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First Edition : 2009
V. S. Bagad
Technical Publications Pune®8
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Microwave Enginerring
ISBN 9788184313604
All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be
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Published by :
‘Technical Publications Pune”
#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shanowar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indie.
Printers =
Vikram Printers
34, Parvati Industial Estate:
Road,
Pune - 411009,Table of Contents
1.1 Microwave Spectrum and Bands ....
1.1.1 Microwave Frequencies...
1.1.2 Electromagnetic Field 2.00. cesses seca e es eee sees eee ese tenes ee eee eeene
4.1.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves ..........eesceeeecveeceeeceeseeveveneesd 5
1.2 Applications of Microwave ..
1.3 Rectangular Waveguides
1.3.1 Modes of Propagation .
13.2Non-existence of TEMMode
1.3.3 Solutions of Wave Equations in Rectangular Co-ordinates
1.3.4 Field Equations for TE Mode ..................+
1.355 Field Pattemin Waveguide... .-..-+essseseee
1.3.6 Waveguide Parameters... . .
41.3.7 Comparison of TE and TM Modes... . .
1.3.8 Boundary Conditions for TE Mode............2..02...ssssesseesseeee
1.3.9 Boundary Conditions for TM Mode... ...
1.4 Power Transmitted in Waveguide
1.5 Power Loss in Waveguide ..
1.5.1 Power Loss in Dielectric Filling. .
1.5.2 Power Loss in Waveguide Walls .....
1.5.3 Misaligned Waveguide Sections
1.6 Waveguide Excitation ..
1.7 Comparison of Waveguide and Co-axial Cable.
1.8 Advantages of Waveguide Over Co-axial Cable
Solved Examples ..Review Questions...
2.1 Propagation of TE Wave in Circular Waveguide.
2.4.1 Boundary Conditions / Characteristic Equations ..........
2.1.2 Dominant and Degenerate Modes... 0 sseereeerereesreeee
2.1.3 Impossibility of TEM Mode ................
2.2 Planer Transariasion Li 2.
2214 Strip Lines. 2 Bod
2244 Higher Order Modes in Stip Lines. ee . 2-6
2.2.1.2 LossesinStiplines . 2-6
2.2.1.3 Excitation of Strip Lines . os . 2-6
2.22 MicrostripLines........... 0 2-7
2224 Eflective Dielectric Constant
2.2.2.2 Characteristiclmpedanca(Z,)...........-.-.-
2223 LossesinMirostiplings 0.
2224 QHactorofMicosip.
2.2.2.5 Limitations of Microstrip... . ss. 1 ss es vee
2.2.2.8 Comparison of Stipline and Microstip . ss.
223 Slot Lines.
2.24 Coplanar Lines .
225 Advantages of Pana Transmission Lins coe
2.2.6 Disadvantages of Planar Transmission Lines.................--
2.3 Cavity Resonators...
2.3.1 Rectangular Cavity Resonator...
2.3.2 Q Factor of Cavity Resonator...
2.33 Applications of Cavity Resonator.
2.3.4 Re-entrant Cavity...
2.3.5 Excitation of Cavity Resonator
Solved Examples ...
PointstoRemember
Review Questions 2a PP3.4.1 Seattering Parameters... cee cee e eee ces see eeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeesees $2
3.1.2 Scattering Matrix... a cou 23-5
34a Scttring Matix Represeraon fo Malo Netwok er sense 36
3.14 Losses in Network. 3-6
3.1.5 Properties of S-Parameters.......... cee 38
3.1.7 Comparison between nS {Z],and mM Matrices.
3.1.8 Relations of Z, Y and ABCD with SParameters
3.2 Waveguide Tees.
3.2.3 Magic Tee.
3.3_ Waveguide Couplings
3.3.1 Goupling Lops . . cece cose
9.4 Microwave Attenuators 0. ssessssssceesessssssnsesssssasssssssssssneer S25
3.4.4 Fixed Attenuator 8-25
9.4.2 Variable Attenuator 8
3.5 Waveguide Comers, Bends and Twists.
3.6 Waveguide Transitions
3.6.1 Rectangular to Circular Waveguide Transition
316.2 Circular to Rectangular Waveguide Transition
3.6.3 Transition between Co-axial Cable and Rectangular Waveguide
3.7 Tuning Screws.
3.8 Directional Couplers.....
3.8.1 Directional Coupler Parameters
3.8.2 Two Hole Directional Coupler. ...........
3.8.3 Multihole Directional Coupler...
38.4 Bathe Hole Directional Coupler.
3.9 Waveguide Flanges ..
3.10 Matched Terminations ..
3.40.4 Standard Missmatches 2... oe eeee tees eens : =. 3-403.11 Waveguides Irisis.
3.11.4 Inductive lis
3.11.2 Capacitive li
3.11.3 Resonant iris...
3.12 Tunable Detector
3.13 Slotted Line....... . 3-45
3.14 Co-axial Cables and Adaptors .. woe 3 = 46
3.14.4 Type-N Connector... .. 3-46
3.14.2 SMA Connector. . cee seve : cee 3-47
3.14.3 APC COMMECHON... 2... eee ee eee ee cee cece cee ec ee cette ee cree ene ree es O48
Solved Examples... we 3 = 4B
Points to Remember .. 3-57
Review Questions...
4.1 Ferrite Devices 4-4
4.4.1 Faraday Rotalion Principle... 0... bed
4.2 Circulator......... 4-2
A2( Four Pon Cirulator 0
4.2.2 Four Port Circulator using Magic Tees... sees ee eee eee 3
4.23 Thee PontCincwlator 0 gg
4.2.4 Applications of Circulator... dae eee bed
4.3 Isolator 4-4
4.4 Gyrato!
4.5 Microwave Hybrid Couplers
4.5.1 Hybrid Ring Circuit /Rat Race CircuitSolved Examples...
Points to Remember
Review Questions .
5.3.1.2 Equation of Velocity Modulation... ee
5.3.1.3 Expression of Bunchingin Two Cavity Kystans.. 5-13
53.14BeamFocusing. 2.2.2.2... 1
53.1.5 KlystonBandwidh. ©.
5.3.1.6 Two Cavity Kiystron Oscillator...
5.3.1.7 Characteristics of Two Cavity Kystron_
5.3.1.8 Applications of Klystron -
§,3.2 Multicavty Kiystion Amplifier...
‘5.3.2.1 Applications of Broadband Klystron Amplifier... .
5.3.3 Klystron Oscillators. ee
5.3.4 Reflex Kiystton.....
5.3.4.4 Electronic Admittance of Reflex Klystrons. . . . =. cs G97
5.3.4.5 Characteristics of ReflexKlyston . 6. 1. ss ce 588
5.3.4.8 Applications of Reflex Klystron
Solved Examples ...
i Points to Remember
| Review Questions ..
2 MEChapter:
6.1 Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) ..
6.1.4 Helix TWT.
6.1.2 Slow Wave Structure.
6.1.5 Applications in TWTs- + 6-6
6.1.5.1 Gainin WTS, bees 6-5
6.1.5.2 Gain and Power Characteristics ©. ee ee » 6-5
6.1.6 Mathematical Analysis of TWT. . 666
6.1.6.1 Amplification Process: - 6-6
6.1.6.2 Convection Current of Axial Field . 6-8
6.1.6.3 Axial Electric Field cee 6-9
6-14
6.1.6.5 Nature of Four Propagation Constants: : wae 6-12
6.1.7 Performance Characteristiosof TWO Ba
6.4.8 Applications Of WT... so. .sss sec seee sees sees esse ees et esee essere seeeties
6.1.9 Comparison of TWT and Klystron -
6.1.10 Important Expressions of TWT.
6.2 M-type Tubes.
6.2.4 Principle of Operation. ......cssersceesseeeereee
6.2.2 Backward Wave Oscillator
6.2.24 Construction
6.2.2.2 Operation. . . 6
6.2.2.3 Dispersion Curve 6
6.2.2.4 Working of BWO at Low Frequency ©... 6-18
6.2.2.5 General Characterisics 6-19
6.2.2.6 Performance Characteristics ofBWO. ee BHD
6.2.2.7 Applications of BWO 6-19
6.2.3 Magnetrons . cevteeeees cecteeeecerees G19
6.21 Consiucton of Magneton. =... : cee eee es 620
6.2.3.2 Types of Magnetron Feces . 6-24
6.2.3.3 Modes of Operation bee Sees 6-22
6.2.3.4 Working of Magnetron . . : 6-226.2.3.5 Magnetron Anode Structure .
6.2.36 Need of Strapping in Magnetrons_...
6.2.3.7 Frequency Pushing and Pulling...
6.2.38 Magnetron inn-Mode
6.2.39 Phase Focusing Effect... .
6.23.10 Cutoff Magnetic Field Density (Bx). .
6.2.3.11 Cyclotron Angular Frequency.
6.2.3.12 Efficiency of Magnetron.
6.2.3.13 Characteristics of Magnetron.
6.2.3.14 Applications of Magnetron.
Solved Examples...
Points to Remember:
Review Questions
7.1 Limitations of Conventional Transistors at Microwave Frequency.
7.1.1 HF Limitations of Bipolar Transistors... o .
7.2 Power-Frequency Limitations of Transistors...
7.3 Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MESFET) ..
