Bulk Carrier Practice

Third edition

By
Captain Jack Isbester ExC FNI MCMS
revised by
Captain Hemant Gupta FNI
Published by The Nautical Institute
200B Lambeth Road, London SE1 7JY, UK
Email: [email protected] Tel: +44 (0)20 7928 1351 Fax+44 (0)20 7401 2817
Web: www.nautinst.org

First published 1993; second edition 2010; third edition © 2023 The Nautical Institute

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form, by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except for quotation of brief passages in reviews.

Although great care has been taken with the writing of the book and the production of the volume, neither The
Nautical Institute nor the author can accept any responsibility for errors and omissions or their consequences.

This book has been prepared to address the subject of bulk carrier practice. This should not, however, be taken to
mean that this document deals comprehensively with all the concerns that may need to be addressed, or even
that this document sets out the only definitive view for all situations when a particular need is addressed. The
opinions expressed are those of the authors only and are not necessarily to be taken as the policies or views of
any organisation with which he has any connection.

Technical Editor: Hemant Gupta

Cover image: Shutterstock
Book and cover design: Phil McAllister Design
Printed and bound in the UK by Bell & Bain, Glasgow

ISBN 978 1 915488 00 8

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 iii

Acknowledgements

The third edition of Bulk Carrier Practice, like the regulatory changes, and this would not have been
previous two editions, has benefited from the possible without the advice of Captain Alex Sagaydak
information and advice provided by many Nautical of Olvia Maritime Ltd.
Institute members and by numerous other well-
disposed members of the international shipping In addition, I must thank Georgi Yorgakeiv, who
community during the long period that this work has provided valuable legal insights for Chapters 19 and
been under revision. 20; Captain Ujjal Bakuly for his inputs from a practical
perspective as a sailing Master; and Captain David
It has been my good fortune to be the technical (Duke) Snider for his contributions regarding the
editor of the revised edition of this book for The Polar Code.
Nautical Institute, a body with an unrivalled wealth of
experience among its membership in the operation My special thanks go to all the reviewers listed below
of bulk carriers. for their great inputs. I have gratefully received
assistance and support from Oldendorff Carriers GmbH
A few articles and MARS reports written by me have & Co KG for the inputs on the transhipment vessels.
either been referred to in the text or included as
appendices, adding more safety and operational The Nautical Institute has accepted the slow progress
value to the book. Some inputs have also been of the book’s revision with patience and understanding
taken from The Nautical Institute’s A Guide to Bulk and I am most grateful to Bridget Hogan, former
Carrier Operations. Director of Publishing and Membership at The
Nautical Institute, who is now enjoying her well-
I have been fortunate in receiving generous deserved retirement. She provided guidance and
assistance from a number of very capable and encouragement from the start of my work for this
experienced professionals. First and foremost, special edition. It goes without saying that I received great
thanks are due to Paul Markides, Marine-Quality support from the publishing team of the Institute,
Manager of Intercargo, for assisting in the difficult task especially from publishing manager Steven Gosling
of arranging for the review of each and every chapter. and editor Stephen Spark.
The interest, enthusiasm and commitment shown by
him over a number of months have been a comfort This edition could not have been done without the
and inspiration to me. support, tolerance, generosity and equanimity of my
wife Namita, who has sailed with me in all the vessels
The write-up on the new phenomenon of dynamic since we got married. Her sea time is equivalent to
separation and liquefaction in Chapter 19 would not that of a second mate! Without the infinite number
have been possible without great inputs from Rossen of cups of coffee provided by her, this edition would
K Panev of DNV, Liverpool and Hong Kong offices of have taken double the time.
Brookes Bell. They helped not only in guiding me on
understanding about dynamic separation, but also in My debt to all those mentioned above, and to any
reviewing the review of the write up on this topic. others I may have forgotten, is considerable. If the
book contains errors, my sincere apologies; your
Invaluable practical advice on a variety of new feedback is always welcome.
or revisited issues was provided by Mads Wacher
Kjærgaard from BIMCO for his helpful advice for
Chapter 2: Charterparties. Similarly, Chapter 7: Ballast Captain Hemant Gupta FNI
Management required a major revamp following September 2023

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iv Acknowledgements
Bulk Carrier Practice

Chapter Reviewer Company

1 Panos Zachariadis, Technical Director Atlantic Bulk Carriers Management Ltd

2, 3, 12 & 21 HSQE & Operations Maran Dry Management Inc

4, 6 & 23 Pradeep Chawla Anglo-Eastern Ship Management Ltd

Capt Deepak Gupta
Capt Sriram Rajagopal

5 & 11 Sanjay Ramnathan MSI Ship Management

Capt Himadri Ghosh

7 Richard Evans MOL (Europe Africa) Ltd

8, 10 & 13 Capt K Psaradakis Fafalios Shipping SA

9 Kevin Leach-Smith – Chief Operating Officer Taylor Maritime (HK) Limited

Maksim Rychkov – Marine Manager

14 & 16 Capt Spyros Michalatos & Capt Pantelis Ouzounoglou Star Bulk

15 & 17 Capt Debashis Sen Swire Shipping Pte. Ltd

18 Antonis Sakelis Independent

19 & 20 Georgi Yorgakeiv – K Line Bulk Shipping (UK) Ltd

Marine Manager/In-house Legal Counsel
Cristan Evans – Partner Stephenson Harwood LLP

