E/6703 - FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTR UMENTATION 12021

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Ill Ill
l(INGSTON
EHOI NUIII NG COLLEGE

QUESTION BANK-ANSWER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

YEARISEM : IV / VJ/

NAME OF THE FACULTY : FER1DINAND.T. AP I EEE

NAME OF THE SUBJECT : £18075 - FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER
INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 1- OPTICAL FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERTJES

(X)* Principles of light propagation through a fibre - Different types of fibres and their
properties, fibre characteristics - Absorption losses - Scattering losses
(Y)* Dispersion - Connectors and splicers - Fibre te1111ination - Optical sources - Optical
detectors.

P;.1RT-A

1. Defi ne numerical aperture of optical fibre. 2008

Numerical Ape1ture is the measure of the ability of a n optical fiber to collect or
confine the incident lig ht ray inside it. It is among the most basic property of optical
fi ber.

NA = jn/ - ~ 2

2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic losses. 2008

Extrinsic Fiber Losses:
These losses are specific to geometry and handling of the fibers and arc not fu nctions of
the fiber material itself. There are three basic types:
Intrinsic Fiber Losses:
lntrinsic fiber losses are those associated w ith the fiber optic material itself. and the total
loss is proponional to le ngth L. Once inside the fiber. Light is attenuated primari ly because of
absorp tion and scattering; therefore, these a rc the pri mary causes of the losses.

3. What is the necessity of cladding for an o ptical fiber? May/June 13

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a) To provide proper light guidance inside the core. b) To avoid leakage of light from
the fiber. c) To give mechanica l strength for the fiber. d) To protect the core from
scratches and other mechanical damages.
4. What is fiber optics?
Fiber optics is a medium for carrying infonnation from one point to another in the
form of light. Unlike the copper fonn of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in
nature. A bas ic fibe r optic system consists of a transmitting device, which generates
the light signal; an optical fiber cable, which can-ies the light: and a receiver, which
accepts the light signal transmitted. The fiber itself is pass ive and does not contain any
active, generative properties.
5. What is incident and reflected light?
Incident Light: Light approaching a surface is known as incident light. This is the
incoming light before it has reached the surface.
Reflected Light: After light has struck a surface and bounced off, it is known as
reflected light. This is the light that is now departing from the surface.
6. Define optical fibre and mention the three main parts of o ptical fibre.
Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the
form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in
nature. A bas ic fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device. which generates
the ligbt s igna l; a11 optical fiber cable, which carries the light: and a receiver. wllich
accepts the light signal transmitted. The fiber itself is passive and does not co11tain any
active, generative properties.
The CORE. C LADDING, and COATING or BUFFER are the chree basic parts of an
optical fiber.
7. State tbe advantages of optical fibre.
I. Optical fiber is made up of dielectric (glass) so there is no eleclrnmagnetic
interference or cross talk.
2. Optical fiber cable is in small size with less weight. Hence it is flexible and it can be
laid at any place without any congestion.
3. Optical fiber has low transmission loss. The transmittal s ignal through lhe fibers
dose not radiate like meta ll ic conductors.
8. What is acceptance angle?
The maximum angle •ea· with which a ray of light can enter through the entrance end
of the fiber and still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the

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fiber .The Light ray incident on the fiber core must be within the acceptance cone
defined by the acceptance angle to be propagated along an optical fiber.
9. What is total internal rencction?
The renection that occurs wben light, in a bigher refractive-index medium. strikes an
interface. with a medium with a lower refractive index, at an angle of incidence (with
respect to the normal) greater than the critical angle. When a Ugbt ray traveling in one
material hits a different material and reflects back into the original material w ithout
any loss of light, tota l internal reflection occurs.
10. Explain the conditions for total internal refl ection?
The index of refraction of the core must be higher than tJ1at of the cladding.
11 . Define refractive index? Give its relationship.
The refractive tndex (n) of a material is the ratio of the speed oflight (c) in a vac uum to
n=.E.
the velocity of light in the materia l (v). v

12. W hat are the two basic modes of fibers?

Fibers are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the optical fiber.
Sing le mode fibers propagate on ly one mode because the core size approaches the
operational wavelength. Multi mode fibers can propagate over 100 modes depending on
the core size and numerical aperture.
13. What is signal attenuation ?
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in
intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance traveUed through a
transmission medium.
Attenuation in fiber optics can be quantified using the following equation:
. (dB )=lOxlog ( Input intensity ( W) )
Aflenuatzon 10
Output int ensity( W)
14. Expression for numerical aperture in case of graded index fibre.

n(r )= n,=[1-2L1(~rr2 r :5 a

n =n 1-2L1]
112
2 0[ b';?:.r ';?:.a

15. Defin e waveguide.

A materia l medium that confines and guides a propagating electromagnetic wave. ln
the optical regime, a waveguide used as a long transmission line consists of a solid
dielectric filament (optical fiber), usually circular in cross section. In integrated optical
circuits an optical waveguide may consist of a thin dielectri
 El6703 - FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER JNSTRUNJENTATION 2021

16. What is the principle used in an optical fibre? Apr/May-2015

The principle used i11 an optical fibre is total internal reflection
The refl ection that occurs when ligbt, in a hig her refract ive-index medium, strikes an
interface, w ith a medium witb a lower refractive index. al an ang le of incidence (with
respect to the normal) g reater than the critical angle. Wben a light ray traveling in one
material hi ts a different materia l and ret1ects back into the original material without
any loss of light, tota l internal reflection occurs.
17. Defin e in tramodal dispersion and intermodal dispersion. Nov/Dec 13
lntramodal dispers ion :
• Pulse broadening within a single mode 1s called as intramodal dispersion or
chromatic dispersion.
• Since this phenomenon is \>vavelength dependent and g ro up velocity is a function of
wavelengtb, it is also called as group velocity dispersion (GVD).
lntermodal dispersion:

• Dispersion caused by mu ltipath propagation of light energy is referred to as

iutermodal dispersion.

• Signal degradation occurs due to different values of group de lay for each indiv idual
mode at a sing le frequency.

