UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA LEONE

FOURAH BAY COLLEGE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

COMMUNICATION-IV EENG425

2017

Speed of light = 3×108m/s, 1Np = 8.686dB

Q1
a. With aid of a diagram explain the basic structure of an optical fiber cable

Figure-Basic structure of an optical fiber.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the cladding, and the coating or
buffer. The basic structure of an optical fiber is shown in the figure above. The core is a cylindrical rod of
dielectric material. Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the core of
the fiber. The core is generally made of glass. The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an index
of refraction n1. The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding. Even though light will
propagate along the fiber core without the layer of cladding material, the cladding does perform some
necessary functions. The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of refraction n2.
The index of refraction of the cladding material is less than that of the core material. The cladding is
generally made of glass or plastic. The cladding performs the following functions:

 Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
 Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core
 Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants

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  Adds mechanical strength

For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called the coating or buffer.

b. List three advantages of an optical fiber cable

Advantages of an Optical Fiber
1. System Performance
 Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
 Lower signal attenuation (loss)
2. Immunity to Electrical Noise
 Immune to noise (electromagnetic interference [EMI] and radiofrequency interference
[RFI]
 No crosstalk
 Lower bit error rates
3. Signal Security
 Difficult to tap
 Nonconductive (does not radiate signals)
4. Electrical Isolation
 No common ground required
 Freedom from short circuit and sparks
5. Size and Weight
 Reduced size and weight cables

c. List three disadvantages of an optical fiber cable

Disadvantages of an Optical Fiber
1. Fiber optic components are expensive.
2. Fiber optic transmitters and receivers are still relatively expensive compared to electrical
interfaces.
3. The lack of standardization in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fiber optics.
4. Difficult to Splice
5. Expensive to Install
6. Can’t Be Curved

d. What is NA of an optical fiber cable

The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical fiber to capture light. The NA
is also used to define the acceptance cone of an optical fiber.

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 Q2

a. Describe the two types of rays that propagate along an optical fiber cable.

1. MERIDIONAL RAYS.

Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays. Bound rays remain in the core and propagate
along the axis of the fiber. Bound rays propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound
rays are refracted out of the fiber core. In general, meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and
refraction.

2. SKEW RAYS

Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis of the fiber. The acceptance angle for skew
rays is larger than the acceptance angle of meridional rays. This condition explains why skew rays
outnumber meridional rays. Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light acceptance in an optical
fiber. The addition of skew rays increases the amount of light capacity of a fiber. In large NA fibers, the
increase may be significant. The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a fiber. Skew
rays tend to propagate near the edge of the fiber core. A large portion of the number of skew rays that are
trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays. Leaky rays are predicted to be totally reflected at
the core-cladding boundary. However, these rays are partially refracted because of the curved nature of
the

b. Describe the methods used to describe how light is transmitted along the optical cable.
1. Ray Theory

Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fiber. The first type is called meridional rays.
Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fiber. Meridional rays are used to
illustrate the basic transmission properties of optical fibers. The second type is called skew rays. Skew
rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its axis.

2. Mode Theory

The mode theory, along with the ray theory, is used to describe the propagation of light along an optical
fiber. The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light that ray theory is unable to explain. The
mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of light along a fiber. A set
of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fiber.

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 c. List two characteristics of a PLANE WAVE
1. Plane waves repeat as they travel along the fiber axis.
2. Plane waves repeat at a distance equal to λ/sinθ
3. Plane waves also repeat at a periodic frequency β = 2πsin θ/λ.

d. What are wave fronts?

Plane waves having the same phase are called the wave fronts.

e. If frequency is 1.5GHz and refractive index is 1.41, calculate wavelength of the plane wave.

Solution:
Given:
The speed of light in a vacuum C = 3×108m/s,
The frequency of the light f = 1.5GHz,
The index of refraction of the plane-wave medium n = 1.41
Wavelength of the plane wave λ =?
C
λ=
fn
3× 108
λ= = 0.412m
1.5× 109 × 1.41

Q3
a. If n1 and n2 are 1.5 and 1.43, calculate relative refractive index difference.