22 Soeren Uphoff Orion Reederei GmbH & Co. KG

Dario Petkovic

24 Capt Spyros Michalatos Star Bulk

Capt Pantelis Ouzounoglou

25 & 26 Tony Moran Navios Group of Companies

Ad hoc Georgi Yorgakeiv – K Line Bulk Shipping (UK) Ltd

Marine Manager/In-house Legal Counsel
Cristan Evans – Partner Stephenson Harwood LLP

Bills of lading Claire Womersley – Partner Holman Fenwick Willan (HFW)

Rebekah Halkett – Associate
Chris Garley – Partner

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Foreword

It is 30 years since the first edition of Bulk Carrier Many other new areas are now covered in the book
Practice was published and some 13 years since the – it would take too many pages to identify them all
second edition left the printing presses. While it is individually. However, if you are looking for best
true to say that this publication has survived in its practice guidance on handling multiple bulk cargoes
current format remarkably well, a number of changes in the same hold and on the high moisture of
both of a technical nature and more latterly on the dunnage in steel cargo, then you have come to the
regulatory front have meant that the time was right right place.
for a new edition.
There is also a section on new charterparty clauses
This edition contains a lot of new and updated such as Slow Steaming, Just in Time and Sea Cargo
information on a variety of topics with appropriate Charter. More details are added on International
references to practical examples, case studies and Navigation Limits (INL, formerly IWL) and also on
legal issues, all of which provide the reader with up- NAABSA clause for safely aground at berth.
to-date and relevant information thus helping to
ensure safe and efficient operations. I commend this publication to those of you who are
new to the industry and also to those who may be
Chapter 21 Safety Considerations draws the reader’s somewhat longer in the tooth and probably know
attention to incidents involving pilots embarking and more about bulk carrier operations than most but can
disembarking a vessel. This is an area that is often nevertheless still learn something new.
neglected when considering the safety of others.
Further case studies within this chapter highlight This third edition, like those before, has benefitted
common concerns about personal safety. enormously from suggestions and advice obtained
from many seafarers and ship managers and will, I
Recent cargo-related incidents involving liquefaction hope, benefit all readers with the knowledge that has
and dynamic separation require the addition of been combined to develop these ‘best practices’ for
information on the carriage of cargoes with high the bulk carrier industry.
moisture content and the precautions to be taken
before loading such cargoes. This material in Chapter There is always room for improvement in a book such
19 is a welcome addition to the book, which should as this and any constructive comments or criticisms
give the reader a better understanding of the dangers from users are always welcome.
associated with such cargoes.

As the book was being prepared for press, the global Dr K G Gkonis
COVID-19 pandemic had been with us for over two Secretary General, INTERCARGO
years, and so it is appropriate to include information September 2023
on remote inspections and surveys along with an
explanation on the use of drones for such work.

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Contents

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................... iii

Foreword...........................................................................................................................................................v

Chapter 1 Bulk carriers past, present and future..................................................................................... 1

1.1 Bulk carriers and bulk cargoes.............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.2 Categories of bulk carrier......................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Characteristics of a bulk carrier............................................................................................................................................ 13
1.4 Typical bulk carrier layout and equipment................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Features of larger bulk carriers............................................................................................................................................. 23
1.6 Bulk carriers in the future......................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.7 Sources................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter 2 Charterparties............................................................................................................................ 25
2.1 Brief overview of shipping options................................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Charterparties................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
2.3 Voyage estimate............................................................................................................................................................................ 28
2.4 Knowledge of the terms of the charterparty and compliance with them............................................... 28
2.5 Master’s responsibilities............................................................................................................................................................ 29
2.6 Other charterparty clauses..................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.7 Further developments in clauses....................................................................................................................................... 33
2.8 Summary........................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.9 Sources................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Chapter 3 Logbooks, records, reference books and plans................................................................... 34
3.1 Records that should be maintained................................................................................................................................. 34
3.2 Operations manuals.................................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Ship’s plans or drawings........................................................................................................................................................... 45
3.4 Reference books required aboard bulk carriers......................................................................................................... 48
3.5 Sources................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Checklist – records to be maintained aboard bulk carriers....................................................................................... 52
Publications necessary or useful in the dry bulk trades............................................................................................... 53
Chapter 4 Maintenance and care of hatch covers.................................................................................. 54
4.1 Development of steel hatch covers.................................................................................................................................. 54
4.2 Hatch cover types........................................................................................................................................................................ 54
4.3 Watertightness and weathertightness............................................................................................................................ 57
4.4 General description and design of hatch covers...................................................................................................... 57
4.5 Survey of hatch cover arrangements............................................................................................................................... 61
4.6 Testing or assessing the watertightness of the hatch covers........................................................................... 61
4.7 Procedures for maintaining hatch covers in efficient condition..................................................................... 64
4.8 Some defects found in hatch covers................................................................................................................................ 69
4.9 Emergency opening and closing of hatches.............................................................................................................. 73
4.10 Hatch leakage – first aid measures................................................................................................................................ 74
4.11 Sources............................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Checklist – records to be maintained aboard bulk carriers....................................................................................... 75