18. Wbat is zero dispers ion wavelength?

Wavelength a t which the chromatic dispers ion of an optical fiber is zero; occurs when
waveguide dispersion cancels out materia l dispersion.
In a sing le-mode optical fiber, the zero-dispersion wavelength is the wavelength or
wavelengths at which materia l dispersion and waveguide dispersion cancel one
another. ln all sili ca-based optical fibers. minimum material dispersion occurs
naturally at a wavelengU1 of approximately 1300 11111.
19. Distinguish between splices and connectors.
Soliccs Connector tvnes
While a connector is considered Connectors offer a
a semipermanent, pluggable connection. disconnectable method for joinin g
a splice IS permanent. While so me fibers to transmitters and receivers,
splices are re-enterable for repairs, they other fibers and devices such as
are made w itho ut the intention of even couplers and multiplexers . Most
occasional co1rnecrions and co1111ectors are in the form of a cable-
disconnections. mount plug in which p lugs mate with a
feed-through receptacle that resembles

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a cylindrical coupling bushing. The

inner diameter of the receptacle often
has a split sleeve to provide a snug
alignmem of the mated olugs.

20. Define cut-off wavelength of fibre.

The cutoff wavelength is the minimwn wavelength in which a particular fiber still acts
as a single mode fiber
2 1. What is group delny?
a measure of the time delay experienced by narrow-band light pulses in an optica l
device.
The group delay ( Tr,) of an opticaJ element (e.g. a dielectric mirror or a piece of optical
fiber) is defined as the derivative of the change in spectral phase with respect to the

T8 =~
angular frequency: a;)
22. What is micro bending?
This is a sma ll-scale distortion. generally indicative of pressure on the fiber.
Microbending may be related to temperature, tensile stress. or crushing force. Like
macrobending. microbending will cause a reduction of optical power in the glass.
Microbending is very localized. and the bend may not be clearly visible upon
inspection. With bare fiber, microbending may be reversible; in the cabling process, it
may not.
23. What is macro bending?
If a bend is imposed on an optical fiber, strain is placed on the fiber along the region
that is bent. The bending strain will affect the refractive index and the critica l a ngle of
U,e light ray in that specific area. As a result. light traveling in the core can refract out,
and loss occurs. A macrobend is a large-scaJe bend tbat is visible.
24. State the principle involved in an opticaJ detector. A pr/May-2015
Optical detectors respond to the power in the optical beam, which is proportional to
tbe square of the elecn·ic field associated wid1 the light wave. Optical detectors
therefore are called •·square-law detectors."

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UNJT-11 I ND USTRIAL APPLICA TION OF OP11CAL FJBRES

(X). Fibre o ptic sensors - Fibre optic instrumentation system - Different types of modulators
- Interferome tric method of measurement of leng th - Moire fringes
(Y). Measurement of pressure temperature. curre nt. voltage Iiquid level and strain .
PART-A
1. W ha t is t he pr inc i1>lc of elec tro optic modulato r '? Nov/ Dec 07
The elect ca-optic effect is the change in the re fracti ve index of a materia l resulting fro m
the application of a DC or low- freq ue ncy e lectric fi e ld. This is caused by forces tha t
distort the position, orientation, o r shape of the molecules constituting the material.
2. ·w hat is "speckle pattern "? Nov/Dec 07
A speckle pattern is an intens ity pattern produced by the mutual interference of a set of
wavefronts. T he speckle effect is a result of the interference of many waves of the
same frequency, having different phases and amplitudes. w hich add together to give a
resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore inte ns ity. varies randomly.
A speckle pattern is a random granular pattern produced by the re fl ection of a coherent
light beam. e.g. laser, at a rough surface. such as a meta ll ic surface, a display screen,
white pa int, or a piece of paper.
3. W hat ,u e the different ty pes of fibre op tic sensors? 2008, Nov/ Dec 07, ~ ov/ Dcc 13
The di ffcrent types of modulators arc
a) Electro optic modulators.
b) Acousto optic modulators.
c) Magneto optic modulators.
d) Electro absorption modulators.
4. What is the basic principle of opto modulator? 2008
Optica l carrie r waves can be modulated in Amplitude, Phase and Frequency in order to
carry info rmation. Modu lators modulate the catTier wave by changing the material
properties of attenuation ' a' and refractive index ' n. ' 111 suitable materia ls a and n can
be moduJated at high frequencie s by time dependent electrical fields (EO), magnetic
fie lds (MO) or acoustic fields (AO). The externa l modu lators produce much less chirp
(dispersion) than current-modulated SC-diode lasers.
5. Mention tbe a pplications of ti bre optic se ns or. Nov/ Dec 10
• Measurement of physical properties such as temperature, displaceme nt. velocity,
strain in structures of any s ize o r any shape.
• In real time, monitoring lhe physical structure of health.
• Buildings and bridges, tunnels, Dams, heritage structures.

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• Night vision camera, electronic security systems , Partial discharge detection and
measuring wheel loads of vehicles.
6. What is the main caus e of' degradation of optical signal at th e input of modulator'?
Nov/Dec 11
Signal degradation includes
• Power attenuation (attenuati on losses. scattering losses, material absorption
losses, bending losses)
• Dispersion losses (chromatic dispers ion. polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
• fi ber nonlinearities (stimulated bri Elouin scattering, stimulated raman scatte1ing
(SRS), cross phase modulation (XPM)).
7. W ha t are the types of extem al modulators? Nov/ Dec 11
• Electro-optic effect
• Acousto-optic effect
• Electro-absorption effect
8. What is meant by fibre optic temperature sensor? May/Jun 13
The modulation which is used to code the temperature infonnation may be considered,
or the classifi cation cou ld fo llow the nature of the sensor: interferometric sensors.
resonant sensors, wave length encoding, distributed or simple intensity-ratio-based
devices.
9. What a re Moire frin ges? Ma y/.Jun 13
Moire fringesil' are large-scale interference patterns that can be produced when an
opaque ruled pattern w ith transparent gaps is overlaid on another similar pattern. For
the moire interference pattern to appear, the two patterns must not be completely
identical, but rather e.g. displaced, rotated or have slightly different pitch.
10. W hat is the principle of Acousto optic mod ulator? Nov/Dec 13
An acousto-optic modulator (AOM) is a device which allows to control the power,
frequency or spatial direction of a laser beam with an electrical drive signal. lt is based
on the acousto-optic effect, i.e., the modification of the refractive index by the
oscillating mechanical pressure of a sound wave.
11. W hat is t he principle of fib er optic sens o r?
Ln a fiber optic sensor, one or more of the fo llowing characteristics of a propagating
lightware is altered and correlated to an externally-induced physical or c hem ical
parameter:
•Intensity •Phase
•Frequency (color) •Polarization state
•Time-of-flight •Modal cross talk
12. W hat are extrinsic and intrins ic sensors?

