42 , 44, 159 160, 177, 224, 307
Paralash 207
Parallel lashing, external 208
Parallel lashing, internal 207
Parametric rolling motion 176

Payload 237, 240, 247, 252253, 265, 268, 271,

297298, 301, 307
Periodic Examination Scheme seePES
PES 238, 272
Piggyback 91, 307, 318, 320
Planner 137
central planner 146 150, 153, 219
quay planner 139, 141
resource planner 143 144
terminal planner 143 144, 146, 149 150, 308
Planning 137
crane sequencing 144
planning process 147
quay planning 141, 143, 308
resource 144
stowage plan 144
Platform containers 267
Point load 183
P&O Nedlloyd 33
Portainer 127
Porthole container 261
Port of Singapore Authority 62
POTRERO HILLS m.v. 24
Powertrain 103
PRESIDENT KENNEDY m.v. 40
PRESIDENT TRUMAN m.v. 40
Propeller 44, 158 160
Propulsion 74, 158 160, 170, 178, 294
PSA 62

Q
Quay planner 139, 141
Quay planning 141

R
Racking strength 238, 240, 259, 271
Rail, container transport by
AAR coupler 99
Betuweroute 97
block-train 97
BNSF Railway 91
Canadian National Railway 91
Canadian Pacific 91
China 98
Container On Flat Car, COFC 91
CSX Transportation 91
double-stack 93, 94, 97 99, 311, 314
Europe 95
European Rail Shuttle 97
flat car 91

India 98
Janney coupler 99
Kansas City Southern Railway 91
land-bridge 92 93
L-type cars 100
Norfolk Southern Corporation 91
Piggyback 91
Russia 90
slack action 100
stack car 98
Staggers Rail Act 93
S-type cars 100
swap body 96
TOFC, Trailer On Flat Car 91
Union Pacific Railroad Company 91
United States 91
wagonload service 97
well car 98
RAO 189
Rated weight 251252
Reach stacker 133
Reefer seeThermal containers, reefers
Refrigerated containers seeThermal
containers, reefers
REGINA MAERSK m.v. 41
Regulations, transport of containers 230
AAR 233
ADR Agreement 233
ATP Convention 233
CSC Convention 230
CSS Code 232
CTU Code 234
FAL Convention 233
FRA 233
Hague-Visby Rules 233
Hamburg Rules 233
ILO 233
IMDG Code 232
IMO Regulations 231
ISM Code 233
ISPS Code 233
MARPOL Convention 233
OPRC-HNS Protocol 233
OSHA Regulations 233
RID Regulations 233
Rotterdam Rules 233
SOLAS Convention 231
STCW Convention 233
TIR Convention 233
UIC 233

332 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

UNCITRAL Convention 233

WCO Convention 233
RENA m.v. 220 221, 225
Repair, container 277
CIC 278
container repair terminology 276
IICL 278
repair facilities 277
Singapore Standards Council 279
standards and procedures 278
Technical Reference 279
UCIRC 278
wear & tear 276
Response Amplitude Operators 189
Rhine 52 , 76 78, 80, 222 , 315
Road, container transport by 101
accidents 106
American Interstate Highway 101
Australia 103
European E-road system 103
European Modular System, EMS 104
history and development 101
powertrain 103
road trains 103, 105
Rocky Mountain doubles 103
stability 108
turnpike doubles 103
Road train 103, 316
Rocky Mountain doubles 103
Rods, lashing 197216
ROKIA DELMAS m.v. 220
Roll motions 192
amplitude 192
period 192
Roof strength 253
Russian stowage 184
ISO gap 184

S
SafMarine 33
SAFMARINE AGULHAS m.v. 220
Sagging 170
Saint Lawrence Seaway 83
Salvage 221, 225, 287
Scheldt Rhine Canal 78
Scope of cover 287, 289
Sea-Land 22 , 24, 26, 28 30, 33, 39 40, 91 93,
116
SEALAND EXPRESS m.v. 220
Seaspan Corporation 162