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Chapter 5 Preparation of holds.................................................................................................................. 76

5.1 Cleaning of holds – general considerations................................................................................................................ 76
5.2 While discharging......................................................................................................................................................................... 77
5.3 Preparation for hold cleaning............................................................................................................................................... 78
5.4 Cleaning equipment.................................................................................................................................................................. 78
5.5 Sweeping of holds....................................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.6 Disposal of cargo residues and associated waste.................................................................................................... 79
5.7 Washing holds................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
5.8 Exceptional cleaning.................................................................................................................................................................. 85
5.9 Clearing blocked bilge suctions.......................................................................................................................................... 86
5.10 Drying of holds............................................................................................................................................................................ 87
5.11 Preparation of bilges and testing of fittings.............................................................................................................. 87
5.12 Hold inspections........................................................................................................................................................................ 88
5.13 Time required for hold preparation................................................................................................................................ 89
5.14 Final preparations...................................................................................................................................................................... 89
5.15 Hold coatings............................................................................................................................................................................... 90
5.16 Ballast holds.................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
5.17 Other points to note................................................................................................................................................................ 92
5.18 Sources............................................................................................................................................................................................. 92
Checklist – Items for attention when preparing holds for cargo........................................................................... 93
Chapter 6 Ensuring systems are operational.......................................................................................... 94
6.1 Hold ventilation............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
6.2 Tank airpipes.................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
6.3 Hold bilges........................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
6.4 Water ingress detectors............................................................................................................................................................ 97
6.5 Soundings......................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
6.6 Hold temperature systems..................................................................................................................................................... 99
6.7 Lighting.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 99
6.8 List indication lights................................................................................................................................................................. 100
6.9 Fire detection and smothering systems...................................................................................................................... 100
6.10 Hatch coaming drains......................................................................................................................................................... 101
6.11 Hatch fittings............................................................................................................................................................................. 102
6.12 Deck machinery....................................................................................................................................................................... 103
6.13 Cargo-handling gear............................................................................................................................................................ 104
6.14 Other systems that must be operational................................................................................................................. 105
6.15 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Checklist – Items for attention before arrival at the loading port....................................................................... 106
Chapter 7 Ballast management...............................................................................................................108
7.1 Ballast management................................................................................................................................................................ 108
7.2 Ship’s ballast layout.................................................................................................................................................................. 109
7.3 Ballast pumping arrangements........................................................................................................................................ 112
7.4 Quantity of ballast required for voyage....................................................................................................................... 113
7.5 Ballasting while discharging............................................................................................................................................... 113
7.6 Ballast management on passage.................................................................................................................................... 115
7.7 Restrictions on the discharge of ballast...................................................................................................................... 117
7.8 Deballasting.................................................................................................................................................................................. 117
7.9 Achieving good deballasting............................................................................................................................................. 121
7.10 Maintenance of ballast compartments.................................................................................................................... 124
7.11 Ballasting in compliance with ballast water treatment system (BWTS)............................................... 127
7.12 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Checklist – Reminders regarding ballast operations ................................................................................................. 128

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Chapter 8 Strength, stability, draught and trim...................................................................................129