7.3.1 Construction and Working
7.3.2 Small Signal Equivalent Circuit... 2...
7.4 High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMT),
7.4. Advantages of HEMT over MESFET .
7.4.2 Structure of HEMT .
7.4.4 D.C. Characteristics
7.5 MASER oss seesesee
7.5.4 Principle of Operaton..
7.7.1 Ridely.Watkins-Hitsum (RWH) 1 Two-Valley Model Theory............2+ccecceeeeees T#107.7.3 Criteria for Classifying Modes .......ccccsscsesecessaveeesseeccerssevevaueeee PH¥2
7.7.4 Gunn Diode Applications eevee vey vee vee veeeceeeeereerseenee 749
8 Avalanche Transit Time Devices wo ID
7.8.1 IMPATT Diodes 1-13
7.8.2 TRAPATT Dindes 716
LBSBARITT Diodes Pe
L9 Tunnel Diode. 7-20
1.9.1 Tunnel Diode |-V Characteristic 7-2
1.9.2 Tunnel Diode Construction... . 7+?
7.9.3 Tunnel Diode Equivalent Circuit.
7.9.4 Tunnel Diode Applications
7.10 Varactor Diode
7.10.1 Principle of Operation.
7.10.2 Equivalent Circuit.
7.10.3 Varactor Diode Biasing
7.10.4 Applications of Varactor Diode... ..
7.14.4 Structure and Working...
7.11.2 Applications of PIN Diode.
7.12 Crystal Diode ..
7.13 Parametric Amplifier...
7.13.1 Manlay-Rowe Relations .
7.13.2 Advantages of Parametric Amplifier. -
7.13.3 Limitations of Parametric Amplifier... .00.s0:ssectescsessseseestseseeserees
7.43.4 Applications of Parametric Amplifier.
Solved Examples
Chapter-8 | Microwave'N
8.1 Introduction... _
8.2 Microwave Test Equipments
8.2.1 Slotted Line Carriage...
8.2.2 Tunable Detector .........B23 Power Meters... ec eee cece ects teeeneees
8.2.4 Spectrum Analyzer
8.2.5 VSWR Meter... 2...
8.3 Power Measurements...
8.3.1 Measurement of Very Low Power (¢1 mW) ........
8.3.2 Measurement of Low Power (<1 mWW)...........
8.3.3 High-Power Measurement ( > 10 mW).
8.3.4 Errors in Microwave Power Measurement... e se Bo
8.5.1 Slotted Line Technique. ... 20... cece ec cee cee ects ee ee cee see eee neeee nee
8.5.2 Double Minimum Method... .
8.6 Impedance Measurement.....
8.6.1 Slotted Line Method of Impedance Measurement .. .
8.6.2 Reflectometer Method of Impedance Measurement .
8.7 Measurement of Insertion Loss...
8.8 Frequency Measurement
8.8.1 Mechanical Technique .
8.8.2 Electronic Technique . .
8.9 Microwave Bridges..
Solved Examples ..
Points to Remember .....
Review Questions ...
9.1 Microwave Applications
9.1.1 Microwave Heating. .
9.1.2 Microwave Oven, .
9.1.3 Thickness Measurement of Metal Sheet ....
94.4 Thickness Measurement of Dielectric Sheet
9.1.5 Doppler Motion Sensor. ...............
9.4.6 Biological Hazards .........1ssessseeePoints to Remember... see
Review Questions. 7 wn 908Microwave Transmission Lines
1.1 Microwave Spectrum and Bands
¢ James Clark Maxwell discovered that light is electromagnetic in nature. It
was the starting point for the evolution of the concept of an electromagnetic
spectrum that extends from d-c to r-rays. Since a large number of electronic
communication systems utilize the space propagation path, and since a
certain bandwidth is required for each transmission, the frequency spectrum
of interest to communication engineers has become an international resource.
* According to the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), the
frequency ranges are as designated in Table 1.1. For convenience, the
frequencies are also designated in terms of bands as shown in Table 1.1.
Frequency (f) | Wavelength (a) Designation
< 30 kHz 710 km LF (Very Low
Frequency)
LF (Low Frequency)
[_os—smrz | 1—okm [wr (medium Frequency)
[3-20 mee | 100-10 m HF (High Frequency)
30 — 300 MHz 10-im VHF (Very High
Frequency)
UHF (Ultra High
Frequency)
SSW (Super Short Wave}|
30-300 GHz | 10-1 mm ESW (Extreme Short
Waves)
Microwaves
Table 1.1.1 Designation of frequency ranges
a4)Microwave Engineering 1-2 Microwave Transmission Lines
* Microwave is a region in the electromagnetic wave spectrum in the
freugency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This corresponds to a range of
wavelength from 100 cm to 1 mm in free space. The free space is
characterized by the electrical medium parameters - permittivity 6, = 10° /
36 x farad/m. Permeability p, = 4m x 10°? henry/m and conductivity o, =
10°" mho/m. Because of very short wavelengths microwaves ate capable of
almost freely propagating through the ionized layers in atmosphere. This
facilitates radio astronomic research of space and communication between the
ground stations and space vehicles.
* Because of the short wavelengths, wave engineering has a difference
from conventional electronics engineering. Conventional low frequency circuit
analysis based on Kirchhoff's laws and voltage current concepts of the
distributed transmission line theory no longer apply because the propagation
time of electrical effects from one point in a circuit to another point at
microwave frequencies is comparable with the period of oscillation of
currents and charges.
* Conventional circuits or lines radiate out the microwave energy as
electromagnetic waves resulting in high laws in signal transmission. Thus
microwave transmission involves propagation of EM waves consisting of
changing electric and magnetic fields in a medium. These specific properties
of microwaves steered engineers to develop techniques for microwaveMicrowave Engineering 4-3 Microwave Transmission Lines
guided structures such as waveguides, coaxial lines, strip lines, microstrip
lines, slot lines and microwave sources like Klystrons, magnetrons, travelling
wave tubes, backward wave oscillators, microwave solid state d and
other microwave circuit components like attenuators, phase shifters, isolators,
circulators, directional couplers, detectors and mixers etc.
vie
1.1.1 Microwave Frequencies
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves with frequencies of 300 MHz to
300 GHz and wavelengths between 100 to 1 mm. Microwave signals can
propagate at a velocity of 3x10® m/sec in free space. Polarization of
electromagnetic is defined as the direction of electric field vector. The
magnetic field is always orthogonal to (90° from) the electric field vector.
Transmission lines can be used at frequencies from d.c. to about 50 or
60GHz, although above about 5 GHz only short runs are practical because
attenuation increases dramatically as frequency increases. There are three
'.pes of losses in conventional transmission lines, ohmic, dielectric and
radiation. Ohmic losses are caused by the current flowing in the resistance of
the conductors making up the transmission lines. Because of the skin effect,
which increases resistance at higher frequencies these losses tend to increase
in the microwave region. Dielectric losses are caused by the electric field
acting on the molecules of the insulator and thereby causing heating through
molecular agitation.
Radiation losses represent loss of energy as an electromagnetic wave
propagates away from the surface of the transmission line conductor.
Losses on Jong runs of coaxial transmission give designers cause for concern
even in as low as the 04 to 5 GHz region. Also because of the increased
losses, power handling capability decreases at higher frequencies. Therefore
at higher microwave frequencies or where long runs make coax attenuation
losses unacceptable or where high power levels would overheat the coax
waveguides are used in lieu of transmission lines.
The conventional open wire transmission lines are not suitable for microwave
transmission because of high radiation losses. Two popularly used guided
media for microwave transmission are
1. Multiconductor guided media -
e.g. Co-axial lines, strip lines, microstrip lines, slot-lines and co-planar lines.
2. Single conductor guided media -
e.g. Rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide.Microwave Engineering 464 Microwave Transmission Lines
Waveguides are used for transmitting electromagnetic fields in UHF and
microwave frequency region. A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube of
rectangular or circular cross-section. Generally waveguides are constructed of
brass, copper or aluminium. In the microwave region the transmission
lines / co-axial cables become inefficient due to skin effect and dielectric
losses, waveguides are used to obtain larger bandwidth and lower signal
attenuation. The transmission lines are capable of guiding energy from point
to point in TEM mode, whereas transmission of energy in TE and TM modes
can be achieved by use of waveguide. Frequencies above & /2 operating
frequency of a waveguide will be propagated and all lower frequencies will
be attenuated. Thus, waveguides acts as high-pass filters with a nominal
surge impedance of 50 9. The wave is propagated by reflections from the
inner walls of the waveguide hence the inner walls of waveguides are
smooth, moisture-free and often silver coated.
1.1.2 Electromagnetic Field
Radio signals are electromagnetic (EM) waves exactly like light, infrared, and
ultra violet, except for frequency. The EM wave consists of two mutually
perpendicular oscillating fields travelling together. One field is an electric
field while the other is a magnetic field. Both the fields are oscillating
90 degrees out of phase with each other and arranged orthogonally to each
other as shown in following figure.
Fig. 1.1.1 Electromagnetic wave propagationMicrowave Engineering 1-5 Microwave Transmission Lines
1.1.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves
© The electric field and magnetic field
components are mutually
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation as shown in the figure.
1. Transverse Electromagnetic Wave
(TEM)
* In TEM mode both electric and
magnetic fields are purely transverse
to the direction of propagation and
consequently have no components in
Fig. 1.1.2 Electric and magnetic field z direction
components
y
ie. E,=H,=0
2. Transverse Electric Wave (TE)
* In TE wave only the clectric field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse.
ie, E,=0 & H+ 0
3. Transverse Magnetic Wave (TM)
* In TM wave, the magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation
and the electric field is not purely transverse.
ie E,#0&H,=0
© When a wave is travelling along positive z-direction, then the wave equation
for TM and TE mode can be written as -
V?E, = -w*pneE, For TM wave (H, = 0)
V?H, = -wpsH, For TE wave (E, = 0)
Since all field vectors are varying with time 't,, in sinusoidal as manner.
Then
E, = Eye?
where,
= Propagation constant
E,, = Maximum electric field in z-direction
Y
y = a+jp
«
= Attenuation constantMicrowave Engineering 1-6 Microwave Transmission Lines
® = Phase constant
1.1.4 Characteristics of Microwave
6.
Microwave possesses certain useful characteristics :
Microwave wavelengths are very small.
Microwave pulses are very short so that they can be used for distance or
time measurement.
High frequency of microwaves means very large bandwidth is available for
communication.
Microwave radiation penetrates fog and clouds, travels in straight lines, and
gives reflections hence can be used for. distance and direction measurements
{tadar systems).
. Microwaves are necessary for communications through satellite because they
can pass through the ionosphere which reflects lower frequency radio waves.
Microwave power is absorbed by water or any other material containing
water so that microwaves can be used for heating and drying.