INDEX 333

Sea state 174

Douglas Sea Scale 174
fetch 173
seas 173
swell 173 174
waves 173
see alsoWave
Seatrain 2223
Securing seeLashing and securing
Security 280
24 hour rule 281
AIS 283
CBP 281
CCP 282
CSI 281
C-TPAT 282
DHS 281
ISPS 282
measures 283
NTCC 281
SAFE Framework 282
scanning 281
seals 283
standards 283
SELANDIA m.v. 38 39
Serious Structural Deficiencies container 231
Service 56
Door-to-door 300
End to end 56
Pendulum 56 57
Round the World 56
Shanghai, the port of 34, 63 64, 73, 86 87, 98,
119
Shenzen, the port of 65
Ship 37
accommodation 4447, 159
Baltic Max 71
bending moments 169
bilge system 157, 219
buoyancy curve 169 170
capacity at 14 metric tonnes 47
cargo holds 156
classification 157
crew seeCrew
deck / hatch covers 157
effective TEU capacity 47
engine room 158
fire 157, 217218
fire-fighting systems 219
forward visibility requirements 45
fuel consumption 46
generations 3847
gross tonnage 161
grounding 220 221
hogging 170
hull 156

hull failure 224

Laker 84
layout 155
loadicator 172
Malaccamax 60
motion seeShip motion
navigation and ship handling 173
navigation bridge visibility 45
nominal TEU capacity 47
owners 33, 77, 93
Panamax 3747
see alsoPanamax
Post New Panamax 37, 44
propeller seePropeller
propulsion seePropulsion
registration 166
sagging 170
SeawayMax 84
shear forces 172 , 189
smoke detection systems 219
stability 176 177
strength loads 169
Super Post Panamax 37
thrusters 161
two island configuration 44, 160
Ultra Large Container Ship 44
weight curve 170
Ship motion 175
broaching-to 175
heave 187, 250
linear motions 187
parametric rolling motion 176
pitch 187, 250
roll 171, 176 177, 181, 187188, 192 , 215 216,
253, 287, 306, 317
rotational motions 187
slamming 177
springing 175, 178, 320
surge 187
sway 187
synchronous rolling motion 176
whipping 175, 178, 320
yaw 187
Shipping line booking system seeSLBS
Shipping lines 162
alliance seeAlliance
collaboration 163
conferences 163

Short sea 67
Caribbean 73
China 73
Europe 73
Far East 73
Indonesia 73
North America 72
Side-loading system 135, 137
see alsoASC
Sietas 71
Singapore, the port of 33 34, 55, 60 64, 117,
162 , 220, 224, 279, 320
Single trolley 130
see alsoGantry crane
Size code 270
Slamming 169, 175, 177178, 295, 308, 311
SLBS 148
Smoke detection systems 219
SOUVEREIGN MAERSK m.v. 41
Springing 178
Stability 187
centre of buoyancy 187
centre of gravity 187
free surface effect 188
metacentre 187
STADT COBURG m.v. 40
Staggers Rail Act 93
Storage area, terminal 125
Stowage 144
approval 150
BAPLIE 138, 150, 215
bay-row-tier system 182
blind sector 45
blind sector loading 47
booking forecast 148
castle stowage 47
central planner seePlanner
final stowage plan 147
IMDG 147151
ISO gap 184, 244
limitations 184
line load 183
loading list 149
on deck 197216
planning 122
point load 183
preliminary stowage plan 149
pre-stow plan 149
Russian stow 184
terminal planner seePlanner

334 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

under deck 197

verification 122
Stowage patterns of pallets 246
Straddle carriers 125 126, 135 136
Strait of Malacca 37, 58, 60, 64, 306
Strength container structure 249
floor load 253
panel loads 252
racking 253
requirements 249
roof load 253
stacking 250
Strength criteria, container 249
racking force 253
stacking 250
Strength, side panels 252
Stripping of container 121
Stuffing of container 121
Suez Canal 59 60
SUNRISE m.v. 220
Superfreezer 264
SVENBORG MAERSK m.v. 225
Swap body 96
Swap tank 265
Synchronous rolling 176