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in the extrinsic sensor, sensing takes place in a region outside of the fiber and the fiber
essentia lly serves as a conduit for the to-and-fro transmission of li ght to U1e sensing
region efficiently and in a des ired form. T he fiber merely acts as a light delivery and
collection system, i.e., the propagating light leaves rhe fiber, is altered in some way,
and is collected by the same fiber.
On the other hand, in an i1minsic sensor one or more ofU1e phys ical properties of the
fiber undergo a change as mentioned in above. The fiber itself acts as the sensing
medium, i.e .. the propagating light never leaves the fiber and is a ltered in some way by
an external phenomenon.
13. Wh at are the properties that can be sensed using fibre Optics?
• Measurement of physical properties such as temperature, displacement.veloc ity,
strain u1 suucrures of any size or any shape.
• In real time, monjto ring the physical structure ofheaJtb.
• B uildrngs and bridges, runnels, Dams, heritage strnctures.
• Night vision camera. electronic security systems, Partial discharge detection and
measuring wheel loads of velticles.
14. Wbat are the advantages of fibre optic sensor?
• Unaffected by e lectromagnetic interference (EMI) from large motors,
transformers, welders and the like;
• Unaffected by radio frequency U1terference (RFI) from wireless communications
and lightning activity:
• Can be positioned in hard-to-reach or view places;
• Can be focused ro measure small or precise locations;
15. Wh at is the basic principle of interferome tric senso rs'? W hat are their uses?
interferometry makes use of the principle of s upe1pos ition to combine waves
in a way that will cause the res ult of their combination to have some meaningfu l
property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves.
16. What are the two modes of operation in single index fi ber?
Single-Mode Step Index
T he diameter of rhe core is fairly sma ll relative to the c ladding. Because of this, wben
lig bt enters the fiber-optic cable on the left, it propagates down toward the right mjust a
s ingle ray, a srngle mode, which is the lowest-order mode.
Multimode Step Index
The diameter of the core is fairly large relative to the cladd ing. T here is aJso a sharp
d iscontinuity in the index of refraction as you go from core to c ladding. As a result,
when light enters tJ1e fiber-optic cable 011 the left. it propagates clown toward the right
in multiple rays or multiple modes. T his yields the des ignation mul timode.
17. List the method s used to maintain polarization

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Intentionally creates co nsistent birefringence pattern a long its leng th, prohibiting
coupling between the two o rthogona l po la rizatio n directi ons . l n a11y design, the
geometry of the fiber a nd the ma terial s used create a large amo u11t of stress in one
direction, and thus create high birefringence compared to rhat generated by the random
birefringence.
18. What is an optic al se nsor?
Electro-optical sensors are e lectronic detectors that convert light, o r a change in light.
into an electronic signa l. They are used! in many in dustria l and consumer applications.
for example:
Lamps tl1at tum on automatically in response to darkness.
Position sensors that activate when an object intetTupts a light beam.
Flash d etectio n, to synchronize one photographic fla sh to another.
Photoelectric senso rs that detect the dis tance, absence. or presence of an object.
19. S tate any two industrial applications ofan optical fibre. A/ M-20 15 Nov/Dec 16

• Material Processing
• Bio-medical Ap plication
• Military Application
• Banking.
20. What is meant by fibre optic ins trum e ntation system? A/ M-2015
The process of measureme nts of the fi ber c ha racteris tics a lso vari ous physical
parameters and desig n the correspond ing equipment is call.ed fib re optics
instrumentation system.
21. S tate the co ncep ts be hind liquid level sensors.
Liquid level affects the indices of re fraction of liquids on the waveguide properties of
optical fibres. In a typ ica l case, the re is a [loss of in terna l reflection of the guides
e lectromagnetic modes as a result of [ contact between me outer surface of the optical
fi bre and the liquid.
22. What are resonato rs'?
An optica l resonator, the optical counterpart or a n e lectronic resonant circuit, confines
a nd stores lighr ar certa in resonance freq uencies. It may be viewed as a n optica l transmission
system incorporating feedback; light c irc ula tes o r is repeatedly re nected w ithin the system,
without escaping. The simplest resonator comprises two para llel planar mirrnrs between which

1ight is repeatedly reflected w ith little loss.

23. What is polarizati on?

Po larization is a phenomenon peculiar to transverse waves, i.e., waves that vibrate in a
d irection perpendicular to their directio n of propagation. Lig ht is a transverse electromagnetic

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wave. Thus a light wave traveling forward can vibrate up and down, from side to s ide, or in
an intermediate direction. Ordinarily a ray oflight consists ofa mixrure of waves vibrati ng in
a U the directions perpendicular to its line of propagation. If for some reason the vibration
remains constant in direction, the light is said to be polarized.

24. What is a Fi ber Optic Polarimet er?

The birefringence property arising from optical anisotropy is used in the study of photoelastic
behaviour . The a11isotropy may be due lo naturally occuring crystalline propenies or due to
stress induced birefringence. It is the latter that is used in a photoelastic fi ber optic strain
gauge. In a simple setup two lead fibers are used to ill um inate and collect light passing
through a pbotoelastic specimen.

25. What is Pockels e ffect?

Pockels effect refers to the change of refracti ve index ofU1e medium by the applied electric
fie ld. Due to phase shift or phase retardation is produced in the transmitted polarized light and
hence there in a c hange in the intensity of the transmitted light.
26. What is Kerr effect'?
KeLT effect change in the refractive index proportional to the square of the electric field. All
materials display the Ke rr effect, with varying magnitudes, but it is genera lly much weaker
than the Pockels effect.
27. What is the principle of micro bendin g senso r?