1.2 Applications of Microwave
Because of certain useful properties that microwave posesses, it is becoming
more and more widely used, Some applications are discussed here -
1. Broadcasting :
Usually radio broadcasting and TV used frequencies below the microwave
range. However, increasing congestion of the radio spectrum made reception
difficult for some listeners : There are no frequencies available for increase in
broadcasting at radio frequencies. Any further entry of broadcasting will be
in the microwave region. Now 12 GHz frequency is being used local or
satellite TV broadcasting with special microwave receivers.
2. Communication :
Increased bandwidth for communication channels requires higher carrier
frequencies. A microwave link is point-to-point link using the propagation of
electromagnetic waves at microwave frequencies through free space.
In satellite communication microwave frequencies are to be used since the
ionosphere is opaque to lower frequencies.Microwave Engineering 1-7 Microwave Transmission Lines
3. Radar :
* Radar is the traditional use of microwaves. The name Radar is derived from
the initial letters of Radio Detection and Ranging,
* The simplest form of radar is the pulse radar which gives a plan position
indication (ppi). It measures the time for an echo to return.
«The CW (carrier wave) or doppler radar gives a velocity indication which is
used in military applications. The doppler radar also has many industrial
and consumer uses, it is used in industrial controls for flow or velocity
measurement. It is also used for motion detection.
4, Microwave heating :
© The rate of microwave power absorption in most materials is proportional to
its water content. This property is used for microwave heating. Because the
microwave signal, penetrates most mon-conductors, microwave power
provides a most efficient means of applying heat uniformly throughout a
body. Microwave heating is used in many process industries for heating,
drying and sterilizing.
5. Moisture measurement =
* Microwave absorption by water also means that moisture content
measurement by microwaves is possible. The attenuated microwave signal
passed through the specimen is measured.
1.3 Rectangular Waveguides
* A rectangular waveguide is characterized by its wide dimension (a) and
narrow dimension (b). Fig. 1.3.1 shows a rectangular waveguide structure.
Conducting
walls.
Fig. 1.3.1 Rectangular waveguideMicrowave Engin
ing 1-8 Microwave Transmission Li
The conducting walls are made of usually brass or aluminium and the
dielectric medium is usually air. The electromagnetic wave to be transmitted
travel longitudinally down the length of the waveguide i.e. z-direction. The
conducting walls of the waveguide keeps within limit the electromagnetic
field and guide the wave. The wave is reflected between the walls, because
of multiple reflections a number of distinct field configurations can exist in
waveguides, Each of these field configuration is called a MODE.
The waveguide structure is a single conductor, therefore a de voltage can not
be applied in the usual manner across two terminals. The whole waveguide
can be held at a voltage with respect to ground but the voltage does not
appear across the waveguide, rather than it appear across whatever separates
the waveguide from ground. The basic property of a rectangular waveguide
is its ability to carry high frequency signals but not low frequencies.
The field polarizations are commonly used to analyze this waveguide. The
field polarization can have five field components. These are transverse
electric with fields = (Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy, Hz} and transverse magnetic with
fields {E,, Ej, H,, Hy}. Cartesian co-ordinates naturally fit the rectangular
waveguide, and the fields in the waveguide can vary along any of the x, y
or z directions. The time and z dependence of alll of the fields take the usual
form eit!
A component of e'
er electric field or magnetic field is in the direction of
propagation of wave. Hence a rectangular waveguide does not support a
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
An uniform plane wave reflected in a rectangular waveguide is shown in
Fig. 13.2.
Fig. 1.3.2 Wave reflection in waveguideMicrowave Engineering 1-9 Microwave Transmission Lines
+ Wavelength A is in the direction of propagation. Let @ be the angle of
incidence for the wave, then the wavelength 4. can have two components.
A. in the direction normal to the reflecting plane
and 2.p in the direction parallel to the reflecting plane
he =
cos0
=.
Pp © sind
1.3.1 Modes of Propagation
+ There are two types of modes the waveguide can support :
i) TM mode (Transverse Magnetic)
ii) TE mode (Transverse Electric)
* In TM mode, magnetic lines are entirely transverse to the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic wave. The electric field has a component in
that direction.
© In TE mode, the electric field lines are entirely transverse to the direction of
the propagation whereas magnetic field has a component along the direction
of propagation.
* The propagation modes for both TM and TE are designated by two
subscripts. The first subscript indicate the number of half wave variations of
the electric field in the wide dimension (a) of the waveguide whereas second
subscript indicates the number of half wave variations of the electric field
along the narrow dimension of the waveguide.
Depending on the values of m and n, any mode is denoted by TE, OF TMyn
mode,
Modes of TE Wave in Rectangular Waveguide
1) TE) mode : For m = 0 and n = 0, ic. the number of half wave variations on
wide dimension and narrow dimensions are zero, therefore all the field
components vanish inside the waveguide, therefore this mode cannot exist.
2) TE,, mode : For m = 1 and n = 0, there is only one-half wave variation of
electric field along the wide dimension and there is no electric field variation
along the narrow dimension. Therefore TE, mode can exist and it is the
simplest mode.Transmission Lines
Microwave Engineering
3) TE), mode : For m= 0 and n= 1
E, = 0, H, = 0, B, and H, exist
Therefore this mode exists.
4) TM,, Mode : For m = 1 andn=1.
TE,, mode exists
Modes of TM Wave in Rectangular Waveguide
1) TMy Mode : For m = 0 and n= 0
All the elecric and magnetic field components E, E,, H,, H, vanishes hence
‘TM,y mode can not exits.
2) TM,, Mode : For m = O and n= 1.
All field components vanishes hence it does not exists.
3) TM,, Mode : m = 1 and n=0
Again all field components vanishes so this mode also not valid.
4) TM,, Mode: m= 1 n=1
In this mode all field component exists in wavegide, it is said that TM, is a
valid mode. this mode has lowest cut-off frequency hence called as dominant
mode.
1.3.2 Non-existence of TEM Mode
* ‘The transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave will not propagate in a
waveguide because certain boundary conditions apply. While the wave in the
waveguide propagates through the air or inert gas dielectric in a manner
similar to free space propagation, the phenomenon is bounded by the walls
of the waveguide which implies that certain conditions must be met.
© The boundary conditions for waveguides are as follows,
1) The electric field must be orthogonal to the conductor in order to exist at the
surface of that conductor.
2) The magnetic field must not be orthogonal to the surface of the waveguide.
* In order to satisfy these boundary conditions, the waveguide gives rise to
two types of propagation modes, transverse electric mode (TE mode) and
transverse magnetic mode (TM-mode). The TEM mode voltages the boundary
conditions because the magneitc field is not parallel to surface and does not
occur in waveguidesMicrowave Engineering 1-11 Microwave Transmission Lines:
1.3.3 Solutions of Wave Equations in Rectangular Co-ordinates
* For evaluating the wave equations there can be two ways i.e. time domain
solution and frequency domain solution. Here frequency domain solution is
used. Consider rectangular co-ordinate system as shown in Fig. 13.3.
LOTT
A
3
3
RESSEEY
Fig. 1.3.3
* The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency domain is given by -
VE = y2E w @3.1)
and VE = yH e. (13.2)
Where,
y is vector wave equation (y = a +B)
The E and H components satisfies the Helmholtz. equation given as -
viy = yy --- (133)
The Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates is given as -
Py Ow ew
Fy ey 2
Ox “ay? Oz?
=v oo1.3.4)
The simple form of solution may be written as -
¥ = Xe Yyy Ze ++ 135)
Solving the equation will give the Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates
y = [A sin (k, x) + B cos (k,x)] [e sin (k, y) + D cos (ky y)]
IE sin (k, z) + F cos (k, z)] == (13.6)Microwave Engin
ing 1-12
Derivation for propagation constant (y)
* Waveguide propagation constant (y,) differs from intrinsic propagation
constant y of dielectric,
yi yitki+k
8
y= Pek + (13.7)
Where,
k, is cut-off wave number (ke = fk + K3)
Also for lossless dielectric 7? = 0? pe. Then propagation constant y, can be
solved from equation (
%
ve = ot perk?
Y,_ = tyo7 perk? vee (1.3.8)
Now there can be three conditions for propagation constant 7...
Condition 1: uty c= kz
«When o? pe = k? then yg = 0 and there will be no wave propagation. This is
known as critical condition for cut-off propagation.
* The cut-off frequency (f, can be calculated as
Koos (ke + kg
kis ki+ ke
owe = ke+k}
(Qmh)? pe = ke +k?
, eK
«ade
1
L = ak ve 13.9.
© aye VTS “®Microwave Engineering 1-13 Microwave Transmission Lines
Condition 2 : op e> ke
y, = t¥o?we-Ke
1, = tio me (
Ye = tj Bg
* It indicates that operating frequency f must be above cutoff frequency (F,) for
a wave to propagate in waveguide.
Gondition 3: w?y ¢ < kz
te = tne (s)3 . (13.11)
Y,g = ta,
© It indicates that if operating frequency f is below cutoff frequency f,, the
wave will attenuate (decay exponentially) and no propagation of wave is
possible,
J va. (13:10)
1.3.4 Field Equations for TE Mode
* Field components of Transverse Electric (TE) waves are shown in Fig. 13.4.
H, &
H,
‘~— Transverse A
Component Longitudinal
component
&
Fig. 1.3.4
«© For TE,,, mode: E, =0 and
H, #0
Helmhotz equation : V2 H, = 7? HeMicrowave Engineering 1-14 Microwave Transmission Lines
Where,
telson temo eft om
Maxwell's Curl equation; Vx E =-jopH
VeH = joeE
+ TE mode field equations for rectangular waveguides as
~jou oH,
BE, = Jobo .. (1.3.12)
ke Oy
_ jon oH,
5 a ve (13.13)
E, = 0 ve (13.14)
_ vis OH,
He SESS . (13.15)
— Be @H,
Ge oy .-. (1.3.16)
The magnetic field in positive z-direction is given by
H, = Ho cof 52) coo Eee # .. (13.17)
Where,
Hy, is amplitude constant.