T
TAL International 229
Tandem lift 129, 314
Tank container 265
Beam tank 265
Collar tank 265
description and terminology 265
Frame tank 265
swap tank 265
Ten tank 265
Tantlinger, Keith 204
Tare weight 247
TEN-T 68, 317
Ten tank 265
Terminal
APM terminals seeAPM terminals
block storage 125
cargo closing time 143
cargo opening time 143
central planner 147
CMHI 147
Cosco Pacific 117
crane sequencing 117
data control 122
demurrage fee 151
DP World 117, 119
ECT Delta terminal 116
ECT Delta Terminal 115
functions 121
gateway seeGateway

INDEX 335

hub seeHub
Hutchinson Port Holdings 117
inland terminal 50, 65 66, 79, 95, 120, 300
landside operation 123, 125 126
lane storage 125
moves 125134
planner seePlanner
Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal 115
Port of Singapore Authority 62
productivity 117118, 141
quay planning 141 see alsoPlanning
ranking 119
storage area 125, 128, 134, 298
storage on chassis 126, 132
stowage planning 122
see alsoPlanning
TIL 117
TOS seeTOS
waterside area 62 , 123
Textainer 229
Thermal containers, reefers 260
clip-on unit 261
controlled atmosphere 262
description, terminology 260
genset 261
integral container 261
Magnum 264
porthole container 261
Superfreezers 264
Thermo King 263
Thermo King 263
TOFC, Trailer On Flat Car 91
Tolerance container dimensions 243
height 246
length 244
width 245
TOS 137, 144, 317
Trailer 101109
centre of gravity 108
construction 108
dolly 105
fifth wheel coupling 105
full trailer 105
load securing 108
MAFI trailer 132
motor boating effect 108
poor load distribution 108
semi trailer 105
stability 108
Underrun Protection System 107
Trans-European Transport Networks 68
see alsoTEN-T
Triton Container Int. Ltd. 229
Trolley 123, 128 130, 134, 293, 300, 310, 314

Truck 101
cabover / flat nose 104
kingpin 105
Turnbuckle 206, 208
Turnpike doubles 103
Twin lift 129
Twistlock 203
conventional 203
fullly automatic 205
inventor 204
operations 210
semi automatic 205
Type code, container 270
Types, container 254
bulk container 267
coffee container 258
dry cargo container 255
fantainer 258
flat rack / flat 267
flexi-tank container 258
general purpose container 254
hangtainer 257
hard-top container 260
integral reefer container 261
open-top container 259
platform container 267
porthole container 261
refrigerated container 260
tank container 265
thermal container 260
ventilated container 258

U
Underrun Protection System 105, 107
Unified Requirement 172 , 190
Union Pacific Railroad Company 91
UPS 54
URIRC 278
US Lines 33

V
Ventilated containers 258
coffee container 258
fantainer 258
one door-off 259
Vertical tandem lift 129
Vietnam War 29
Volkerak locks 78

W
Wave
energy 175
height 174
length 174
mean 175
median 175
mode 175
period 174
steepness 174
Wear & tear 276
Weighing containers 248
legislation 249
Weight of container 247
floor load 249
gross weight 247
payload 247
rating 247
tare weight 247
weight markings 271
Well car 93 94, 98 99, 311
WESTERHAVEN m.v. 220
Whipping 175, 178, 320
Width of container 245
container dimensions 243
pallet-wide 245 246
stowage patterns of pallets 246
tolerance 245
Window
berth allocation 138 139
berthing window agreement 140
confirmation 143

Y
YM GREEN m.v. 218
YUSUF CEPNIOGLU m.v. 220

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