Micro bending sensor is based on the production of micro bending in the fi ber by the given
variable and the measurement of intensity of the transmitted light through the fiber. The micro
bending produces phase shift and coupling between different modes present in the n·ansmirted
light.

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UNIT-ill LASER FUNDAMENTALS

(X). Fundamental characteristics of lasers - Three level and four level lasers - Properties of
laser - Laser modes - Resonator configuration - Q-switching and mode locking - Cavity
damping

(Y). Types of lasers - Gas lasers, solid lasers, liquid lasers, semiconductor lasers.

PART-A
1. What is pumping? E numerate different types of pumping. NOV /DEC 07
Laser pumping is the act of energy transfer from an external so urce into the ga in
medium of a laser. The energy is absorbed in the medium, producing excited states in
its atoms.
• FlashJamp pumping
• Arc lamp pumping
• External laser pumping
• Electrical pumping
• Gas dynamic pumping
2. M ention the two applications of Fabry Perot cavity. NOV/DEC 07
The Fabry- Perot in terferometer is a pair of partially reflective glass optical flats spaced
micrometers to centimeters apart, with the reflective surfaces fac ing each other.
Telecommun ications net:wotks, Dichroic fi lters, optical spectrum analyzers. Laser
resonators astronomy gravitational wave detection.
3. What is mea nt by po pula tion in vers ion? 2008
When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in the
ground state or a less-excited state, population inversion is achieved.
4. What is mea nt mode lo cking? 2008, No'1/Dec 16
Mode-locking is a technique in optics by which a laser can be made to produce pu lses
of light of extremely short duration. on the order of picoseconds ( I0 - 12 s) or
femtoseconds ( I 0- 15 s).
The basis of the tecLmique is to induce a fi xed-phase relationship between the
long itudinal modes of the laser's resonant cavity. The laser is then sa id to be 'phase-
locked' or 'mode-locked'.
5. Sta te the c ha racteristics of LASE R. MAY/J UNE 13
i. monochromaticity, ii) directionali ty, iii) coherence a nd iv) brightness.
6. A n atom is s timulated from th e state of e nergy of I x t (t3~ ,I to an excited level of
7.62x t 0·34 J. what is the frequency o f stimulating photon? MA Y/.fUNE 13

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7. Why optical pumping is preferred in lasers? NOV/ DEC 13

Opt ica l pumping is a process in which l ight is used to raise (or "pump") eleclrons from
a lower energy level in an atom or molecu le to a higher one. lt is commonly used in
laser construction, to pump the acti ve laser medium so as lo achieve population
inversion.
8. What is the principle of Double heterostructure Laser? N OV/DEC 13
A double heter ostructure is formed when two semiconductor materials are grown into
a "sandw ich". One material is used for the outer layers (or cladding), and another of
smaller band gap is used for the inne r layer. There must be two boundaries for the
device to be a double heterostructure. If there was only one s ide of c ladding materia l,
the device would be a s imple heterostructure.
9. D efin e population inve rsion and opti~a l pumping. MAY/J UNE 14
When the number of pa11icles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in the
ground state or a less-excited state, population inversion is achieved.
Laser pump ing is the act of energy transfer from an externa l so urce in to tlhe gain
mediwn of a laser. The energy is absorbed in the mediwn, producing excited states in
its atoms.
10. What are SLM and MLM lasers? MAY/J UNE 14
Multi-longitudinal mode (MLM) or Fabry-Perot laser
The MLM or Fabry-Perot laser emits a mu ltimode emission pattern.
Single longitudinal mode laser (SLM)
ln the SLM laser the longitudina l mode wi th the smallest cavity loss reaches tl1reshold
first and becomes the dominant mode. The other nearby modes are discriminated
aga inst by their high losses. wh ich preve nt bui ldup from spontaneous emission
11. What is meant by coh er en ce in lase r l ig ht?
Cohere nce can be divided into spatial and temporal coherence. For any EM wave, if at
time t = 0 and lo the phase difference between two points in space remains the same, we
say the EM wave has spatial coherence; lf at a point P. the EM wave at t and t, dt bas
same phase difference ifthis is the same, temporal coherence ex ists.
12. W hat are the different Mode locking methods?
• Active mode-locking
• Passive mode-locking
• Hybrid mode-locking
• Fourier domain mode locking
13. What is active mode locking?
The most common active mode-locking technique places a standing wave e lectro-optic
modulator into the laser cavity. When driven with an e lectrical s ignal. this produces a
sinusoidal amplitude modulation of the Light in the cavity.
14. W hat is pass ive m ode locki ng?
Passive mode-locking teclrniques are those that do not req uire a signal external to the
laser (such as the driving signal of a modulator) to produce pulses. Rather, they use the

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lig ht in the cavity to cause a c hange in s.o me intra-cavity e leme nt. w hich wiU then itsel f
produce a change in the intra-cavity light. A commonly used device to achieve this is a
saturablc a bsorber.

15. Defin e th e process of Q switching'? Apr/ May 17

Q-switching, sometimes known as giant pu lse formation or Q-spoiling. is a technique
by whic h a laser can be made to produce a pulsed output beam.

16. W hat is die princi ple of Q-switchin g'?

Q-sw itc hing is achieved by putting some type of variable attenua tor inside the laser's
optical resonato r. When the attenuato r is fu nct ioning, light which leaves the ga in
medium does no t return, and lasing cannot begin. This attenua tion inside the cavity
corresponds lo a decrease in the Q facto r o r qua li ty factor of the o ptical resonator. A
hig h Q factor co1Tesponds to low resonato r losses per roundtrip, and vice versa. The
varia ble attenuator is commonly called a "Q-switch", when used for this purpose.
17. W hat is Active Q -switc hing?
The Q-switch is an externa lly controlled variable attenuator. This may be a meclhanical
device such as a shutte r, chopper wheel, o r spinning mirror/prism placed ins ide the
cavity, o r (more commonly) it may be some form of modulator such as an acousto-optic
device, a mag ne to-optic effect device o r a n e lectro-optic device - a Pocke ts cell o r
Ke rr cell. The reductio n of losses (increase of Q) is triggered by an external event,
typically an e lectrica l sig na l.
18. W hat is Passive Q-switcltin g?
In this case, the Q-sw itch is a saturnble absorber, a mate ri al w hose transm iss ion
inc reases when the intens ity of light exceeds some threshold.
19. What are the applications ofQ switching'?
Q-switched lasers are often used in app licatio ns wh ich demand high laser inte ns ities in
nanosecond pulses, such as metal cutting or pulsed bolograpby. J D optical data storage,
J D micro fabricati on, distance measu re ments. range finding, temperature j ump
relaxation study, remove ta ttoos.
20. W hat is a dye lase r'?