Substituting H, in equations (1.3.12) through (1.3.16) gives
E, = Eo coef BEX) sin BEY) 2 wa. (13:18)
a b
. af RX) oof DRY ) on itg z
E, = Evy sin{ BX )Jeoe( "EE Je ves (1.3.19)
E, = 0 ves (1.3.20)
H, = He sinf BE) coal Jems 2 w+ (13.21)
Hy = Hy co 22%) cos "EE Je“ wa. (13.22)Microwave Transmission Lines
1-15
Microwave Engineering
1.3.5 Field Pattern in Waveguide
Field pattern for TE,, mode in rectangular waveguide is shown in the
Fig. 1.3.5.
Soul) Po}ONIP PIEMU|
‘S9u| payDeuip PiEMINO o-
seu} ————
souy 3
Fig. 1.3.5 Field pattern for TE1o modeMicrowave Engineering 1-16 Microwave Transmission Lines
Field Pattern for Higher TE Modes
+ Field pattern for higher TE modes is shown in Fig, 1.3.6.
=
TE), mods
de = 20
TEqg mode
deze
TESEEE
o
o
o
is
i
i
ts
4
i
H
»
RS ee
(ee
— E lines © Outward directed lines
-- >> Hines © Inward directed lines
Fig. 1.3.6 Field patterns for some higher-order TE modes in rectangular waveguideMicrowave Engineering 1-17 Microwave Transmission Lines
1.3.6 Waveguide Parameters.
A) Cut-off Wavelength
* The mode in a waveguide is a function of waveguide dimensions and the
frequency of the propagating signal.
© Cut-off wavelength is the wavelength of the signal below which the
propagation of wave occurs and above which there is attenuation or no
propagation. The cut-off wavelength is denoted by A.
«© The cutoff wavelength for rectangular waveguides for both TE,,, and TMi,
is given by
where a = Wide dimension of waveguide
b = Narrow dimension of waveguide
* Therefore the operating frequency must be above the cut-off frequency in
order to propagate the wave in waveguide.
* The frequency associated with cut-off wavelength is called cut-off frequency
(f).
B) Dominant Mode
* The mode for both TE and TM which offers highest cut-off wavelength (i)
or lowest cut-off frequency (fq) in a particular waveguide is called as
dominant mode.
* For TEyq, mode, TE, is the dominant mode and for TM,,, mode, TM,, is the
dominant mode.
* Dominant mode is almost a low loss, distortionless transmission while other
modes contains harmonic distortion and losses. Therefore TE, and TM),
modes are used for all practical electromagnetic transmission.Microwave Engineering 1-18 Microwave Transmission Lines
For TM,, mode :
m=Ln=1
Rey
For TE,, mode :
m=1n=0
Ae = 2a
C) Guide Wavelength
+ Ina waveguide, the distance measured along the axis of the waveguide for a
phase shift of 2x radians is known as guide wavelength or the propagating
wavelength inside the guide is called the guide wavelength. Guide
wavelength is denoted by },.
+ The guide wavelength (,), the free space wavelength (iq) and the cutoff
wavelength (ic) are related by -
Tay
This expression is valid for any waveguide mode.
D) Group Velocity
* When a modulated carrier travels through a waveguide, the modulation
envelope travels with a velocity much less than that of carrier. The velocity
of modulation envelope is called group velocity (v,).
In an air filled or hollow waveguide,
», = 2.
eo
©
Putting the value of 2, and solving for v,Microwave Engineering 1-19 Microwave Transmission Lines
E) Phase Velocity
+ For a wave travelling through the waveguide the speed with which a
particular phase of the wave travels in the propagation direction is defined
as phase velocity (0,).
or
F) Wave Impedance
* Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of transverse electric field to
transverse magnetic field at any point in the waveguide. Wave impedance is
also known as characteristic impedance.
Wave impedance for TE wave in rectangular waveguide
= oH
eG
eH
oe = Gado oF
a
on yi-@. / a)?
Ze =Microwave Engineering 1-20 Microwave Transmission Lines
where 11 = Intrinsic impedance for free space
tori fi
120 x
Wave impedance for TE wave is always greater than free space.
4.3.7 Comparison of TE and TM Modes.
TE Mode
T™ Mode
Transverse electric mode. Transverse magnetic mode
Electric field component in 2 direction is
zero.
ie E,=0
Magnetic field component in z direction Is
zero.
ieH,=0.
Electromagnetic energy is transmitted by
E, component.
Electromagnetic energy is transmitted by
H, component.
TEo) and TEy modes exist
TMo1 and TMi modes does not exists
Cut-off frequency of dominant made is 2a.
Cue frequency of dominant mode is
eat
1.3.8 Boundary Conditions for TE Mode
.
The entire surface of reactangular waveguide acts as a shorting circuit for
electric field E, = 0, for all along the boundary walls of the waveguide.
Four boundary conditions exists for four different waveguide walls.
1" Boundary condition : Bottom wall
Ex=0 at y=O0¥x70toa
2" Boundary condition ; Top wall
E,=0 at bY¥x>0toa
3" Boundary condition : Left side wall
E,=0 at x=O0Vy—+O0tob
4" Boundary condition : Right side wall
Ey =0 at x=0Vy+0tobMicrowave Engineering 1-21 Microwave Transmission Lines
1.3.9 Boundary Conditions for TM Mode
1 Boundary condition : Bottom wall
E,=0 at y=0Vx>0toa
2"! Boundary condition : Left side wall
220 at x=0Vy>0tob.
3 Boundary condition : Top wall
E,=0 at y=bVx0toa
4 Boundary condition ; Right side wall
E,=0 at x=aVy>0tob,
1.4 Power Transmitted in Waveguide
* The power transmitted (flowing) in a waveguide operating at a frequency
above cut-off frequency can be calculated by means of the complex Poynting
theorem.
Assumption
1, The waveguide is infinitely long compared to the wavelength.
2. Waveguide is terminated such that there is no reflection from the receiving
end.
* Then the power transmitted through the waveguide of dimensions a x b
from the sending end is given by complex Poynting theorem as
P, = fP-ds
where: P = ExH*
Py = f(ExH*) ds
* This theorems gives the complex power transmitted across the surface
enclosed by the volume. Then the real average power transmitted is given by
1 - :
P= 5f(€xH")ds -- (41)
where real value of H’ is taken.
From the definition of wave impedance Z,Microwave Engineering 1+22 Microwave Transmission Lines
1.5 Power Loss in Waveguide
+ As the electromagnetic wave propagates through a waveguide, the wave
intensity gets attenuated because of losses in the waveguides. There are three
types of losses in the waveguide which causes attenuation of transmitted
signal.
1. Power loss in dielectric filling.
2. Power loss in waveguide walls.
3. Misaligned waveguide sections.
1.5.1 Power Loss in Dielectric Filling
« When the guide is completely filled with a low loss dielectric (6<< 1s), the
attenuation constant a in the guide due to dielectric loss is -
Intrinsic impedance
But inan unbounded | = it
dielectric
Therefore for free space
The attenuation in waveguide a, for TE, and TM,,, mode is given by
For TE,,, mode
For TMy, modeMicrowave Engineering 1-23 Microwave Transmission Lines.
1.5.2 Power Loss in Waveguide Walls
«In waveguide the wave is propagated by reflections from walls. The
tangential component of electric field and normal component magnetic field
develops losses in the walls. Due to this the average power in the waveguide
is dissipated.
The attenuation in waveguide a is given by
PL
a,
te
where P, = Power loss per unit length
P, = Power transmitted through the waveguide
1.5.3 Misaligned Waveguide Sections
* When the waveguide sections are joined and if the joint is not proper or
misaligned, there will be some loss due to reflection.
1.6 Waveguide Excitation
+ Energy can be incident into the waveguide by a radiating element (Short
antenna). This radiating element may be a probe or loop inserted into a
waveguide. Desired mode of transmission can be setup by placing the probe
correctly, this process is called as waveguide excitation.
+ In order to produce field intensities of desired mode in the waveguide a
probe or loop-coupling device is commonly used. The waveguides are
excited from microwave signal source through a co-axial cable. The inner
conductor of the co-axial cable is projected inside the waveguide. This inner
conductor acts as an electric dipole. The dipole is oriented so as to excite the
electric field intensity of the mode, and the coupling loop so as to generate
Antenna,
Fig. 1.6.4 TE;q mode excitationMicrowave Engineering 1-24 Microwave Transmission Lines
the magnetic field intensity of the desired mode. The TE, mode with the
probe at the centre is shown in Fig. 1.6.1.
« If the desired mode excitation is to be used with two or more probes. A
proper phase relationship of antenna currents is to be maintained. Fig. 1.6.2
shows TE, mode excitation by two probes.
Fig. 1.6.2 TE2) mode excitation
+ Similarly depending on the field configuration of the mode, excitation for
TM,; mode is shown in Fig. 1.6.3.
Co-axial
line
Fig. 1.6.3 TE}; mode excitation
«Impedance matching can be achieved by varying the position and depth of
the antenna in the waveguide.Microwave Engineering 1-25 Microwave Transmission Lines.
41.7 Comparison of Waveguide and Co-axial Cable
Waveguide Co-axial Cable
1 | Waveguide can transmit frequencies All frequencies can be transmitted
above cut-off frequency. through co-axial cable.
2 | Waveguide is a one conductor Co-axial cable is two conductor
transmission system transmission system.
3 | tn waveguides no power is lost through | Power loss because of radiation takes
radiation as electric and magnetic fields | place as the signal travel along the
are confined to the space within guides. | cable.
4 | The electromagnetic wave travelling TEM waves are propagated.
through the guide is either TE or TM.
5 | In waveguide several modes of wave There is no such modes for the
propagation is possible. propagation of waves.
6 | Power handling capacity of waveguide is | Co-axial cables are suitable for small
more. transmitting power.
1.8 Advantages of Waveguide Over Co-axial Cable
1, Waveguides are easier to manufacture since inner conductor is missing and
their properties are uniform and easier to calculate.
2. Power handling capacity of waveguide is superior to the co-axial cables.
3. In waveguide the propagation is by reflection from the walls, the power
losses in waveguides are lower than,co-axial cables and transmission lines.