8.1 Seakeeping strength............................................................................................................................................................... 129
8.2 Tanktop loading.......................................................................................................................................................................... 129
8.3 Block loading................................................................................................................................................................................ 130
8.4 Alternate hold loading........................................................................................................................................................... 130
8.5 Shear forces and bending moments............................................................................................................................ 130
8.6 Ship movement in a seaway.............................................................................................................................................. 131
8.7 Springing........................................................................................................................................................................................ 131
8.8 Hull stress monitoring............................................................................................................................................................ 132
8.9 Stability............................................................................................................................................................................................ 132
8.10 Free surface effect.................................................................................................................................................................. 132
8.11 Angle of loll................................................................................................................................................................................ 133
8.12 Flooding....................................................................................................................................................................................... 135
8.13 Sloshing........................................................................................................................................................................................ 135
8.14 Hogging and sagging.......................................................................................................................................................... 135
8.15 Squat............................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
8.16 Effect of list or heel upon draught............................................................................................................................... 137
8.17 Change of trim when passing from salt water to fresh water.................................................................... 138
8.18 Stability of ships carrying grain and forest products ....................................................................................... 138
8.19 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Chapter 9 Planning the loading...............................................................................................................139
9.1 Orders for loading..................................................................................................................................................................... 139
9.2 Is the proposed cargo permitted?.................................................................................................................................. 140
9.3 General approach to planning.......................................................................................................................................... 141
9.4 Maximum amount of cargo the ship can carry...................................................................................................... 141
9.5 Limiting point of the voyage.............................................................................................................................................. 142
9.6 Disposition of the cargo........................................................................................................................................................ 144
9.7 Loading/deballasting plan.................................................................................................................................................. 146
9.8 Block loading................................................................................................................................................................................ 149
9.9 Two-loader and multi-loader operations.................................................................................................................... 150
9.10 Trimming pours....................................................................................................................................................................... 150
9.11 Loading the optimum amount of cargo.................................................................................................................. 153
9.12 Unloading/ballasting plan................................................................................................................................................ 155
9.13 When the cargo cannot be carried safely................................................................................................................ 155
9.14 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 155
Checklist – Procedure for planning the loading............................................................................................................ 156
Chapter 10 Loading calculations.............................................................................................................157
10.1 Equipment required for planning the loading..................................................................................................... 157
10.2 Loading manuals.................................................................................................................................................................... 159
10.3 Contents of loading manuals.......................................................................................................................................... 160
10.4 Longitudinal strength calculations.............................................................................................................................. 163
10.5 Stability and stress calculations – options.............................................................................................................. 167
10.6 Stability calculation – practical considerations.................................................................................................... 168
10.7 Grain stability............................................................................................................................................................................. 169
10.8 Timber stability......................................................................................................................................................................... 171
10.9 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 173

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Chapter 11 Loading or discharging berth.............................................................................................175

11.1 Final authority for decisions when the vessel is berthed.............................................................................. 175
11.2 Need for exchange of information.............................................................................................................................. 175
11.3 Essential information for the ship about the berth........................................................................................... 176
11.4 Helpful information for the ship about the berth.............................................................................................. 182
11.5 Essential information about the ship for the berth operators.................................................................... 185
11.6 Methods of providing information.............................................................................................................................. 187
11.7 Storing and handling of bulk cargoes ashore....................................................................................................... 187
11.8 Other points to note............................................................................................................................................................. 190
11.9 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 190
Chapter 12 Loading period.......................................................................................................................191
12.1 Arrival in the berth................................................................................................................................................................. 191
12.2 Preloading surveys................................................................................................................................................................. 192
12.3 Condition of cargo offered............................................................................................................................................... 192
12.4 Duties of the officer of the watch................................................................................................................................. 193
12.5 Chief mate’s role during loading................................................................................................................................... 198
12.6 Master’s role............................................................................................................................................................................... 201
12.7 Shifting ship by warping.................................................................................................................................................... 201
12.8 Safety during cargo working........................................................................................................................................... 203
12.9 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 204
Checklist – Tasks on arrival in the loading berth............................................................................................................ 205
Checklist – Duties of the officer of the watch in the loading port..................................................................... 205
Checklist – Duties of the chief mate in the loading port......................................................................................... 206
Chapter 13 Establishing quantity of cargo loaded or discharged....................................................207
13.1 Shore-based methods of weighing ........................................................................................................................... 207
13.2 Draught survey ....................................................................................................................................................................... 208
13.3 Possible sources of error ................................................................................................................................................... 214
13.4 Examples ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 215
13.5 Other points to note ............................................................................................................................................................ 216
13.6 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 216

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Chapter 14 Cargo documents..................................................................................................................217