Solution:

Given;

Core refractive index n1 = 1.5

Cladding refractive index n2 = 1.43

The refractive index ∆ =?

n1−n 2
∆=
n1

1.5−1.43
∆= = 0.047
1.5

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 b. List three types of LEDs and LASER

LEDs Types
1. Surface-emitting LED (SLED)
2. Edge-emitting LED (ELED)
3. Super-luminescent diode (SLD).

LASER Types

1. Solid-state laser
2. Gas laser
3. Liquid laser
4. Semiconductor laser

c. Light pulses propagate through a fiber with an attenuation of 0.25dB/km. Determine the distance
through which the power of pulses is reduced by 60%.

d. What is the difference between attenuation and dispersion?

Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber.

Dispersion
Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber.

e. What is meaning of BER?

BER-Bit error rate is the percentage of bits that have errors relative to the total number of bits
received in a transmission, usually expressed as ten to a negative power.

Q4

A step index fiber has a core diameter of 80µm, a core refractive index of 1.63 and NA of 0.22.
Calculate

Given;

Core diameter = 80µm

Core refractive index = 1.63

Numerical Aperture NA = 0.22

a. Acceptance angle
Since sin θ α = NA = 0.22
θ α = sin-1(0.22) = 12.71°
b. Refractive index that fiber can propagate at a wavelength of 0.8µm
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 √
From NA = n21−n22, we obtain

√
n2 = n21−NA 2 = √ 1.632−0.222 = 1.615
c. The number of modes that fiber can propagate at a wavelength of 0.8µm
πd 2 2 πdNA π (80 ×10−6 ) ×0.22
V=
λ
√n1 −n2 = λ = 0.8 ×10−6 = 69.115
Hence
2 2
V (69.115)
N= = = 2388 modes
2 2
d. Explain the difference types of dispersion in optical fiber
1. Intramodal Dispersion
Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion depends primarily on fiber materials. There are two types of
intramodal dispersion. The first type is material dispersion. The second type is waveguide dispersion.
Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different materials and
different waveguide structures at different speeds. Material dispersion occurs because the spreading of a
light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction with the refractive index of the fiber core.
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fiber material. Different wavelengths of a light
pulse that enter a fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. Material dispersion is a function of the
source spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can propagate in the
fiber. Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths. Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode
propagation constant (β) is a function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of
operation. Waveguide dispersion also occurs because light propagates differently in the core than in the
cladding. In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically separate
properties. Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material dispersion.
Waveguide dispersion is usually neglected. However, in single mode fibers, material and waveguide
dispersion are interrelated. The total dispersion present in single mode fibers may be minimized by
trading material and waveguide properties depending on the wavelength of operation.

2. Intermodal Dispersion
Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light pulse is
made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate along the fiber, light energy distributed
among the modes is delayed by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode
propagates along the fiber at different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some
modes travel longer distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different
distance over the same time span, as shown in the figure below. The modes of a light pulse that
enter the fiber at one time exit the fiber a different times. This 25 condition causes the light pulse
to spread. As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases.

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 Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers. Modal dispersion
does not exist in single mode fibers. Single mode fibers propagate only the fundamental mode.
Therefore, single mode fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total dispersion. Single mode fibers
also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth.

e. List the different types of intramodal dispersion.

 Material dispersion
 Waveguide dispersion.

Q5

A 3km multimode fiber has a modal dispersion of 1.2ns/km and chromatic dispersion of
110ps/km. nm. If it used with an LED of line width of 50nm.

Given;

Multimode fiber length = 3km

Modal dispersion = 1.2ns/km

Chromatic dispersion = 110ps/km. nm.

Width of LED line = 50nm

a. Calculate total dispersion.