4. The maximum operating frequency of waveguide is 325 GHz as compared to
18 GHz for co-axial cable, it is because of different methods of propagation.
5. Waveguides have larger bandwidth than co-axial cables transmission lines.
Key Equations =
1 he =Microwave Engin 1-26 Microwave Transmission Lines
4 oq. ate
1-(%o
Xe
Hobe
5 -
a eoer
6 a, = —<%
7. f=
8. B=
9. f=
Solved Examples
‘ump Example 4.1: A rectangular waveguide is filled by dielectric material of == 9 and has
internal dimensions of 7 cm x 3.5 em for dominant TE, mode. Then
(a) Determine the cut-off frequency.
(b) Find the phase velocity in the guide at frequency of 2 GHz
(c) Find the guided wavelength 2, at 2 GHz
Solution : For dominant mode m = 1 and n= 0,
a=7on=7x107m
b =3.5 cm =3.5x 107 m
&,=9
{a) Cut-off frequency (f,)
Cut-off frequency is given byMicrowave Engineering 1-27 Microwave Transmission Lines
© = €9-e, where ey = Permittivity of free space
£9 = 8.85410? F/m
& = (8.854% 10" x 9)
and Ho = Permeability of free space = 4x 107 H/m
1 1
fe =e
“2 Gro0°7 x 8.854 x10" x9) le
f= 0.7137 GHz = 713.799 MHz ws ARS.
(b) Phase velocity (v,)
: {, = 0.7137 GHz
Re = £231 042 m
fe 0.737 x10°
Given operating frequency is f = 2 GHz
_ ¢_3x108
0 = FP Sa0
=0.15 m
3x108
° 015)"
/-(8)
= 3.21 x 10" meters / sec ~. Ans.
(c) Guided wavelength (.,)
4, = 0.16 meters a ANS,Microwave Engineering 1+28 Microwave Transmission Lines.
wm Example 1.2: Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the dominant mode in a rectangular
waveguide of dimensions 4 cm x 2 cm.
Solution : For dominant mode
TE,,,m = landn=0
a = dem=4x107 m
b = 2cm=2x102 m
Cutoff wavelength
a, = Bem .. Ans.
a
mb Example 1.3; Design a rectangular waveguide to propagate 10 GHz signal under
dominant mode.
Solution: f = 10 GHz = 10x10? Hz
¢ = 3x108 m = 3x10 cm
Dominant TE, mode : m 0.
Wavelength in free space
_ 3x10
~ 10%10°
dy = Bem
Typically dy > a> he
3em > a>15cm
Let a = 2cm
For a standard rectangular waveguide the aspect ratio is 2 : 1. ie.
a=1-29 Microwave Transmi:
Therefore the dimensions of waveguide is 2 cm x 1 cm. vs Ans.
im> Example 1.4: A wave is propagated in a rectangular waveguide at 6 GHz. Caleulate
i) The cut-off wavelength for dominant mode.
i) Wavelength in guide for dominant mode.
iti) Group velocity and phase velocity.
Given a = 3 em ,
Solution : Dominant mode is TE, mode.
ie. m = landn=0
i) Cut-off wavelength -
.. Ans.
ii) Wavelength
Wavelength in free space Ay
3
>
The wavelength in guide :
». Ans.Microwave Engineering 1
ili) Group velocity
_ 8 3x10*
ra
V, = 166.67 x 10° m/s -- Ans,
iv) Phase velocity
.. Ans.
a
mm Example 4.5: A rectangular waveguide has a = 3 cm and carries dominant mode of a
signal of 7.63 GHz. Find the characteristic wave impedance.
Solution : Dominant mode is TE, mode.
Cutoff wavelength
he = 6em w- Ans.
Wavelength in free space Ao
ho =F
3x108
7.63109
ho = 3.93 cm o Ans.
Characteristic wave impedance for TE mode
ho =Microwave Engineering Microwave Transmission Lines
Ze
ore
ore . Ans.
.
wm Example 1.6: For an air-filled rectangular waveguide of 2 cm x 1 em calculate the
cut-off wavelength de for TE) and TMy, modes. Also calculate guide wavelength at 10 GHz.
Solution ; a= 2cm
belem
Cut-off wavelength 4.< is given by
i) For TE) mode
a= 2
IS +0
S he = .. Ans.
ii) For TM,, mode
he =Microwave Engineering 1-32 Microwave Transmission Lines
ili) Guide wavelength
f = 10 GHz = 10x 10°Hz = 10" Hz
3
he = a
(3)
he = 45cm .. Ans.
5
om Example 1.7: A section of X-band waveguide with dimensions a = 2.286 cm and
b= 1.016 cm has perfectly conducting walls and is filled with a lossy dielectric whose
conductivity is 367.5 ps/m and permittivity is 2.1 and permeability is 1.0. Find the
attenuation factor of this waveguide in dB/m. For the dominant mode of propagation at a
frequency of 9 GHz.
Solution: Given a = 2.286 cam
b = 1.016 cm
o = 3675 ps/m
ef, = 21
= 1.0
f = 9GHz ‘
a=?
For dominant TEy mode
f
£
2a
¢ = —_3x108
© 2x 2,286x10
6.5 GHzMicrowave Engineering 4-33 Microwave Transmission Lines
(4 rx107 «1)
"> V@85x10 x2.1)
n= 260
Attenuation caused by low-loss dielectric in a rectangular waveguide for TE,
mode is given by,
367.5x260
65)
a(S)
Gg = 96.7 -dBim
a, =
wm> Example 1.8: A rectangular waveguide with dimensions 4 cm x 2.5 cm is excited by a
amicrowave source propagating in the dominant made. Following were the observations with a
slotted line having the same dimensions of the above waveguide. Distance between two
consecutive maxima is 1.618 em. Calculate the frequency of operation.
Solution : Given a = 3cm
b = 4em
d = 5em
me=l
n=0
Cut-off wavelength
2
“Ra
a B
2
?
3
tMicrowave Engineering 1-34 Microwave Transmission Lines
Guided wavelength
But 2g = 1.618 measured by slotted line.
do = (1.618) -
2-518)
(8
Ao = 1.58 cm - Ans,
Operating frequency
Again Ao = ;
108
158x102 = 221"
3x108
f= _oxl0”_ = 189GH
158x107 *
Therefore operating frequency = 18.9 GHz
LiMicrowave Engineering 1-35 Microwave Transmission Lines
mmm Example 1.9: An air filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions of 6 cm x dem. It
propagates a signal at 3 GHz. Compute the following for TEy, mode
i) Cut-off frequency
ii) Guide wavelength
iii) Phase constant
iv) Phase velocity
») Group velocity
vi) Wave impedance
Solution : Given a = 6 cm = 6x10? m
b = 4ems 4x10? m
f = 3.GHz = 3x10? Hz
For TE, mode =m = 1
n=0
’) Cut-off frequency
For an air-filled waveguide operating at dominant mode. Cut-off frequency (f,) is
given as,
Bla
3x108
2x6x107
f, = 2.5x109 = 25 GHz ; 4, = 0.12 m
ji) Guide wavelength
c
ho =e
°*F
3108
do = a0
“ Ao = O1mMicrowave Engineer!
ing
ag
1-36
iii) Phase constant
= 0.18 m= 18 cm
Phase constant B, is given by
= 2-(§)
iv) Phase velocity
v) Group velocity
By
2nx3x109 2.
Bs = S508 1
Bp, = 34.74 nepers m
= 5.4108 misec
, = 1.67 x 10° nsec
Microwave Transmission Lines
.. Ans.
.. Ans.
.. Ans.
Ans.Microwave Engineering 1-37 Microwave Transmission Lines
vi) Wave impedance
Zn =
Zp = oe .. ANS.
a
imm> Example 1.10: An air filled rectangular waveguide of inside dimensions 7 x 3.5 cm
operates in the dominant TE yy mode :
i) Find the cut-off frequency
if) Determine phase velocity of wave in the guide at 3.5 GHz.
iti) Determine the guided wavelength at the same frequency.
Solution: = a=7x107 m
b=35x102 m
For dominant mode : m = 1,n=0
i) Cut-off frequency
For an air-filled waveguide
ii) Phase velocity
v, = 3.78x10 m/s vs Ans.Microwave Engineering 1+38 Microwave Transmission Lines
iii) Guided wavelength
ho
eae
he = 3x108 / (3.5x10°)
he :
yi-(2.14/35)
dg = 10.8 em
im Example 1.11: A rectangular waveguides has a cross-section af 1.5 cm x 0.8 cm, o = 0,
H= Hy and c=4e9. The magnetic field component is given as -
H, =2sin (2 oo) si (xx 1014 —pb2) Afme
Determine :
i) Mode of operation
ii) Cut-off frequency
iii) Phase constant
iv) Propagation constant
v) Wave impedance
Solution ;
i) Mode of operation
A common factor of H, component in TE and TM mode wave is
sin( 2 Ex cool y)
a B
Comparing with the given expression
H, = 2 sn( %ooo{ 2) singre toe Bz)
it is observed that, m = 1 and n = 3
Therefore the mode of operation is TM,, or TE,s.
ii) Cut-off frequencyMicrowave, Engineering 1-39 Microwave Transmission Lines
but
f = 28.58 GHz --Ans.
From given expression 2nf = nx 10"!
iii) Phase constant
Bs
50 GHz
ax104
Bs =
Bs = 3508
By = 859.25 nepers m o-Ans,
iv) Propagation constant
Propagation constant under critical condition is given by : V, = +) By
Bz = 2 859.25
v) Wave Impedance
2m
But es (Given)Microwave Engineering 1-40 Microwave Transmission Lines
n=
Zim
For free space = 120 #
1205, ri
Zm = ——[V0.7382}"
ATM Tt t I
Zm = 219370
Points to Remember
1. Microwaves are those electromagnetic waves with frequencies of 900 MHz
to 300 GHz with wavelengths of 33 cm to 1 mm.
nv
. Electromagnetic waves propagate at a velocity of 300,000,000 meters per
second (3x 10° m/s) or about 186,200 miles per second.
3. Microwave signals are electromagnetic (EM) waves that propagate at a
velocity of 3108 m/s in free space. Polarization of an EM wave is
defined as the direction of the electric field vector. The magnetic field
vector is always orthogonal to (90° from) the electric field vector.