A dye laser is a lase r whi ch uses an organ ic dye as the las ing medium . usually as a
liquid solution. Laser dyes are rhodamine (o range, 540- 680 nm), fl uorescein (green,
530- 560 nm), couma 1in (blue 490-620 nm) , s tilbene (violet 4 10-480 nm),
umbe lli ferone (blue, 450-470 nm), tetracene, malachite green,
21. W hat is a solid-state laser'?
A solid-state laser is a laser that uses a ga i11 medium tl1at is a solid. rather than a liquid
such as in dye lasers or a gas as in gas lasers. Semiconductor-based lasers are also in
the solid state, but are gene ra lly considered as a separate class fro m solid-state lasers
(see Laser diode).

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22 . What is a g as las er?
A gas laser is a laser in which ru1 electric current is discharged through a gas to produce
coherent Iight. The gas laser was the first continuous-light laser and the firs t laser to
operate on the principle of converting electrical energy to a laser light o utput.
23. 'W hat are e xcime r laser'! Apr/ May 17

Excimer lasers are powered by a chemical reaction involving an excited dimer, or

excimer. which is a short-lived dimeric or beterodim e ric molecule formed from two
species (atoms), at least one of which is in an excited electronic state. They typica lly
produce ultraviolet light and are used in semiconductor photolithography and in
LASfK eye surgery.
24. S tate the impo1tant featu res o f Nd-YAG lase r. No v/D ec 16
Nd:Y AG laser can be used in manufacturing for engraving and etching various meta ls
and p lastics, and for cutting a nd welding semiconductors, steel and other a lloys. lt is
also employed for making subsurface markings in transparent materials such as acrylic
glass or glass. It produces conti nuo us laser at room tem perature, a nd can be used as a
portable system as the rods are small.
25. Why g ain g uided las ers are not in pra ctice?

Gain g uiding is not very successful. thresholds are high. > lOOmA. with low differentia l
quantu m efficiencies and non-linear kinks in the output characteristic.
26. What is a Brewst er \ Vindow'!

The window reflects some s-polarized light but no p-polarized light. the rouJ1d trip loss
for the s polarization is higher than that of the p polarization. This causes the laser's
output to be p polarized due to competition between the two modes.
2 7. \Vbat is Bea m Diverge nce?

The beam divergence of an e lectromagnetic beam is an angular measure of the increase

in beam diameter or rad ius w ith distance from the optical aperture or ante0.11a aperture
from which the electromagnetic beam emerges. The term is re levant only in the "far
field" , away from any focus of the beam.

Dm
0=-
Beam divergence f where f is the focal lengt h of the lens, Dmis diamete r.
28 . What is a Io n Las er'?
An ion laser is a gas laser that uses an ionized gas as its lasing medium.[ I] Li ke other
gas lasers, ion lasers feature a sealed cavity contau1i ng the laser med ium and mi rrors
fomung a Fabry- Pe rot resonator
29. Whatis lrradian ce (E)?

ln radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux (power) received by a swface per u1, it area.
The SI unit o f irradiance is the watt per square metre (W/m2). Tbe CGS unit erg per
square centimetre pe r second (erg·cm- 2·s-J) is often used in ast ronomy. Jrradiance is

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often ca lled "intens ity" in branches of physics other than radiometry, but in radi ometry
this usage leads to confus ion with radiant intensity.
30. M entio n th e va rio us resonator config urations in lasers.
• Plane-paral le i Resonato r,
• Concentric (Spherica l) Resonato r,
• Confoca l Resona tor,
• Hemispherical Resonator,
• Concave-Convex Resonator.
3 1. What is the condition fo r ampliJication in lasers'?
W ith acti ve med ium in the inverted state, a photon of appropriate energy can s timulate the
e mission of a cascade o f photons
32. S tate th e characteristics of lascr.(Apr/ May-2015)
i. mo nochromatic ity, ii) directiona lity . iii) coherence and iv) brightness.
33. What are the ad vantages of g as laser? .(Apr/ May-20 l 5)
• High volume of active material
• Active material is relatively inexpensive
• Almost tmpossible to dam age the active materia l
• Heat can be removed quickly fro m the cavity

UNIT-I V IND USTRIAL APPLICATION OF LASERS

(X)* Laser for measurement of distance, length, velocity. acceleration, current, voltage and
Atmospheric effect - Mate rial processing -

(Y) * Laser beating, welding, me lting and trimming of material - Removal and vaporization.

PART-A
I. What are the m erits of laser heating? N OV/ DEC 0 7

• Laser radiation very "clean" - no conta inments with other materials

• Working atmosphere can be controlled as needed
• Lasers can be focused to sma ll spots - very localized heating a t very high power
• Careful control of heating power
2. What are the uses of s hielding g as during the material process in g by lasers'?
Nov/Dec 16
Shi e lding gases are ine rt or sem i-i nert gases that are commonly used in several
welding processes, m ost notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten a rc welding
(G MAW and GTAW, more popularly known as M IG and TlG, respectively). The ir
purpose is to protect the weld a rea from oxygen, and water vapour.