∆ t modal = 3 km × 1.2ns/km = 3.6 ns
∆ t Chromatic = (3 km) × (110ps/km. nm) × (50nm) = 16500 ps = 16.5 ns
∆ t total = √ (3.6)2 +(16.5)2 = 16.89 ns
b. Calculate bandwidth of the fiber in MHz.km
0.35 0.35
BW = = = 20.72 MHz
∆ t modal 16.89ns
Expressed in terms of the product (BW.km), we get
(BW. km) = (20.72 MHz)( 3 km) ≅ 62.16 MHz . km

c. A 10-km fiber with an attenuation of 0.2dB/km serves as optical link between two points in
Freetown. Show that 63.1% of input power is received. [2marks]
d. If α1 is in Np/km and α2 is in dB/km determine relationship between α1 and α2
Solution:

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e. As attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output power is significantly less
than the couples power. Let the couples optical power is p (0) i.e. at origin (z = 0). Then the
power at distance z is given by,
P(z) = P(0)e−∝ P z
Where, αp is fiber attenuation constant (per km).

f. ∝p =
1
Z
In
[ ]
P(0)
P (z)

∝dB /km = 10.

1
Z
log[ ]
P(0)
P( z )
∝dB /km = 4.343 ∝ per km

Q6
a. A lightwave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. If the system requires at
least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the
fiber. [3marks]
b. Define the term receiver sensitivity.
The receiver sensitivity is the minimum amount of optical power required to achieve a
specific receiver performance.
c. Define dynamic range.
Dynamic range refers to the range of optical power levels over which the receiver operates
within the specified values.
d. What is optical detector?
Optical detector is a transducer that converts an optical signal into an electrical signal. It does
this by generating an electrical current proportional to the intensity of incident optical
radiation.
e. What is detector responsivity?
The responsivity of a detector is a function of the wavelength of the incident light and the
efficiency of the device in responding to that wavelength.

f. List three sources of noise in a fiber optic system.

1. Laser Diode
2. Photodiode
3. RF in receiver and transmitter
Q7
a. List two types of receiver noise

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1. Thermal noise
2. Dark current noise
3. Quantum noise

b. Explain the meaning of the following acronyms

I. LASER and LED
 Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (LASER)
 Light-emitting diode (LED)

c. What causes microbend in fiber cable?

From pressure exerted on the fiber itself as when it is cabled and the other elements in the
cable press on it.

d. Does micro bend loss increase or decrease attenuation? If yes or no explain

Yes, Micro bend increases attenuation.
e. When macrobend losses occur in fiber cable?
Macro bend loss occurs in fiber cable when fibers are bend too sharply during installation.

f. What is the difference between step-index fiber and graded-index fiber

Step-index Fibber Graded-index Fibber

In a step-index fiber, the refractive In graded-index fibers, the

index of the core is uniform and refractive index of the core varies
undergoes an abrupt change at the gradually as a function of radial
core-cladding boundary. distance from the fiber centre.

In this fiber data rate is very slow. Graded index fiber data rate is
very high.

The bandwidth is low. The bandwidth is high.

Attenuation is too much more.  Attenuation is less.

g. An optical fiber with an attenuation of 0.0004dB/m is 5km long. The fiber has n 1 = 1.53 and
n2 = 1.45 and a diameter of 50µm. Calculate the percentage of input power received and the
maximum angle at which rays will enter the fiber and be trapped. [2marks]
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 2018

Speed of light c = 3×108m/s, 1Neper(Np) = 8.686dB

Q1
e. Draw clearly the basic structure of an optical cable.

Figure-Basic structure of an optical fiber.

f. State three advantages of fibre optic cable.

Advantages of an Optical Fiber
1. System Performance
 Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
 Lower signal attenuation (loss)
2. Immunity to Electrical Noise
 Immune to noise (electromagnetic interference [EMI] and radiofrequency interference
[RFI]
 No crosstalk
 Lower bit error rates
3. Signal Security
 Difficult to tap
 Nonconductive (does not radiate signals)

g. What is the difference between step-index and graded index fibre?

Step-index Fibber Graded-index Fibber

In a step-index fiber, the refractive In graded-index fibers, the

index of the core is uniform and refractive index of the core varies
undergoes an abrupt change at the gradually as a function of radial
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 core-cladding boundary. distance from the fiber centre.