14.1 Hold inspection certificate .............................................................................................................................................. 218
14.2 Mate’s receipt ........................................................................................................................................................................... 218
14.3 Authorisation to sign bills of lading ........................................................................................................................... 219
14.4 Bills of lading ............................................................................................................................................................................ 220
14.5 Delivery of cargo in return for bill of lading .......................................................................................................... 223
14.6 Proper delivery of cargo against bill of lading ..................................................................................................... 224
14.7 Phytosanitary certificate .................................................................................................................................................... 225
14.8 Certificate of compliance with exemptions to trade sanctions ............................................................... 225
14.9 UN approval certificate ...................................................................................................................................................... 225
14.10 Certificate of origin ............................................................................................................................................................ 225
14.11 Declaration by shipper .................................................................................................................................................... 226
14.12 Certificate of TML ................................................................................................................................................................ 226
14.13 Certificate of moisture content .................................................................................................................................. 226
14.14 Master’s response sheet ................................................................................................................................................. 227
14.15 Certificate of lashing ......................................................................................................................................................... 227
14.16 Certificate of readiness to load .................................................................................................................................. 227
14.17 Certificate of fitness to proceed to sea ................................................................................................................. 227
14.18 Certificate of loading ........................................................................................................................................................ 227
14.19 Certificate of fumigation ................................................................................................................................................ 227
14.20 Certificate of weight and quality .............................................................................................................................. 228
14.21 Stowage plan ........................................................................................................................................................................ 228
14.22 Cargo manifest ..................................................................................................................................................................... 229
14.23 Dangerous cargo manifest ........................................................................................................................................... 229
14.24 Material safety data sheets ........................................................................................................................................... 229
14.25 Hatch sealing certificate ................................................................................................................................................. 229
14.26 Statement of facts .............................................................................................................................................................. 230
14.27 Letter of protest ................................................................................................................................................................... 230
14.28 Empty hold certificate ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
14.29 Trimming certificate/certificate of loading/discharging ............................................................................ 231
14.30 Stevedores’ time sheet ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
14.31 Clean ballast discharge permit ................................................................................................................................... 231
14.32 Paint compliance certificate ........................................................................................................................................ 231
14.33 Stevedore damage form ................................................................................................................................................ 231
14.34 Notice of readiness ............................................................................................................................................................ 232
14.35 Certificate of IMO classification .................................................................................................................................. 232
14.36 Certificate of compliance/IMSBC Code fitness certificate ........................................................................ 232
14.37 Hatch closing certificate ................................................................................................................................................. 232
14.38 No damage certificate ..................................................................................................................................................... 232
14.39 Sources....................................................................................................................................................................................... 232

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Chapter 15 Loaded voyage.......................................................................................................................233

15.1 Departure from the loading port ................................................................................................................................ 233
15.2 Trim for the loaded voyage ............................................................................................................................................. 233
15.3 Choice of route for the loaded voyage .................................................................................................................... 234
15.4 Cargo ventilation ................................................................................................................................................................... 237
15.5 Soundings .................................................................................................................................................................................. 240
15.6 Action to take when flooding is detected ............................................................................................................. 242
15.7 Testing of bilge water for acidity .................................................................................................................................. 242
15.8 Cargo temperatures and sampling of air in holds ............................................................................................ 242
15.9 Fumigation to monitor ...................................................................................................................................................... 242
15.10 Cargo lashings to check ................................................................................................................................................. 242
15.11 Inspections ............................................................................................................................................................................. 243
15.12 Conduct of loaded voyage in rough weather .................................................................................................. 244
15.13 Reporting ................................................................................................................................................................................. 247
15.14 Arriving at the discharging port ................................................................................................................................ 247
15.15 Sources ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 247
Checklist – Routine procedures for the loaded voyage............................................................................................ 248
Chapter 16 The discharging period........................................................................................................249
16.1 Shipboard organisation during discharge ............................................................................................................. 249
16.2 Need for exchange of information ............................................................................................................................. 249
16.3 Routine duties for the officer of the watch ........................................................................................................... 250
16.4 On first arrival at the berth ............................................................................................................................................... 250
16.5 Liaison with terminal representative ......................................................................................................................... 251
16.6 Discharging/ballasting programme .......................................................................................................................... 251
16.7 Ballasting ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 252
16.8 The discharge ........................................................................................................................................................................... 253
16.9 Care for the cargo .................................................................................................................................................................. 255
16.10 Care for the ship .................................................................................................................................................................. 256
16.11 Crew work during discharge ....................................................................................................................................... 260
16.12 Other points to note ......................................................................................................................................................... 260
16.13 Sources ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 260
Checklist – Tasks on arrival in the discharging berth ................................................................................................. 261
Checklist – Duties of the OOW in the discharging port .......................................................................................... 261
Checklist – Duties of the chief mate in the discharging port................................................................................ 262
Chapter 17 The ballast voyage.................................................................................................................263
17.1 Departure from the discharging port ....................................................................................................................... 263
17.2 Choice of route for the ballast voyage ..................................................................................................................... 264
17.3 Routine tasks ............................................................................................................................................................................ 264
17.4 Conduct of the ballast voyage in rough weather ............................................................................................. 265
17.5 Reporting .................................................................................................................................................................................... 266
17.6 Before arrival at the loading port ................................................................................................................................. 266
17.7 Partial deballasting before berthing .......................................................................................................................... 266
17.8 Arrival in the loading berth ............................................................................................................................................. 266
Checklist – Routine procedures for the ballast voyage............................................................................................. 267

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Chapter 18 Special types of bulk carrier................................................................................................268