4. EM waves exhibit four major propagation paths, surface wave, space
wave, tropospheric wave and ionospheric wave. The space wave has two
components, direct and reflected.
5. Applications of microwave -
a) Broadcasting b) Communication c) Radar
d) Microwave heating _ e) Moisture measurement
6. A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube of rectangular or circular cross
section used for transmitting microwave frequencies.
7. The electromagnetic wave inside a waveguide can have an infinite number
of patterns, those are called as modes.
8. There are two types of modes, which waveguide can support
i) TM mode ii) TE mode, TEM mode does not exist.
9. Wave guide parameters are
i) Cut-off wavelength ()..)
ii) Dominant mode(1-42)Circular Wavequides
Introduction
+ A circular waveguide is a metallic cylindrical or tubular structure with inner
radius p = a and length L. Following figure 2.1 shows circular waveguide.
Fig. 2.1 Circular waveguide
+ Here 4 is varying from 0 to 2n, p is varying from o to a and length / varies
along z-axis.
* The Helmhotz equation for TE and TM wave travelling in Z direction of a
waveguide are .
VtH, = 0
VE, = 0
2.1 Propagation of TE Wave In Circular Waveguide
+ For TE wave to propagate
H, #0
(2-1)Microwave Engineering 2-2 Circular Waveguides
Maxwell's Equation
V?H, = - o's H,
Using cylindrical co-ordinate for V2H,
2H, 1 0H, 1 87H, | 0H,
p ap pt a az
-o? pe H,
3
oz
@H, ,1 dH,
. +=
op? pap
But y+ope = hr
eH,
oe
+h HL =0
‘The above equation is a partial differential equation, and can be solved by
separation of variable method. The solution of H, for sinusoidal variation
along z is given by -
H, = Co In(ph)cosng e-*
where,
Jn is n® order Basse! function
Co = CnCn: and
Cn is a constant.
2.1.1 Boundary Conditions / Characteristic Equations
* Along the surface of the waveguide is at p = a and Ey = 0 for all values
between 0 to 2n
Ipaa
+ By using Maxwell's curl equation various field components are given asMicrowave Engineering 2-4 Circular Waveguides
* TEM does not exist in circular waveguide since all field components vanish
for E, =H, = 0.
2.2 Planar Transmission Lines
© Now a days planar type transmission lines are becoming popular because of
its simplicity and light weight. The planar transmission lines have geometry
which allows to control the characteristic impedance (Zo) of line by
controlling its dimension. The complete transmission line can be fabricated in
one step by thin film technology and photolithography techniques.
* Several configurations of planar transmission lines are possible. Some
commonly used configurations are
1. Strip lines
2. Microstrip lines
3. Slot lines
4. Coplanar strip lines
2.2.1 Strip Lines
© Strip line is a three conductor transmission line. Fig. 2.21 shows
cross-sectional view of strip line structure.
Genter conductor
Lower loss
dielgctic (eq)
Metal
ground
ites tecw
tec
Fig. 2.2.4 Gross sectional view of strip line transmission line
The strip line consists of a central conductor called strip and two ground
plates. The width of the strip is w and thickness is t. The two ground plates
are separated by homogeneous low loss dielectric (ex) medium, the strip is
embedded in this dielectric medium.Microwave Engineering 2-5 Circular Waveguides
* The voltage is applied between the center strip and the pair of ground
planes, current flows down the center strip and returns via the ground
planes. The structure is open at the sides but it is a non-radiating
transmission line.
* The dominant mode of
propagation in strip line is a
pure transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) ic. the electric field and
magnetic field components are
transverse to the direction of
propagation. The field lines are
confined within the
transmission line with no
radiation losses. The field lines
are concentrated near the strip
E Lines and decay —_ exponentially
H Lines towards ground planes which
are at zero potential. Fig. 2.2.2
Fig. 2.2.2 TEM field pattern of strip line shows TEM field pattern
(electric field and magnetic field
distribution) of strip line.
* Strip line is constructed using a pair of printed circuit boards. The
dimensions are chosen to operate in TEM mode with minimum losses,
thickness t is typically few thousandths of an inch, while b ranges from 74 to
; of an inch. Higher order modes are not allowed to propagate, this can be
ensured by keeping distance between ground planes less than 24 / 2, where
ha is wavelength in dielectric medium. The commonly used dielectrics are
Teflon and Polystyrene. The practical values of characteristic impedance (Zo)
is ranging from 10 to 100 ohms for most dielectrics. The strip lines are used
over the frequency range from 100 MHz to 100 GHz.
+ The impedance of strip line is inversely proportional to the ratio of the width
‘w’ of the inner conductor to the distance 'b’ between the ground planes.
Characteristic impedance of a strip line in low impedance region is given by
1
_ 94.15 [wek , Ce
me [ D + ohms (221)Microwave Engineering 2-6
ular Waveguides
where k
Cy = Fringing capacitance due to fringing electric field at the
edges of strip (pF/m).
2.2.4.4 Higher Order Modes in Strip Lines
+ The strip line is capable of propagating electromagnetic energy in other
modes also. The operating bandwidth of a strip line is considerably large for
TEM mode of propagation. The upper operating frequency limit is decided
by TEy and TM,; modes. The cut-off wavelengths for these modes are given
by
For TM,, mode A = 2b Je,
For TE mode Ae = (2 + 5) der
where, b = Separation between ground planes
w = Width of center conductor
cy = Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
2.21.2 Losses in Strip Lines
© Losses in strip lines exists because of attenuation associated with dielectric
loss and conductor loss.
R, tw /b4+ln(4b/-xt)
Zb In2+nw /2b
ac =
Np/length
wer tan3 Np/length
Ro
Total attenuation is sum of ac and ag
a = a.+ag
2.2.1.3 Excitation of Strip Lines
¢ The strip lines are excited by a coaxial line, a special connector or launcher is
used to interface coaxial line and strip line. The connector interfaces center
conductor and two ground planes also. Fig, 2.2.3 shows strip line connector.Microwave Engineering 2-7 Circular Waveguides
Ground planes
Fig. 2.2.3 Strip line connector
2.2.2 Microstrip Lines
© Microstrip line has very simple geometry. Microstrip line consists of a thin
conductor and a ground plane separated by a low loss dielectric material.
Microstrip is an unsymmetrical stripline. The upper ground plane is not
present in microstrip, hence it is also called as open strip line. Fig. 22.4
shows microstrip line.
Conductor strip
Dielectric
substrate
Ground plane Cross section
t>w
Fig. 2.2.4 Microstrip line
© Microstrip line construction has following comparative advantages
i) Better interconnection features because it provides free accessible surface on
which solid state devices can be placed.
ii) Easier fabrication; the entire pattern can be deposited on single dielectric
substrate. :Microwave Engineering 2-8 Circular Waveguides
© Microstrip circuits are fabricated using printed circuit techniques. Three
commonly uséd dielectric materials are alumina, quartz and Duroid. When
semiconductor devices are to be fabricated on microstrip structure, silica
(cr = 11.8) is often used as dielectric, The use of high c, materials reduces the
amount of fringing fields in the air region above the conductor.
* Since the upper plane is not existing the electric field lines remain partially
in the air and partially in dielectric substrate. Hence microstrip line does not
support pure TEM mode for propagation but a quasi TEM as shown in
Fig. 2.2.5. Most of the electric field lines are concentrated in the region below
the strip in the dielectric hence most of the energy is concentrated. Therefore
pure TEM mode can not propagate in a microstrip.
xo o™
_ fT
LLL LLL
CLL ZLELLLEL
(b) Magnetic field
LLL
Fig. 2.2.5 Quasi TEM mode of microstrip line
* Because of open structure the microstrip line radiates electromagnetic energy.
The losses due to radiation are proportional to the square of the frequency.Microwave Engineering 2-9 Circular Waveguides
2.2.2.4 Effective Dielectric Constant
© The propagation field lines in microstrip lie partially in air and in dielectric
substrate. The propagation delay time is decided by an effective dielectric
constant (cei). The quasi TEM mode is controlled by cur.
un
fet (1 eh)
w
where, e, is relative permittivity.
_ ere
fap =
yl
22.22 Characteristic Impedance (Zo)
© The characteristic impedance (Zp) of microstrip line is a function of the strip
line width (w), thickness (t) and ground plane separation (h).
60 8h w + W
= oh we Me
Zo ee ¥] ohms if ¥ <1
+ The guide wavelength for propagating quasi TEM mode is given as
_ ho
dg =
eff
2.2.2.3 Losses in Microstrip Lines
© There are three basic types of losses taking place in microstrip.
i) Dielectric losses
ii) Ohmic losses
i) Radiation losses
i) Dielectric losses
* All dielectric materials have some conductivity but it is very small. When the
conductivity is considerable it cannot be neglected and the electric and
magnetic fields in the dielectric will not be in time phase.
Dielectric attenuation constant, a, is given as
where, o = Conductivity of dielectric
Therefore a low-loss dielectric substrate is used commonly. Commonly used
dielectric materials are alumina, quartz.Microwave Engineering 2-10 Circular Waveguides
ii) Ohmic losses
© Ohmic losses are due to the non-perfect conductors. The current density in
the conductors of a microstrip line is concentrated at skin depth thick inside
the conductor. The conducting attenuation constant is given as -
a, = BOR.
© * aw
where, R, = Surface skin resistance
Zp = Characteristic impedance
w = Width of microstrip
iii) Radiation losses
+ Radiation losses depend on the substrate thickness (geometry) and dielectric
constant.
Radiated power loss is given as
h) FE
= afb).
Pig = 240 # (; } ZB
0
where,
h = Distance between ground plane and microstrip
F = Radiation factor
Zy = Characteristic impedance
' 3g = Free space wavelength
2.2.2.4 Q-factor of Microstrip
* Quality factor (Q) of a microstrip is very high. The value of Q of a
microstrip is limited by the radiation losses of the substrate and dielectric
‘constant.