In this fiber data rate is very slow. Graded index fiber data rate is
very high.

The bandwidth is low. The bandwidth is high.

Attenuation is too much more.  Attenuation is less.

h. Name three factors that determine the number of modes propagated by step-index fibre.
[3marks]
Q2
a. Name types of dispersion in optical fibre.
There are two types of dispersion in optical fiber. They are:

 Intra modal Dispersion

Intra modal dispersion occurs because different colours of light travel through different
materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds.

 Intermodal or modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the same time span.

b. Which dispersion occurs in all optical fibres and which one occurs only in multimode fibre?
Intra modal dispersion occurs in all types of optical fiber whereas, Modal dispersion only occurs in
multimode fiber.

c. What is coupling?
A fiber optic coupler is an optical device capable of connecting one or more fiber ends in order to
allow the transmission of light waves in multiple paths.

d. List three reasons why fibre coupling is required. [3marks]

e. List actions to be performed prior to splicing.
 Arc checks
 Precision cleaver.

Q3
a. List two types of rays that can propagate along an optical fibre.
 Meridional rays
 Skew rays

b. Explain briefly the basic types of single mode step-index fibres. [2marks]
c. An optical fibre in air has core refractive index of 1.71 and cladding refractive index of 1.41.
Calculate NA. [2marks]
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d. What does NA indicate and what is the meaning of NA?
The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical fiber to capture light.
The NA is also used to define the acceptance cone of an optical fiber.

e. State one disadvantage of fibre optic apart from relative newness of the technology.
Fiber optic components are expensive.

f. What phenomenon does fibre optic cable operates and when does this phenomenon occurs?
Fiber optic operates on the principle of total internal reflection. It occurs when the angle of
refraction is equal to 90 degrees.

Q4
a. What is wave front?
Plane waves having the same phase are called the wave fronts.

b. If frequency is 1.5GHz and refractive index is 1.5, calculate wave length of the plane wave.

Solution:

Given:
The speed of light in a vacuum C = 3×108m/s,
The frequency of the light f = 1.5GHz,
The index of refraction of the plane-wave medium n = 1.5
Wavelength of the plane wave λ =?
C
λ=
fn
8
3× 10
λ= 9 = 0.133m
1.5× 10 × 1.5

c. List three types of LEDs and LASER

LEDs Types
1. Surface-emitting LED (SLED)
2. Edge-emitting LED (ELED)
3. Super-luminescent diode (SLD).

LASER Types

1. Solid-state laser
2. Gas laser
3. Liquid laser

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4. Semiconductor laser

c. Light pulses propagate through a fiber with an attenuation of 0.25dB/km. Determine the distance
through which the power of pulses is reduced by 70%. [2marks]

d. What is the difference between attenuation and dispersion?

Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber.

Dispersion
Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber.

Q5

g. A 10-km fiber with an attenuation of 0.2dB/km serves as optical link between two points in
Freetown. Show that 63.1% of input power is received. [2marks]

h. If α1 is in Np/km and α2 is in dB/km determine relationship between α1 and α2

Solution:
As attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output power is significantly less
than the couples power. Let the couples optical power is p (0) i.e. at origin (z = 0). Then the
power at distance z is given by,
P(z) = P(0)e−∝ P z
Where, αp is fiber attenuation constant (per km).

∝p =
1
Z
In
[ ]
P( 0)
P ( z)

∝dB /km = 10.