18.1 Double-skinned bulk carriers ......................................................................................................................................... 268
18.2 Self-unloaders .......................................................................................................................................................................... 274
18.3 Mini-bulkers .............................................................................................................................................................................. 280
18.4 Forest product carriers ....................................................................................................................................................... 282
18.5 Log carriers ................................................................................................................................................................................ 283
18.6 Retractable tweendeck vessels ..................................................................................................................................... 287
18.7 Open-hatch vessels with shipboard gantry cranes .......................................................................................... 288
18.8 Combination carriers ........................................................................................................................................................... 294
18.9 Transhipment vessels .......................................................................................................................................................... 298
18.10 Sources ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 298
Checklist – Procedures for changing a combination carrier from dry cargo to oil ................................. 300
Checklist – Procedures for changing a combination carrier from oil to dry cargo.................................. 301
Chapter 19 Carriage of common and typical bulk cargoes................................................................302
19.1 Carriage of grain ..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
19.2 Carriage of coal ....................................................................................................................................................................... 309
19.3 Carriage of iron ore ............................................................................................................................................................... 318
19.4 Introduction to liquefaction ........................................................................................................................................... 320
19.5 Carriage of steel ...................................................................................................................................................................... 323
19.6 Carriage of steel coils .......................................................................................................................................................... 332
19.7 Carriage of forest products .............................................................................................................................................. 335
19.8 Carriage of cement ............................................................................................................................................................... 340
19.9 Specialised cement ships ................................................................................................................................................. 342
19.10 Sources....................................................................................................................................................................................... 344
Chapter 20 Unusual cargoes and special trades..................................................................................345
20.1 Bulk cargo separations ....................................................................................................................................................... 345
20.2 Taking the ground in the berth .................................................................................................................................... 351
20.3 General and breakbulk cargoes .................................................................................................................................... 354
20.4 Trading to cold regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 357
20.5 Sources ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 362
Checklist – Requirements for visit to freezing area...................................................................................................... 363
Chapter 21 Safety considerations...........................................................................................................364
21.1 Abandoning ship when flooding occurs ............................................................................................................... 365
21.2 Permit to work system ........................................................................................................................................................ 366
21.3 Entering enclosed spaces ................................................................................................................................................ 366
21.4 Safe use of pesticides .......................................................................................................................................................... 369
21.5 Access to the ship ................................................................................................................................................................. 373
21.6 Hazards from working cargo .......................................................................................................................................... 379
21.7 Unsafe cargoes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 380
21.8 In case of cargo fire .............................................................................................................................................................. 380
21.9 Safety equipment and clothing ................................................................................................................................... 380
21.10 Boarding, mooring and unmooring ....................................................................................................................... 380
21.11 Continuous learning on safety issues .................................................................................................................... 382
21.12 Sources....................................................................................................................................................................................... 382

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Chapter 22 Instruments and mechanical equipment.........................................................................383

22.1 Atmospheric test equipment ........................................................................................................................................ 383
22.2 Hydrometers ............................................................................................................................................................................. 384
22.3 Seawater-sampling equipment .................................................................................................................................... 385
22.4 Psychrometers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 386
22.5 Mucking winches .................................................................................................................................................................. 387
22.6 Mobile cranes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 388
22.7 Cherrypickers ........................................................................................................................................................................... 388
22.8 Scaffolding ................................................................................................................................................................................. 388
22.9 Paint sprayers ........................................................................................................................................................................... 388
22.10 Portable sump pumps ..................................................................................................................................................... 390
22.11 High-pressure washing machines ........................................................................................................................... 391
22.12 Spray foam systems ........................................................................................................................................................... 393
22.13 Hold inspection systems ................................................................................................................................................ 393
22.14 Big area descalers ............................................................................................................................................................... 394
22.15 Sand-blasting machines ................................................................................................................................................. 394
22.16 Needle guns ........................................................................................................................................................................... 394
22.17 Pneumatic grease guns .................................................................................................................................................. 394
22.18 Portable fans .......................................................................................................................................................................... 394
22.19 Power tools ............................................................................................................................................................................. 395
22.20 Sources....................................................................................................................................................................................... 395
Chapter 23 Maintenance...........................................................................................................................397
23.1 Planned maintenance systems ..................................................................................................................................... 397
23.2 Planning of maintenance ................................................................................................................................................. 398
23.3 Management of spare parts ........................................................................................................................................... 400
23.4 Greasing and oiling .............................................................................................................................................................. 401
23.5 Painting ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 402
23.6 Maintenance of ships’ cargo-handling gear ......................................................................................................... 403
23.7 Crane maintenance............................................................................................................................................................... 403
23.8 Crane design, maintenance and operation .......................................................................................................... 406
23.9 Grab maintenance ................................................................................................................................................................ 410
23.10 Maintenance of fixtures and fittings ....................................................................................................................... 413
23.11 Good maintenance ........................................................................................................................................................... 414
23.12 Sources....................................................................................................................................................................................... 414
Chapter 24 Repairs and drydocking.......................................................................................................415
24.1 Repair of damage and defects ...................................................................................................................................... 415
24.2 Enhanced Survey Programme ...................................................................................................................................... 419
24.3 Drydocking ................................................................................................................................................................................ 420
24.4 Sources ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 422
Checklist – The repair of damage and defects ............................................................................................................... 423
Checklist – Reminders for drydocking................................................................................................................................. 424
Chapter 25 Ship’s housekeeping.............................................................................................................425
25.1 Disposal of wastes ................................................................................................................................................................. 425
25.2 The housekeeping problem ........................................................................................................................................... 428
25.3 Excluding dust ......................................................................................................................................................................... 428
25.4 Dealing with dirt .................................................................................................................................................................... 430
25.5 Keeping water out ................................................................................................................................................................ 431
25.6 Sources.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 432