The Q-factor of a microstrip is given as -
Q = 063 h fof
where,
h = Distance between ground plane and microstrip
@ = Conductivity of dielectric
= Operating frequencyMicrowave Engineering 2-41 Circular Waveguides
2.2.2.5 Limitations of Microstrip
i) Relative dielectric constant changes due to temperature variation resulting in
change of impedance.
ii) At high frequency the required dimensions are very small causing fabrication
problems,
Open strip suffers radiation losses.
2.2.2.6 Comparison of Stripline and Microstrip
Stripline Microstrip
Dielectrics used are teflon, Alumina, quartz, silica
polystyrene.
2. | Suitable for design of only Suitable for the design of
passive circuits passive circuits and series
mounting of active components
across a gap in strip.
3. | Strip tine losses are mainly in| Microstrip losses are
conductor.
i) In dielectric
ii) Ohmic loss in the strip and
ground plane due to finite
conductivity.
3 conductor transmission system| 2-Conductors ie. one ground
i.e. two ground planes and a plane and a microstrip.
stripline
5._| Propagation mode is pure TEM. | Propagation mode is quasi TEM.
2.2.3 Slot Lines
* Slot lines are a useful alternative to the microstrip in fabricating microwave
ICs. In slot lines the conductors are in one plane on a dielectric substrate as
shown in Fig. 2.2.6.
Conductors:
Dielectric
‘substrate (¢,)
Fig. 2.2.6 Slot linesMicrowave Engineering 2-12
Cireular Waveguides
‘The propagating fields in slot lines are concentrated in the dielectric regions
at the gap between the two adjacent conductors. The magnetic fields has a
strong component in the propagation direction. Therefore, the primary
transmission mode is not TEM but TE. This characteristics is more when the
system requires the incorporation of non-reciprocal ferrite components.
Fig. 22.7 shows field patterns of slot line.
Fig. 2.2.7 Field pattern of slot lines
The magnetic field has both longitudinal and transverse components, the
propagating mode is TE. The characteristic impedance Zo at slot lines are
proportional to the width of the slot and frequency.
Advantage of slot line over micrdstrip line is that the active and passive
components can easily be shunt mounted to the line from the top while in
microstrip series mounting is possible.
2.2.4 Coplanar Lines
The coplanar lines consists of a thin metal strip with ground planes on either
side. It combines some of the advantages of microstrip and slot lines. For
example, series and shunt connections are easily achieved in coplanar line.
Fig. 2.2.8 shows coplanar lines.
Ground planes
Center
=
Dielectric substrate (c,)
Fig, 2.2.8 Coplanar linesMicrowave Engineering 2-13 Circular Waveguides
+ The propagating modes in coplanar lines are TE modes. As a significant
magnetic field component is present, nonreciprocal ferrite components can be
realized.
2.2.5 Advantages of Planar Transmission Lines
* Major advantages of planar transmission lines are
. Compact in size
. Light in weight
. Highly reliable
|. Better reproducibility
Low cost
. Easy access to component mounting, (exception is strip line)
1
2.
3
4.
5. Longer life
6.
7.
8. Characteristic impedance can be controlled by adjusting dimension of strip.
2.2.6 Disadvantages of Planar Transmission Lines
* There are few disadvantages of planar transmission lines.
1. As the size of strip is small, power handling capability is lower.
2. Because of open structure, radiation losses are more.
2.3 Cavity Resonators
+ A cavity resonator is a metallic enclosure formed by shorting two ends of a
section of a waveguide. Cavity resonator confines the electromagnetic energy.
The stored electric and magnetic field components inside the cavity
determines the equivalent inductance and capacitance. Within the cavity,
various TE,,.,, and TM,,,, modes are possible. A very high value of Q can be
obtained with these resonator.
«In microwave applications the commonly used cavity resonators are
1, Rectangular cavity resonator
2. Circular cavity resonator
3. Re-entrant cavity resonatorMicrowave Engineering 2-14 Circular Waveguides
2.3.1 Rectangular Cavity Resonator
© In a rectangular waveguide
section if the short circuit is
placed at two ends, The
resultant configuration is
called a rectangular cavity
resonator in which the signal
bounces back and forth
between the opposite walls.
Fig. 2.3.1 shows rectangular
cavity resonator.
Fig. 2.3.1 Rectangular cavity resonator
If m = number of half-wave periodicity in the x-direction
n = number of half wave periodicity in the y-direction
p = number of half wave periodicity in the z-direction
Then for both modes i.e. TEpqp aNd TMyyyp the resonant frequency f, is expressed by
Because for air :
B= py and
8 = &
(ya)? =e
Therefore,
2.3.2 Q-Factor of Cavity Resonator
© Qractor is the measure of the frequency selectivity of a circuit, Q is defined
as
Maximum energy stored during a cycle
= 23
Q = 28 Average energy dissipated per cycleMicrowave Engineering 2-15 Circular Waveguide
where ©, = Energy stored in cavity
P, = Average power loss in cavity
o, = 2
ret
+ The average power loss can be divided into three parts -
i) Power loss in walls (Py,,)
ii) Power loss in dielectric (P,s)
iii) Power loss due to loading of coupled device (PL. coupling)
2 PL = Pu + Pua Pi coupling
For loaded circuit
a
= 8 FF Ra taming
— Pla, Poop
Qu Or "Os Wy “Ws
J2.t,l,1
a * aan":
where Q, = Qfactor of wall
Qy = Q-factor of dielectric
Q. = Q-factor of coupling
Q, is unloaded Q factor
Since Qy >> Qwr
wr a
and e . ao
= ok
where K = Coupling coefficientMicrowave Engineering 2-16 Circular Waveguides
* There can be three values of coupling coefficient.
i) Critical coupling
When resonator and generator are matched, then K = 1.
Q for loaded cireuit is given by -
a= &
ii) Over coupling : K > 1
Here cavity terminals are at maximum voltage, and the impedance at maximum
voltage is standing wave ratio (p) ie. K =p
Under coupling : K <1
Here cavity terminals are of minimum voltage and the impedance is equal to
reciprocal of SWR (3):
ie. k=1
=
a = 25a
The relationship of coupling coefficient K and SWR is shown in the Fig. 23.2.
7
6
Under coupled
4 Critically
SWR(p) coupled coupled
H
4 2 3 4
Coupling coefficient (i)
Fig. 2.3.2 Coupling coefficient Vs SWRMicrowave Engineering 2-17 Circular Waveguides
2.3.3 Applications of Cavity Resonator
* In microwaves the cavity resonators are used in microwave measuring
devices. Few of them are explained below.
4) Microwave filters =
© In notch (narrow band) filters
the use of cavity resonator is
shown in Fig. 23.3.
© In notch filter shown in the
Fig. 2.3.3 the cavity dimensions
are flexible ie. it can be
changed by plunger screw
Movable movement when — incoming
Plurget signal frequency is equal to
resonant frequency. Thus
energy stored in the cavity can
also be varied. Therefore it acts
Fig. 2.3.3 Cavity resonator in notch filter as notch filter or band pass
filter.
2) Wavemeter :
Cavity
Fig. 2.3.4 Cavity resonator in wavemeterMicrowave Engineering 2-20 Circular Waveguides
Solved Examples
im Example 2.4; A metal box is 3x4x5 cm in dimensions, filled with air. Calculate the
resonant frequency of the cavity for TE 102.
Solution : Given a = 3am = 3x107%m
b = 4em=4x10?m
d = Sem =5x10% m
Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by
-$2)-0-@)
im Example 2.2: Calculate the lowest resonant frequency of a rectangular cavity resonator
with dimensions a= 2 em, b = 1 cm and d = 3m.
Solution ; The dominant mode for rectangular waveguide is TE, mode and lowest
frequency can be obtained when p = 1(Le. lowest value).
Therefore the TE,,, mode will give the lowest resonant frequency i.e. m = 1, n= 0
and p = 1.
Given : a = 2em, b = lem, d = 3em.
Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by,
HOOMicrowave Engineering 2-21 Circular Waveguides
f=
f, = 9 GHz ~ Ans.
imp Example 2.3 : A rectangular cavity resonator 10x 8x 6.cm. Compute the following:
a) Resonant frequency
4) Resonant frequency of dominant mode for a dielectric filled cavity of e, = 3, For TEyy,
mode.
Solution : a = 10cm=010m
b = 8cem=0.08m
c = 6cem=0.06m
m=1
n=1
p=l
(a) Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by,
c frmy (ny (py
«= 53) (5) (8)
_ 3xi08® fi PY (1 yi
t= 2 Caw) *(ate) *(ans)
f,
= 34 GHz w ANS.
(©) Resonant frequency with filled dielectric is given by
ge = 34x10
‘ v3
ff = 2GHz o» Ans.Microwave Engineering 2-22 Circular Waveguides
1
Points to Remember
Review Questions
. Explain eavity resonator.
. Briefly explain the applications of cavity resonator.
The principal mode of propagation in coaxial line is TEM. Hence it does not
have cut-off frequency.
Strip line consists of a central conductor strip and two ground plates. The
dominant mode in strip line is TEM.
Microstrip line consists of a conductor strip and a ground plane. The
electromagnetic wave propagates in quasi TEM mode.
Three types of losses taking place in microstrip.
i) Dielectric loss
ii) Ohmic loss
iii) Radiation loss
Slot lines consists of two conducting planes separated by a slot. The
electromagnetic waves propagates in TE mode.
Coplanar lines consists of a thin metal strip with ground planes on either
side. The propagating modes in coplanar lines are TE modes.
A cavity resonator is a metallic enclosure formed by shorting two ends of a
section of a waveguide.
Explain the construction and field pattern of strip line,
Write a note on higher order modes in strip lines:
Briefly explain how the strip lines are excited,
Deseribe the construction and field pattern for microstrip tine.
Elaborate different losses taking place in microstrip line,
What are the limitations of microstrip line 7
Compare strip line and microstrip line.
Explain the construction and field pattern for slot lines.
Write a note on coplanar lines.
Give advantages and disadoantages of planar transmission line.
Deduce Q factor for cavity resonator
Qo00Wavequide Components and
Applications - |
3.1 Microwave Network
+ A microwave network consists of microwave devices and components
(sources, attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers etc.) are coupled by
transmission lines or waveguides. The point of intersection of two or more
signals is called as junction.