1
Z [ ]
log
P(0)
P( z )
∝dB /km = 4.343 ∝ per km

i. A light wave is traveling in a semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.6. It is incident on a

difference semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.4 and the angle of incident is 80o. Will
this result in total internal reflection [4marks]
j. A light wave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. f the system requires at
least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the fiber.
[2marks]
Q6
a. Show that for Coherent Binary FSK, the average probability of symbol error (P e) is given by:

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 1
Pe = 2 ×erfc (√ )
2 Eb
2 N0
[7marks]

Define all parameters.

b. Define the term receiver sensitivity. [1mark]

c. Define dynamic range. [1mark]

d. What is optical detector? [1mark]

Q7
a. List two types of receiver noise [2marks]
b. Explain the meaning of the following acronyms
I. LASER and LED [2marks]
c. What causes micro bend in fiber cable? [1marks]
d. Does micro bend loss increase or decrease attenuation? If yes or no explain [2marks]
e. When macro bend losses occur in fiber cable? [1mark]
f. A light wave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. If the system requires at
least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the
fiber. [2marks]

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 2020

Speed of light c = 3×108m/s, 1Neper(Np) = 8.686dB

Q1
a. In tabular form outline two main differences each between Step Index Fiber and Graded index
Fiber.

Step-index Fibber Graded-index Fibber

In a step-index fiber, the refractive index of In graded-index fibers, the refractive index
the core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt of the core varies gradually as a function of
change at the core-cladding boundary. radial distance from the fiber centre.

In this fiber data rate is very slow. Graded index fiber data rate is very high.

The bandwidth is low. The bandwidth is high.

Attenuation is too much more.  Attenuation is less.

b. State two advantages and two disadvantaged of Multimode Step-index fibers.

Advantages

 Multimode cables are less expensive to operate, install, and maintain

 High speed and high bandwidth over short distances
 Allow several mode optical signals to be transmitted at once

Disadvantages

 Multimode cables are more limited in both speed and distance

 Modal dispersion is more.

c. State the difference between a multimode graded-index fiber and step-index fibers in relation to
refractive index and the radial distance.

In multimode graded-index fiber, the refractive index of the fiber varies according to the radial
distance.
Whereas, in step-index fiber, the refractive index of the core is constant or uniform.

d. Briefly explain the two types of Single Mode step-index fibers.

The types are: Matched cladding and depressed cladding.

 Matched Cladding
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 Matched cladding means that the fiber cladding consists of a single homogeneous layer
of dielectric material.

 Depressed Cladding
Depressed cladding means that the fiber cladding consists of two regions: the inner and
outer cladding regions.

e. Briefly explain the difference between absorption and scattering in relation to fiber optic.
Absorption
Absorption is defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power
into another energy form, such. Whereas,

Scattering
Scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber.

Q2

a. Name types of dispersion in optical fiber.

There are two types of dispersion in optical fiber. They are:

 Intra modal Dispersion

Intra modal dispersion occurs because different colours of light travel through different
materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds.

 Intermodal or modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the same
time span

b. Which dispersion occurs in all optical fibers and which one occurs only in multimode fiber?
Intra modal dispersion occurs in all types of optical fiber whereas, Modal dispersion only occurs in
multimode fiber.

c. What is coupling?
Coupling
A fiber optic coupler is an optical device capable of connecting one or more fiber ends in order to
allow the transmission of light waves in multiple paths.

d. List three reasons why fibre coupling is required.

e. List actions to be performed prior to splicing.

Actions to be performed prior to splicing.

 Arc checks
 Precision cleaver.

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 Q3
a. List two types of rays that can propagate along an optical fiber.
Two types of rays that can propagate along an optical fiber
 Meridional rays
 Skew rays

b. Explain briefly the basic types of single mode step-index fibers.

[2marks]
c. An optical fiber in air has core refractive index of 1.41 and cladding refractive index of 1.11.
Calculate NA.
[2marks]
d. What does NA indicate and what is the meaning of NA?
NA = Numerical Aperture

The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical Fiber to capture light.

e. State one disadvantage of fiber optic apart from relative newness of the technology.
 Expensive to install
f. What phenomenon does fiber optic cable operates and when does this phenomenon occurs?
Fiber optic operates on the principle of total internal reflection. It occurs when the angle of
refraction is equal to 90 degrees.