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3. Give the applicatio n of laser in indu stry. 2008

• Computer devices
• Astronomy and communicaliou applications
• Medicine, surgery, and health
• War machines. guns and tanks

4. Briefly explain the basic principle o f length meas urement. 2008

The method used to measure distance depends on the accuracy and distance capabiljty
required of the device. Measurement principles in c lude triangulation, time-of-fli ght
measurement. pulse-rype time-of-flight systems, and modulated beam systems
5. What is meant by acti ve mate rial i:n la se r? MA Y/JUNE 13
The acti ve laser mediwn (aJso called gain medium o r lasing medium) is the source of
optical gain within a laser. The gain results from the stimulated emission of e lectronic
or molecular transitions to a lower energy state from a higher energy state previous ly
populated by a pump source.
Examples of active laser med ia include:
Certain crystals, typically eloped with rare-earth ions (e.g. neodymium, ytterbium, or
erbium)
Glasses, e.g. silicate or phosphate glasses, doped with laser-active ions.
6. Nam e an y two uses of laser in industry .M A Y/J UNE 13
Medicine. surgery, and hea lth
War machines. guns ar1d tanks
7. What is the sig nifi cance of shielding gas during the material processin g by
lasers? NOV/DEC 13
Shie lding gases are inert or semi- inert gases that are commo nly used in several
welding processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding
(GMA W and GT AW , more popularly known as MIG and TIG. respectively). Their
purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen, and water vapour.
8. State the advanta ges of using lase r in industry. MA Y/JU~E 14
There is no contact tool required, unlike norma l machining in which the tool bic musl
be sharpened and often replaced.
Using fiber optics. access to previous ly inaccessible locations is avai lable.
Laser processing is easily automated to allow computer and robot control.
9. What are the techniqu es uses fo r distance measurement using Laser?
Laser Rangefind er, laterferometric method
10. What is the principle of velocity measurement using laser?

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1. Laser Doppler velocimetry ( LDV), also known as laser Doppler anemometry ( LOA),
is the technique of using the Dopp ler shift in a laser beam to measure the velocity in
transparent or semi-transparen1 fluid flows
11. The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shi fl:) is the change in frequency or wavelength of
a wave for an obse1ver who is moving relative to the wave source.
11. What is Dopple r effect?
The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency or wavelength of
a wave for an observer who is moving relative to the wave source.
12. What is laser c utting?
Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut materials, and is typically used for
industrial manufacturing applications. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a
high-power laser most commonly through optics. Both CO2 and Nd/ Ncl-Y AG lasers
can be used
13. What are th e advantages of la se r c utting?
The preci sion levels and edge quality achieved with laser cutting machines are bener
than traditiona l culling methods. as trhe laser beam will not wear during the laser
cutting process. Laser cutting techno logy also enables us to cut complex shapes
without the need for tooling
14. What is a la se r rnn ge fi nd er '! Nov/Dec 16
A laser rangefinder is a rangefinder which uses a laser beam to determine the distance
to an object. The most common form of laser rangefinder operates on the time of
flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam towards tbe object and
measuring the time taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target and returned to the
sender.
15. W hat is laser heat treatment?
Laser heat treating is a s urface modification process designed to change the
microsrrucrure of metals through controll ed heating and cooling. An advantage that
lasers offer in this process is the ability to heat treat localized areas without affecting
the entire work piece. CO2 lasers, Nd:YAG lasers are commonly used.
16. W hat are th e ad va ntages of laser ma terial p rocess in g?

• Laser offers precision cuning

• abi lity to heat treat localized areas without affecting the entire work piece
17. What is hnrdening?
Hardening is a metallurgical metalworking process used to increase the bardness of a
metal. The hardness of a metal is directly proportional to the uniaxial yield stress at

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the location of the imposed strain. A harder metal wi ll have a higher resistance to
plastic deformation than a less hard metal.
18. What are tb e t yp es of laser ha rd enin g t ec hniques?
• Layer additions
• 1lardfacing
• Coatings
• Substrate treatme nt
• Diffusion methods
• Selective-hardening methods
19 . W hat is laser glaz ing?
Laser glazing is a su rface-melting technique in which a continuous high-energy
carbon dioxide laser traverses the su rface of a metal part. creating a thin layer of
melted material.
20. What is m echanis m of inte ra ction between the laser beam a nd the processed
mate rial'?
Heating, Melting and Vaporization.
21. Write the f ea tures o f laser me ltin g. NOV/ DEC 13

• Maximal build envelope: 600x400x500 mm 3

• Minimum featu re size: 0.04-0.2 mm
• Accuracy: +/- 0.05-0.2 mm(+/- 0. 1-0.2%)
• Minimum layer thickness: 0.03 mm
22. What is meant by la ser welding? MAY/,JUN E 14
Laser beam welding {LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of
metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated hea l source.
allowing fo r narrow, deep welds aDd high welding rates. It is based on keylhole or
penetration mode welding.
23. What are th e two modes of laser meltin g process?
Conduction mode welding and keyhole or penetration mode welding.
24. W ha t arc the adva ntages of laser we lding, cutting a nd drilling '!
• The process takes place without contact or tension
• High positioDing accuracy
• The heal affected area is small. therefore no material deforming
• Quiet and clean
25. What are th e advanta ges of la se r w elding Ap r/ May 17
• The process takes place without contact or tension
• High positioning accuracy
• The heat affected area is small, therefore no material deforming
• Quiel and clean
26. W hat are tbe two types o rt aser we ld in g process?
Conduction mode welding and keyhole or penetration mode welding

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27. W hat is seam weldin g and mi cro-we lding?

i. Seam welding is a va riation of resistance spot welding. lo laser seam welding, the
pru1 to be welded is moved or rotated under the la ser focus head allowing laser spot

welds to overlap.
11. Micro welding, sometimes reffered to as precision welding has been specifica lly
designed for the welding of small often de licate components. The processes and
equipment used require the use of heat e ne rgy that is in a tig htly controlled
envi.ronmenr.
28. Define trimming.
Laser trimming is tbe manufacturing process of using a laser to adjust the operating
parameters of an electronic circuit.
2 9. L ist the appli ca tions of laser trimming Apr/ Ma y 17

The most common applications use a laser to bum away small portions of resistors.
rais ing the ir resistance value.
30. Sta te a ny two industrial applications of laser.(April/May-201 5)

• Laser welding

• Laser cutting
3 1. What is meant by laser va porization ? (April/May-2015)
Laser ablation (laser vaporization) is tbe process of removing materia l from a solid (or
occasionally liquid) surface by irrailiating it with a laser beam. At low laser nux, the
material is heated by the absorbed laser energy and evaporates or sublimates. At hig b
laser flux , the material is typically converted to plasma.

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UN IT-V HOLOGRAM AND MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

(X)*Holography - Basic principle - Methods - Ho lographic interferometry a nd application,

Holography for non-destructive testing - Holographic components.