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Chapter 26 Bulk carrier casualties...........................................................................................................433

26.1 Casualties up to 2010 .......................................................................................................................................................... 433
26.2 Factors contributing to bulk carrier casualties .................................................................................................... 434
26.3 The path to safer shipping ............................................................................................................................................... 434
26.4 Improvements introduced .............................................................................................................................................. 435
26.5 Future changes to vessel designs and operations in the decarbonisation journey .................... 436
26.6 Prevention of casualties ..................................................................................................................................................... 436
26.7 Casualty prevention by ship’s personnel and shipowners............................................................................ 437
26.8 Detection of damage .......................................................................................................................................................... 438
26.9 Casualties since 2011 .......................................................................................................................................................... 439
26.10 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................................. 440
26.11 Sources ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 440
Checklist – Summary of measures for preventing casualties................................................................................ 442
Appendices..................................................................................................................................................443

List of sources..............................................................................................................................................619

Index.............................................................................................................................................................629

About the authors......................................................................................................................................641

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 Chapter 1 1
Bulk carriers past, present and future

Drawing 1.1 General arrangement drawing

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Drawing 1.2 Handymax carrier

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Drawing 1.3 Panamax bulk carrier

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Drawing 1.4 Capesize bulk carrier

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Bulk carriers past, present and future

Drawing 1.5 Very large coal/ore carrier

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Drawing 1.6 Mini-bulker

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Drawing 1.7 Ore carrier

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Drawing 1.8 OBO carrier

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Drawing 1.9 Oil/ore carrier

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Drawing 1.10 Forest products carrier

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Drawing 1.11 Open-hatch bulk carrier

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Chapter 1
Bulk carriers past, present and future

1.1 Bulk carriers and bulk cargoes range and, while similar in layout and fittings to
1.2 Categories of bulk carrier the handysize bulk carriers, they have come to be
recognised as a separate category. Handymax bulkers
1.3 Characteristics of a bulk carrier
(Drawing 1.2) typically have five holds and a dwt of
1.4 Typical bulk carrier layout and equipment 40,000–49,999. Vessels between 50,000dwt and about
65,000dwt, also with five holds, are called supramax.
1.5 Features of larger bulk carriers
1.6 Bulk carriers in the future Panamax bulkers: Panamax bulk carriers (Drawing
1.3) are so named because their dimensions,
1.7 Sources
particularly their breadth, are the maximum that can
be accommodated in the Panama Canal. Panamax
bulkers usually have seven holds, are in the 65,000–
78,999dwt range and are are extensively employed in
1.1 Bulk carriers and bulk cargoes the transport of large volumes of bulk cargoes such as
coal, grain, bauxite and iron ore in the longhaul trades.
Bulk carriers carry a considerable variety of cargoes,
including the basic elements that drive world trade The fact that most US ports cannot accept ships
such as iron ore, coal, grain, bauxite/aluminium and with draughts greater than Panamax draught is an
phosphate rock, along with substantial quantities of important factor in their continued popularity.
concentrates, petroleum coke, steel, ores, cement,
sugar, quartz, salt, fertilisers, sulphur, steel scrap, Kamsarmax bulk carriers: Kamsarmax bulk carriers
aggregates and forest products. are a variation of Panamax bulkers. With a dwt of
79,000–99,999 and a beam less than 32.2 metres
According to Drewry Maritime Advisors, the world they are the biggest ships that can load at the world’s
trade in dry bulk cargo was 4,165 million tonnes in largest bauxite port, Port Kamsar in Equatorial Guinea.
2020. The trade in iron ore was about 1,538 million These vessels can transit the newly opened larger
tonnes, coal amounted to some 1,211 million tonnes locks on the Panama Canal fully laden.
and about 355 million tonnes of grain were shipped.
Seaborne trade in minor bulks such as steel, cement, Capesize bulkers: Capesize bulk carriers (Drawing
sugar and fertilisers totalled about 1,041 million tonnes. 1.4) have deadweights greater than 100,000dwt. They
are further split into Mini Capes with dwt of 100,000–
129,000, Standard Capes with dwt of 130,000–199,999
1.2 Categories of bulk carrier and Large Capes with dwt above 200,000 and capable
of carrying ores and coal.
The general trend is that bulk carriers are increasing in
size and the limits to what are considered handysize, Capesize vessels, with loaded draughts usually in
handymax and Panamax have all been raised in the last excess of 16.5 metres, can be accepted fully laden
10 years. In April 2021, the world fleet of bulk carriers of at only a small number of ports worldwide and are
10,000dwt and above totalled 12,384 vessels. engaged in the longhaul iron ore and coal trades. The
range of ports that they visit is increased by the use of
Handysize bulkers: Handysize vessels are now two port loadings and two port discharges, the ship
considered to be 10,000–40,000dwt and most have being only part-laden when departing the first loading
four or five holds. port and on reaching the second discharge port.