Q4
a. What is wave front?
Plane waves having the same phase are called the wave fronts.
b. If frequency is 1.5GHz and refractive index is 1.4, calculate wave length of the plane wave.
Solution:
Given:
The speed of light in a vacuum C = 3×108m/s,
The frequency of the light f = 1.5GHz,
The index of refraction of the plane-wave medium n = 1.41
Wavelength of the plane wave λ =?
C
λ=
fn

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 8
3× 10
λ= 9 = 0.412m
1.5× 10 × 1.41

c. List three types of LEDs and LASER

LEDs Types
1. Surface-emitting LED (SLED)
2. Edge-emitting LED (ELED)
3. Super-luminescent diode (SLD).

LASER Types

1. Solid-state laser
2. Gas laser
3. Liquid laser
4. Semiconductor laser

d. Light pulses propagate through a fiber with an attenuation of 0.25dB/km. Determine the distance
through which the power of pulses is reduced by 80%.
[2marks]
e. What is the difference between attenuation and dispersion?
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber.

Dispersion
Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber.

Q5

k. A 10-km fiber with an attenuation of 0.2dB/km serves as optical link between two points in
Freetown. Show that 63.1% of input power is received.
[2marks]
l. If α1 is in Np/km and α2 is in dB/km determine relationship between α1 and α2
[2marks]
m. A light wave is traveling in a semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.6. It is incident on a
difference semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.4 and the angle of incident is 80o. Will
this result in total internal reflection
[4marks]
n. A light wave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. If the system requires at
least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the fiber.
[2marks]

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 Q6
a. What causes micro bend in fiber cable?
From pressure exerted on the fiber itself as when it is cabled and the other elements in the
cable press on it.

b. Does micro bend loss increase or decrease attenuation? If yes or no explain

Yes, Micro bend increases attenuation.

c. When macro bend losses occur in fiber cable?

Macro bend loss occurs in fiber cable when fibers are bend too sharply during installation.

d. A light wave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. If the system requires at
least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the
fiber. [2marks]
e. Draw clearly the basic structure of an optical cable.

Figure-Basic structure of an optical fiber.

f. What is the difference between step-index and graded index fiber?

Step-index Fibber Graded-index Fibber

In a step-index fiber, the refractive In graded-index fibers, the

index of the core is uniform and refractive index of the core varies
undergoes an abrupt change at the gradually as a function of radial
core-cladding boundary. distance from the fiber centre.

In this fiber data rate is very slow. Graded index fiber data rate is
very high.

The bandwidth is low. The bandwidth is high.

Attenuation is too much more.  Attenuation is less.

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g. Name two factors that determine the number of modes propagated by step-index fiber.
 Normalized frequency
 Numerical Aperture

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 2021

Speed of light c = 3×108m/s, 1Neper (Np) = 8.686dB

Q1.
Rise times of transmitter and receiver are specified as 0.25ns and 0.35ns respectively. D
is 2ps/km-nm, single mode fiber, spectral width of the source is 3nm and link length is
50km.
a. Calculate the fiber rise time(τfiber) [2marks]
b. Calculate the system rise time (τsys) [2marks]
c. Is it feasible to have a desire data rate of 1Gbps using either RZ or NRZ signaling
format? Explain [6marks]
(Given τsys =0.35/(system bandwidth) for RZ , τsys =0.7/(system bandwidth) for NRZ ,
Q2
a. Clearly draw the basic structure of an optical cable.

Figure-Basic structure of an optical fiber.

b. What is the difference between step-index and graded index fiber?

Step-index Fibber Graded-index Fibber

In a step-index fiber, the refractive In graded-index fibers, the

index of the core is uniform and refractive index of the core varies
undergoes an abrupt change at the gradually as a function of radial
core-cladding boundary. distance from the fiber centre.

In this fiber data rate is very slow. Graded index fiber data rate is
very high.

The bandwidth is low. The bandwidth is high.

Attenuation is too much more.  Attenuation is less.