* In electronic circuits operating at low frequency, a port is a pair of terminals
while for a microwave frequency a port is a reference plane transverse to the
length of the microwave transmission line or waveguide.
* The variables at low frequencies are voltages and currents, The variables
(voltages and currents) are related interms of ABCD parameters,
Z-parameters, Y-parameters or h-parameters in matrix forms.
* Consider a generalized two-port linear network as shown in Fig. 3.1.1
Fig. 3.1.1 Two port network
The relationship between variables and parameters is given by following matrices.
1. ABCD parameters / chain matrix :
Vi] _ fA -B][V2
nh} le -Diln
(3-1)Microwave Engineering 3-2 Waveguide Components and Applications - |
2. Z-parameters / impedance parameters :
Mi] _ fn Ze] fh
V2 Zn Zn} \lo
3. Y-parameters / admittance parameters :
I | - Yu Yao] [Ve
In Yu Yn} [V2
4. h-parameters / hybrid parameters :
Vi} fu he] fh
Tn} > [ha hn} LV2
Limitations of ABCD, Z, Y and h-Parameters
+ Problems arise in the measurement of these parameters at microwave
frequencies. These measurements involve terminating the networks in open
and short circuits and subsequent measurement of voltages and currents.
Firstly it is difficult to achieve good quality open and short circuits at
frequencies above 1 GHz, and terminating active devices in this way, can
damage the devices due to the total reflection of power back into the device.
* Another problem arises in the measurement of voltages and currents at
microwave frequencies and often they can only be derived from measurable
quantities such as VSWR reflection coefficient, power etc. The easiest
parameters to measure are incident and reflected power and the optimum
test conditions are when the two port is terminated in matched loads.
* For describing and analyzing a microwave network the input-output
parameters are defined by scattering matrix. Scattering matrix is also known
as S-matrix. Since at microwave frequencies measuring voltage, current and
impedance is difficult instead of transmission coefficient, reflection coefficient,
standing wave ratio can be measured accurately. Hence, the conventional
methods of using Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters are not applicable at
microwave. frequencies. Scattering matrix is widely used to analyze the
microwave networks. Also scattering matrix can be applied to multiport
networks which is common in microwave application.
3.1.1 Scattering Parameters
* First consider a general transmission line as shown in Fig. 3.1.2. Here V, and
V;, are the incident and reflected voltages at the load port.
2
Ma
Incident power 7, = VéL
29Microwave Engineering 3-3 Waveguide Components and Applications -|
ve
Reflected power P, =!
Zo
Power delivered to the load
_ MP -WeP
PB
Load reflection coefficient
Fig, 3.1.2 Generalised transmission line
_ Ve_Z-Zo
Vio 2. +Zo
Now replace the source and line by its Thevenin equivalent as shown in Fig. 3.1.3.
If we now define variables a and b such that
V+Z,1 V-Zj1
2\Re(Z,)"” © ZRe(Z.y)"
Where * denotes complex conjugate and Re represents the real part, then we find
that the power available from the source is
P= Jal?
and the power delivered to the load is
R= laP-1bF
Where |b [? is the power which is scattered or reflected by the load.
a and b are termed the generalised incident and reflected scattering variables or
power waves. They have dimensions of power.
+ The scattering parameters S of the load is defined as-
b_V-Zit_Z-Z
= a WeZ0 242,i Microwave Engineering 3-4 Waveguide Components and Applications -1
This is a very similar form to that of the generalised reflection coefficient.
Note that S is defined interms of Z;.
Fig. 3.1.3 Thevenin equivalent of Fig. 3.1.2
* Now consider the generalised two port circuit shown in the Fig. 3.14. The
set of linear equations describing the behaviour of the circuit using the
power waves as variables is :
by = Sy ay+Syz az
bz = Su ar+Se a2
or in matrix form
fb] = [S] fa}
where [S] is known as the scattering, matrix.
where b= (| and
by
far
[as
and the scattering matrix is defined by,
Sn Siz
Su Sx
_ bh ba
Su = 2 and Su =22
and with a1 = 0 (Va =0)
Sn = 22 and S.=Pt
a2 az
So Sj and Szz represents the generalised input and output reflection coefficients.3-5 Waveguide Components and Applications
* It should be noted at this point that these generalised S-parameters are
defined interms of the reference impedances at the ports and so a set of
values is meaningless without knowledge of the reference impedances
associated with each port. However, almost without exception, S-parameters
are defined with reference to the characteristic impedance of the network or
system in which they are considered.
Fig. 3.1.4 Two port for power wave definition
3.1.2 Scattering Matrix
¢/ It is a matrix which shows a linear relationship between coefficients of the
ports.
© Scattering matrix is a useful analytical technique for studying multiport
microwave networks. Its elements relate forward and reverse travelling
waves at the various ports of the network. The elements of this matrix are
called scattering coefficients or scattering parameters, in short it is
abbreviated as S-parameters. These $-parameters are complex numbers
For a two port network the equations of S-parameters are given as,
by = Su ay +Siz a2
bz = Sq ay+Sz a2
‘ Where, og - bi Reflection coefficient at port-1 when port-2 is
NT abag eo terminated with matched load i.e. a2 = 0
by Attenuation of wave travelling from port-2 to
Sa= tT,
Al ay-0 port-1.
Attenuation of wave travelling from port-1
to port-2Microwave Engineering 3-27 Waveguide components and Applications -1
knob can be calibrated suitably. The maximum attenuation will be offered
when the pad extends all the way across the guide. Fig. 3.4.2 shows variable
attenuator.
3.5 Waveguide Corners, Bends and Twists
* Change of direction of guides are often required in microwave applications.
For changing the direction through an angle, waveguide corners, bends and
twists are used. Use of corner and bends will create discontinuities in the
guide therefore standing wave ratio will be increased because of reflections.
In order to minimize the reflections in the bend, its length (L) is made
several wavelengths. Generally the length (L) of bends or comers is odd
multiple of quarter wavelengths.
+ IfA, = Wavelength in waveguide,
then length
L=(2n+1)
Where n = 0,1,2,3,..
Sharper the bend greater will be the reflections and losses.
Fig. 3.5.1 shows various waveguide corners, bends and twists.
E «plane comer
H- plane comer
Twist
Fig. 3.5.1 Waveguide bends, comers and twistMicrowave Engineering 8-5 Microwave Measurements
8.2.3 Power Meters
* Power meter is used to measure the amount of power in the microwave
signals. It is used at RF and microwave frequencies. The block diagram of
power meter is shown in Fig, 8.2.6.
de voltage
Measured
ie :
value
Fig. 8.2.6 Block diagram of power meter
© The transducer and voltmeter are the main parts of power meter. The signal
power is applied to the transducer which converts it into equivalent de
voltage. Then the de voltage applied to voltmeter which measures and
displays the de value. Depending on the microwave applications the power
meters must measure both continuous power and the power of pulsed
signals.
+ The power range of the power meter is limited because a transducer can
handle power signal from - 30 to + 20 dBm. For larger signals attenuators
are used.
8.2.4 Spectrum Analyzer
* A spectrum analyser is a broadband superheterodyne receiver which
provides a plot of amplitude versus frequency of received signal. The block
diagram of spectrum analyzer is shown in Fig, 8.2.7.
+ The local oscillator is connected between the two frequency limits ie. RF
input frequency and sweep generator frequency. The sweep voltage
waveform is sawtooth type to move the spot on the CRT horizontally in
synchronism with the frequency sweep. So horizontal position is a function
of frequency for local oscillator. The amplitude of the input RF signal is
obtained from the vertical deflection of the plate.Microwave Engineering 8
28 Microwave Measurements
* Accuracies obtained by this technique are limited to 1 %. Since 2, is
dependent on guide dimensions.
B} Cavity Wavemeter Technique or Resonant Cavity Technique
* A typical wavemeter is a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit
termination which changes the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length. Wavemeter axis is placed perpendicular to the
broad wall of the waveguide. Wavemeter axis coupled by a hole in the
narrow wall as shown in Fig. 883.
* A block of absorbing material placed at the back of the tuning plunger
prevents gscillation on the top of it. Cavity resonates at different frequencies
for different plunger positions. The tuning can be calibrated interms of
frequencies by known input frequency signals. This type of wavemeter is
called absorption type wavemeter because the power is absorbed in
wavemeter at resonance and they attenuate the signal frequency to which
they are tuned.
Shorting plunger
Polytron
block
C4
Coupling
hole
Wave
guide
a
Circular cavity
Fig. 8.8.3 Resonant cavity technique for measuring frequency
* There is another type of wavemeter known as transmissive cavity wavemeter
which pass the signal frequency to which they are tuned. The absorption
type wavemeters are preferred for the laboratory frequency measurement.
+ The set-up for frequency measurement by absorption type cavity wavemeter
is shown in Fig, 8.8.4.
Fig. 8.8.4 Set-up for frequency measurementCee ee ee ay
Pet eg ee Ue ae
characteristics, Dominant and degenerate modes, Sketches of TE and TM mode fields in the cross-section, Mode
characteristics - Phase and group velocities, Wavelengths and impedance relations; Power transmisston and power
losses in rectangular guide, Related problems.
© Circular Waveguides : Nature of fiekls, Characteristic equation, Dominant and degenerate modes, Impossibility of
TEM mode. Microstrip lines- Introduction, Z0 relations, Effective dielecttic constant, Losses, Q factor, Cavity
Resinators-Introduction, Rectangular and cylindrical eavities, Dominant modes and resonant frequencies, Q factor
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Bonet ert es ee ae ae
Related problems.
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process and applegate diagram. Bunching process and small signal theary-— Expressions for a/p power and efficiency,
Se een ee ee ee ee eee eee eee ara
output, Efficiency, Electronic adimitiance: Oscillaing mades and olp characteristics, Electronic and mechanical tuning,
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‘© Helix TWTk: Significance, Types and characteristics of ow wave structures; Structure of TWT and amplification
Bae ee ce
considerations
Pea een eee LeU
Magnetron — Hull cut-off and Hartree conditions, Modes of resonance and PI-Mode operation, Separation of Pl
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First Edition : 2009
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