Handymax and supramax bulkers: There are Very large ore carriers (VLOC) are similar to Large
growing numbers of vessels in the 40,000–65,000dwt Capes, with dwt above 200,000, but only carry ores.

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Bulk carriers past, present and future

Figure 1.1 Double skin with integral topside Figure 1.2 Double-skin construction. A midships
and hopper tanks. The after hold of a hold of a Diamond 53 vessel (Both photos
Diamond 53 vessel courtesy of Niels Bjørn Mortensen)

The VLOC category includes Valemax, which were storage capacity, depth of water in the berth,
built from 2011 for carriage of iron ore from Vale, in regularity of the demand for the commodity, and the
Brazil, to China. financing of its purchase. Less frequently, the size of
vessel chosen is governed by the size limitations of
Mini-bulkers: In addition to the bulkers grouped the loading port. This variety in demand has created a
into the categories described above a considerable versatile world fleet of varied ship sizes.
number of small bulk carriers, less than 10,000dwt,
are employed chiefly in coastal, shortsea and middle Geared bulk carriers: Many handysize, handymax
trades, carrying smaller consignments of bulk and mini-bulkers and a small number of Panamax
cargoes to smaller ports. Such vessels may have a vessels are equipped with shipboard cranes for
conventional bulk carrier hold configuration with the loading or discharge of cargo. Such vessels are
topside tanks and hopper tanks, or the hold or holds described as geared bulk carriers.
may be rectangular and bounded by side tanks. They
may be known as mini-bulkers (Drawing 1.6), dry Self-unloaders: Unlike geared bulkers, self-unloaders
cargo vessels or multipurpose vessels. The rules and (Figures 1.3 and 18.29) are equipped with conveyor
practice governing the classification of these vessels belt discharging systems with booms, which can be
are complicated, so they may not necessarily be swung out from the ship to discharge directly ashore.
classed as bulk carriers or governed by rules written Such systems can achieve discharging rates similar
specifically for bulk carriers. to those of shore-based unloading equipment. This
equipment is expensive to install and reduces the
space available for cargo, but these disadvantages
1.3 Characteristics of a bulk carrier can be outweighed in the shortsea trades by the
ability to substantially reduce time spent in port.
Reasons for varied sizes of bulk carriers: Receivers of
bulk cargoes have varied requirements for amounts
of cargo delivered per month or per year. The size of
vessel that they choose to carry their cargoes and
the frequency that such vessels are employed will
be influenced by factors that include the receivers’

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Ore/oil carriers: Ore/oil carriers (Drawing 1.9) have

centre and side compartments. When carrying oil
both centre and side compartments can be used,
whereas only the centre compartments are used
when carrying ore.

Combination carriers: Ore/oil carriers and OBOs,

known collectively as combination carriers, were
developed to allow the vessel to trade in either the
bulk carrier or tanker trades, according to seasonal or
commercial demand, and to allow the proportion of
time spent in non-revenue-earning ballast legs to be
Figure 1.3 A self-unloader minimised. Over the past 10 years the decline in the
number of these vessels has continued. The number
built during this period is negligible.

Bulk cargo loaded in a traditional tweendeck vessel:

Trimming is required and discharge is difficult

Space unfilled

Cargo difficult to
reach by grab

Low-density bulk cargo loaded in a bulk carrier:

Little trimming is required and all the cargo is
accessible for grab discharge

are referred to as ore/bulk/oil carriers (OBOs).

Most bulk/oil carriers are Panamax or Capesize. Topside or
‘upper hopper’
Figure 1.4 Hold of conventional bulker. ballast tanks
Anticlockwise from top left: topside tank side Lower hopper
ballast tanks
plating; shell plating with vertical framing; DB
hopper side tank; tanktop plating; bulkhead
stool; corrugated bulkhead

Ore carriers: These vessels (Drawing 1.7) form a

High-density bulk cargo loaded in a bulk carrier:
diminishing part of the Capesize fleet. They are single- No trimming may be required, but this depends upon
deck vessels designed specifically for the carriage of the properties of the cargo.
heavy ores. They are characterised by small holds with Cargo is accessible for grab discharge
high centres of gravity. Few ore carriers have been
built in recent years, but they are among the largest
bulk carriers afloat.

Bulk/oil carriers: Bulk/oil carriers (Drawing 1.8),

are designed with dual-purpose holds that can be
used for the carriage of both dry and liquid bulk
commodities. Most vessels of this type are also
strengthened for the carriage of ore and are referred
to as ore/bulk/oil carriers (OBOs). Most bulk/oil carriers
are Panamax or Capesize. Figure 1.5 Trimming

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