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c. Calculate maximum transmission distance for a system operating at 850nm.GaAIAs laser diode
1mw fiber-coupled power; Silicon avalanche photodiode: -50dBm sensitivity; Graded-index fiber
3.5dB/km attenuation at 850nm; connector loss 1dB/connector. [5marks]
d. What is the difference between step-index and graded index fiber? [2marks]
Q3
a. List two types of rays that can propagate along an optical fiber. [1marks]
b. Briefly explain the basic types of single mode step-index fiber. [1marks]
c. An optical fiber in air has core refractive index of 1.61 and cladding refractive index of 1.31.
Calculate NA. [1marks]
d. What does NA indicate and what is the meaning of NA? [2mark]
e. If frequency is 1.5GHz and refractive index is 1.5, calculate wavelength of the plane wave.
[2marks]
f. Attenuation of standard SMF is 0.2dB/km. How far can the signal of 0 dBm is transmitted so that
the power at the receiver is at least 100µW? [3marks]

Q4
a. Light pulses propagate through a fiber with an attenuation of 0.25dB/km. Determine the
distance through which the power of pulses is reduced by 80%. [2mark]

b. What is the difference between attenuation and dispersion [1mark]

c. A 15-km fiber with an attenuation of 0.1dB/km serves as optical link between two points in
Freetown. Determine the percentage received power. [2marks]

d. If α1 is in Np/km and α2 is in dB/km determine relationship between α1 and α2.[1mark]

e. A light wave is traveling in a semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.6. It is incident on
a difference semiconductor medium of refractive index 3.4 and the angle of incident is 80 o.
Will this result in total internal reflection? Explain [2marks]
f. A light wave system uses a 30-km fiber link with a loss of 0.4dB/km. 1f the system requires
at least 0.2mW at the receiver, calculate the minimum power that must be launched into the
fiber.
[2marks]
Q5
f. Define the term receiver sensitivity. [1mark]
g. Define dynamic range. [1mark]
h. What is optical detector? [1mark]
i. An engineer has the following components available: GaAIAs laser diode operating at 850nm and
capable of coupling 1-mW into a fiber; Ten sections of cable each of which is 500m long, has 4-
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 dB/km attenuation, 15 connectors and connector loss is 2dB/connector; A pin photodiode receiver
and an avalanche photodiode receiver .Using these components, the engineer wishes to construct
a 5km link operating at 20Mbps. If the sensitivities of the pin and APD are -45 and -56dBm,
respectively, which receiver should be used if 6dB system operating margin is required?
[7marks]
Q6
a. Briefly explain the types of dispersion loss [3marks]
b. Why does a fiber introduce rise time? [1mark]
c. Consider an optical fiber cable having a core of refractive index n 1 and cladding of refractive
index n2. With aid of diagrams prove that: [6marks]

√
NA = n21−n22
Solution:

Consider an optical fibre having a core  of refractive index n1 and cladding of refractive index n 2. let
the incident light makes an angle i with the core axis as shown in figure (3). Then the light gets
refracted at an angle θ and fall on the core-cladding interface at an angle where,

               

     ---------------------- (1)
 
By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,
 

   -------------------- (2)
 
Where n0 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air n 0 =1.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium and so it may be
totally reflected back to the core medium if θ'  exceeds the critical angle θ'c. The critical angle is that
angle of incidence in denser medium (n1) for which angle of refraction become 90°. Using Snell’s laws
at core cladding interface,

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                                            Or

                                  ----------------------- (3)
 
Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided wave, the angle of

incidence at core-cladding interface should be greater than θ'c. As i increases,  θ increases and

so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is maximum value of angle of incidence beyond which, it does not

propagate rather it is refracted in to cladding medium ( fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say i m is

called maximum angle of acceptance and  n0 sin im is termed as the numerical aperture (NA).

From equation(2),

From equation (2)  

 

Therefore,  
 

 
The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle i m only propagate
Q7

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D = 18ps/nm-km Psen= -28dBm
Number of splices =46, spice loss=0.1dB
Connector loss=0.2dB, Pmargin=6dB
Attenuation coefficient=0.25dB/km
Is this a good system? If yes or no Explain and make it good system. [10marks]

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