(Y)* - Medical applications of lasers. laser and tissue interactive - Laser instruments for
surgery, re moval of tumours of vocal cards, brain surgery. plastic surgery, gynaecology and
oncolo11v.

PART-A
1. What is the principle of holography'? NOV/ DEC 07, Apr/May J7
Holography is based on 1he principle o f interference. A hologram captures the
interference pattern between two or more beams of coherent light (i.e. laser light). One
beam is shone directly on the recording medium and acts as a reference to the light
scattered from the illuminated scene.
2. What is meant by holography ? 2008
A hol ogram is a physical structure that diffracts light into an image. T he term
·hologra m' can refer to both the e ncoded mat,e rial and the resu lti11g image.
A holographic image can be seen by looking into a n illuminated holographic print or by
shining a laser through a hologram and projecting the image onto a screen.
3. M ention th e uses of holograp hic interferometry. 2008
• Laser vibrometry
• Laser Doppler imaging
4. Distin guis h betwee n photography and holography. MAY/J UNE 13
holoe.raohy ohoto2raohv
A hologram represents a recording of A photograph can be recorded using
information regarding the light that came normal light sources whereas a laser is
from the original scene as scattered in a required to record a hologram.
range of directions rather than from only
one dfrection. as in a ohotograoh.
A holographic recording requires a A lens is required in photography to
reference beam to be directed onto the record the image
recording medium.

5. D.istinguis h between hologram and photographic film? Nov/ Dec 16

boloeranhv obotoeraohv
A ho logram represents a recording of A photograph can be recorded using
information regarding the light that came normal light sources whe reas a laser is
from tbe original scene as scatte red in a required to record a hologram.
range of directions rather tha n from only
one direction. as in a obotograoh.

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A holograph ic recording requires a A lens is required in pho tography to

reference bea m to be direc ted o nto the record the image
recordi ng medium.

6. Mention the compone nts of hologram . NOV/ DEC 13

• SupportTable
• Mi1TOrs and Splitters
• Lenses and spatia l fi lters
• Film plate holders
• Ba fil es
7. What is the princ iple of fibe roscope? NOV/DEC 13
A fiberscope is a flex ible fiber-optic bundle with an eyepiece on one end and a le ns on

the other that is used to examine and inspect small. difficult-to-reach places such as the
insides of machines, locks, and the human body
8. What are the uses of holo grap hy?

• Art
• Data storage
• Sensors or biosensors
• Hologram dockets for vehicle number plate
9. What are th e c lass ifications of ho lograms'!
• Refl ection hologram
• Transmission Hologram
• Denisyuk Hologram
• White Light Transmission Holog ram
10. Mention the holographic components in holography
• Support Table
• Mirrors and Splitters
• Lenses and spatia l fi lters
• Fi lm plate holders
• Baffles

11 . What are th e four basic optical processes that occur during the process of lase rs
with tissue'?
• Direct reflection at the boundaries of the layer d ue to change in tbe refractive index.
• Scattering by molecules, particles. fibers. cell organelles and cells within the layer.
• Absorption (which may lead to Photochemistry or dissipation of the absorbed energy
via heat, flu orescence, o r phosphorescence.
• Di1·ect transmission through the layer.

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12. What a re the factors that the optical processes depend o n during direct
transmission?

•
D irect reflection at the boundaries of the layer due to change in the refractive index .
Scattering by molecu les, particles, fibers. cell organelles and cells within the layer.
•
Absorption (which may lead to Photochem istry or dissipation of the absorbed energy
•
via heat, fluorescence, or phospho rescence.
• Direct transmission throug h the layer.
13. What are the me thods of Holographic inte rferometry?
• Doub le exposure holographic interferometry
• Real time holograph ic interferometry
• Time averaged holographic interferomet:Jy
14. W hat is acoustical holography?
Acousti c holography is a method for estimating the sound fi eld nea r a source by
measuring acoustic parameters away from the source by means of an array of pressure
and/or particle velocity transducers.
15. What is a Ph oto sensitize r'?
A photosensitizer is a molecule that produces a c hemical cha nge in ano ther molecule in
a photochemical process. Photosensitizers are common ly used in polymer chem istry in
reactions such as photopolymerization. pbotocross linking, and photodegradation.
16. What are the diffe rent stages involved in ho lography?
• Recording a hologram

• Reconstruction
17. What are the uses of hologra phic interfero metry?

• Laser vibrometry
• Laser Doppler imaging
18. What are the conditions fo r recording a hologram ?
It requires a laser source, a plane mirror or beam splitter, an object and a photographic
plate
T he object beam reflected from the object interferes w ith the reference beam when both
the beams reach the photographic plate, producing interference pattern
19. W hat are the conditions during reconst ruction of a hologram ?
1n the reconstruction process, the hologram is ill uminated by laser beam and this beam
is cal led reconstruction beam. T hi s beam is identical to reference beam used in
constm ction of hologram.
The hologram acts a diffraction gratiDg. This reconstruction beam w ill undergo
phenomenon of diffraction during passage through the bolograrn.
20. What are the me thods of Holographic inte rferometry '?
• Double exposure holographic interferometry
• Rea l time holographic interferometry

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• Time averaged bolographic interferometry

21. What is d o uble exposure holographic interfero me try?
lt1 double-exposure interferometry, one makes two successive holograms on the same
fi lm. For the first exposure the object is in some reference state, and for the second it is
moved or deformed. During reconstruction, the two images interfere as tbougb there
were two copies of 1he object present'.
22. Wha t is Re al time holographi c inte rfero me try?
111 RTHl a hologram of an object is fi rst registered, then a n interferogram is produced
by the overlapping of the diffracted wavefront of hologram and the wavefront coming
from the iUuminated object, so that any variation produced on the object can be directly
observed in real-time.
2 3. Wh at is Time averaged ho lographic inte rfero metry?
The lime averaged method represents the bas is of the holographic interferometry of
moving objects. Its most suitable and also most frequently used application field is the
research of mechanical vibrations of diffusively reflecting objects.
24. What are the uses of laser in medicine? MAY/JUNE J3

• Angioplasty
• Cancer diagnosis, cancer treatment
• Cosrnetic dermatology such as scar revision, skin resurfacing, laser hair
removal. tattoo removal
• Dermatology, to treat melanoma

25. List the safety issues of laser in medical s urgery. Nov/ Dec 16
•
Hazards are all of those potentially dangerous conditions that a re associated w ith an
unanticipated interaction or exposure of tissues or materials, to laser energy.
• Copies of all control measure policies and procedures should be distributed. so that
everyone can read them.
26. M ention the precauti ons to be foUo wed w biJe handling lasers for c lini ca l
a1>plications. Apr/M ay 17
• Never pass electrical cables over the patient.
•
A void using spirit immediately before laser.
•
Before laser surgery, wear surgical mas k. The pore of the mask s hould be less than
1.0 micron.
• Smoke evacuator con1ains a filter to adsorb these particulate matters.
27. What are the diffe re nt laser inte ractions with tissues?
• Direct refl ection ar U1e boundaries of the layer due to change in the refractive index:
• Scattering by molecu les, particles. fibers. cell organelles and cells witJ1in the layer;
• Absorption (wh.ich may lead to Photochemistry or d.issipation of the absorbed energy)

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• Direct transmission through the layer.

28. Disc uss the effect of photo thermal processes in tissues.

Photothermal processes have direct effects on biomolecules, biochemica l reactions, cell
and tiss ue homeostasis and those mechanisms that are the bas is of important
physiological functions.
29. Wha t arc the advantages of laser s urgery?
• Dry field of surge1y, because laser energy seals small blood vessels.
• Less postoperative pain, because of the sealing of nerve ends .
• No contact with mechanical instruments. so steri lization is built in.
• Clear field of view, because no mechani,c al instrument blocks it.
30. Me ntion the names of some lasers and the ir main use with respect to medical fi eld .
Application Laser In Wavelengths (nm)
Photodynamic therapy
ruby (694 nm). alexandrite (755 nm)
(PDT)

Low level laser therapy ruby (694 nm). alexa ndrite (755 nm). pulsed diode array (810
nm).

Dentistry pulsed diode array (810 nm)

Surgery pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG ( I 064 nm)

3 1. What are e ndoscopes'?

An e11doscope is an illuminated optical, typica lly s lender and tubular instrument used to
look deep into the body and used in procedures called an e ndoscopy. It is used to
examine the inte rnal organs like the throat or esophagus.
3 2. What is a brai n tum our?
A brain hunour is a mass or growth of abnormal ceUs in your bra in o r c lose to your
brain.
Many differem types of bra in t11mours exist. Some brain tumours are noncancerous
(benign), and some brain h1mours are cancerous (ma lig nant).
33. W rite about the light propagation through a tissue.
The spatial/temporal distribution and the s ize distribution of tissue struchires and their
a bsorption and scattering properti es
34. Wh at is th e princ ipl e of medical applica tions of LASER ?
Lasers are devices that emit a single, coherent wavelength of e lectromagnetic radiation
that is used to cul, coagulate, or ablate tissue for a variety of clinica l applicatio ns.
Computer-based imaging and g uida nce systems allow procedures to be perfo1med
precisely, quickly. and with greater control.

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35. What is the role of laser in medica l surgery?

Laser surgery is commonly used on the eye. Techn iques used include LASTK, which is
used to correct near and far-sig htedness i11 vision, and photorefractive keratectomy, a
procedure which permanently reshapes the cornea using an excimer laser to remove a
small amount of the human tissue.
36. What are the areas of med ical laser sU1·gery whe re laser wiU be used?
Laser surgery is commonly used on the eye. Techniques used include LASIK, wltich is
used to correct near and fa r-sightedness in vision, and photorefraclive keratectomy, a
procedure which permanently reshapes tile cornea using an excimer laser to remove a
sma ll amount of the human tissue.
37. How are lasers used during cancer surge111 '?
LASLK is a surgical procedure that uses a laser to correct nears ightedness,
farsightedness, and/or astigmatism. In LASIK, a thin flap in the cornea is created using
either a microkeratome blade or a femtosecond laser. The surgeon fo lds back 1he flap,
then removes some cornea l tissue undernealh using an excimer laser.
38 . W hat is oncology?
O ncology is the study of ca ncer. Tbe fie ld of oncology has three maj or areas: medical,
surgical, and radiation.
39. W hat is Photoclyn amic la ser thera 1>y?
Photodynamic th erapy (PDT), somcti mes called photochemotherapy, is a form
of phototherapy involving light and a photosensitizing chemical substance. used in
conjunction with molecular oxygen to elicit cell death (phototoxicity). PDT has proven
ability to kill microbial cells, including bacteria, fungi and viruses
40. What a re the safety precautions to be fo llowed whHe us in g lasers?
• Never pass elecn·icaJ cables over Lhe patient.
• Avoid using spirit immediarely before laser.
• Before laser surgery. wear surgical mask. The pore of the mask shou ld be less than
1.0 micron.
• Smoke evacuator contains a fi lter to adsorb these pa11iculate mallers.
4 l. What are the advantages of using laser in medica l fi e ld ?
• Lasers are more precise and exact than blades (scalpels).
• The heat produced by lasers helps clean (sterilize) the edges of the body tissue thar
it's cutting, reducing the risk of infection.
• Since laser beat seals blood vessels, there is less bleeding. swelling, pain, or scarring.

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• Laser surgery may mean less cutting and damage to healthy tissues

42. What a re the importa nt features of CO2 lasers in voca l cord surgery?
Careful patient selection with endoscopic staging a lso during the biopsy, removal of the
carcinoma in free border, strict fo llow-up a nd stroboscopic examination are essentia l to
secure good results in the treatme nt of CO2 laser for early stages of vocal cord
carci noma.
4 3. Wha t is m eant by e mbolizatio o?
Embolizatio n refers to the passage and lodging of an embolus within the bloodstream.
It may be pathologica l. fo r examp le a pulmonary embolism. or therapeutic, as a
hernostatic treatment for bleed ing.
44. What a re the surgica l techniques mos t co mmonJy e mployed in the treatme nt of
brain tumo ur'?
• Direct co11ical stimu lation,
• Evoked potentia ls.
• Functional MRI,
• lntraoperative ultrnsound imaging

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