Student: Andrew Vagg S00208130 Trainer: Jill

Brown
Assessment Task 1: A literature review dealing with developing number
concepts in the middle years where number understandings are linked to
form a coherent whole including student difficulties, misconceptions, and
errors.

Why are students failing with fractions? What can teachers do differently?
It has been commonly agreed upon that the ideas and concepts of rational
numbers is not an easy one for students to grasp (Moss & Case, 1999)
(Yusof & Malone, 2003). Studies have shown that a great majority of
students are struggling and failing with fractions (Gould, 2013). According
to the results from the 2008 NAPLAN test in the domain of mathematics,
many students are lacking a conceptual understanding of fractions (Gould,
2013). As (Yusof & Malone, 2003) states, fractions are a fundamental and
important aspect of mathematics and should be well understood before
moving into the higher areas of mathematics. Why are so many students
failing at fractions? Whose fault is it? What are the misconceptions? What
can we do differently? Throughout this literature review, I will be looking
at and comparing different perspectives of literature that covers and
discusses these important questions related to the teaching and learning
of fractions. By doing this, I hope to gain a better understanding of
teaching and learning fractions.

Students seem to be lacking the big ideas of fractions, ("Panel of

mathematics experts makes 5 recommendations for teaching fractions",
2016). Some of the most important big ideas of fractions are;
- A fraction describes the division of a whole (region, set, segment)
into equal parts.
- A fraction tells you how many equal parts you have of a whole.
- There are many different ways of representing the same fraction.
(e.g, 1/2=2/4=4/8).
 - Fractions can be written as decimals or as percentages. (e.g, 1/2 = .
50 = 50%)
(Charles, 2005),

These important concepts are the foundations for learning fractions and
without them students will not develop a solid understanding of fractions
(Charles, 2005). A case study conducted by (Yusof & Malone, 2003) set out
to examine which components of fractions students were having the most
difficulty with. Grade five Students were tested over 6 different
components of fractions related to the grade five mathematical syllabus
at Brunei Darussalam Primary school. These components were:
1. -Conceptual knowledge of fractions and sequencing;
2. -Using processes (addition and subtraction);
3. -Using processes (multiplication and division);
4. -Determining fractions of a quantity;
5. -Substitute forms of fractions;
6. -Solving word problems related to fractions.

Some of the most common errors found from the test results were;
grouping errors, arranging fractions from ascending to descending order,
basic fact errors and word problem solving errors.

In summary, the results showed that students were most successful with
calculating the algorithms of fractions, but were unsuccessful in many of
the other areas of fractions, mainly to do with conceptual knowledge.
These results were similarly portrayed by (Moss & Case, 1999), showing
that there has been too much emphasis on teaching procedural
knowledge of fractions and not enough time spent on building a solid
conceptual understanding.

A common problem stated in (Clarke, Roche, & Mitchell, 2008), says that
teachers were using inadequate representations when teaching and
introducing fractions in the classroom. A study conducted by (Gould,
2013) agrees with this as they saw that a lot of students did not
understand fractions when the numerator exceeded the denominator.
Gould mentions that fractions being introduced using simple area models
such as pie charts, which only express fractions as part of a whole, was
inadequate and can cause students to have difficulties when the number
of pieces in the fraction exceeded the whole; e.g., 5/4, (2013). (Moss &
Case, 1999) mentions that pie charts have commonly been used in the
past as a way of introducing fractions, but this has presented various
problems and misconceptions, some of which leads students to confusing
whole number concepts with fractions (Moss & Case, 1999). According to
(Meagher, 2002), fractions should be taught via the use of multiple
representations involving length models, area models and set models. It is
also mentioned that continuously flowing between these different models
gives students a deeper understanding of fractions and can help connect
them with the many different interpretations of fractions.

A study conducted by (Moss & Case, 1999) set out to test whether a new
curriculum for introducing fractions would help students gain a better
conceptual understanding of rational numbers. The new curriculum began
by introducing students to fractions via percentages, via the use of glass
beakers filled with water. They began by building a clear visual
understanding of the different percentages of water in the beakers, and
then moved on to transforming the percentages into decimals, portraying
the strong connection between percentages and decimals. Final after
students had a clear conception of the decimal points on the glass
beakers, they then transformed the decimal points into fractions. By
critically comparing and measuring different percentages, decimals and
fraction points on the beakers, this helped students understand the strong
connections between the different interpretations of rational number.

The results from the study found that this new way of introducing
fractions was successful, showing improvements in students
understandings of rational number compared with students who were
taught fractions in the traditional way. This new curriculum provided the
students with a holistic view of rational numbers through highlighting the
different interpretations and representations to build a coherent
understanding.

In common with (Moss & Case, 1999), Cortina, Visnovska, & Zunigas case
study showed that introducing fractions via length models can be a good
place to start, as students were familiar with the decimal counting system
from seeing it regularly used though out their every day life (2012). (Poon
& Lewis, 2015) say that teachers should introduce fractions from areas of
mathematics that students are already familiar with, building from pre-
fractional knowledge and then moving into more advanced concepts.

Another insight related to teaching fractions revealed by (Kondek & Cavel,

2009) found that the common teacher-centred approach for teaching
fractions, that is transmitting mathematical knowledge from the teacher
to the student, was not as beneficial or engaging as having a student-
centred approach. In agreement with this, (Martin, 2009) portrays the
benefits of having a child-centred approach through the use of a problem-
centred lesson. In their study, a problem-centred lesson was constructed
and given to a class of grade four students. The students were split into
groups and each group was asked to use their own mathematical
reasoning and problem solving skill to to solve a problem given to them by
the teacher. Whilst the students worked collaboratively together in their
groups, the teacher did not interfere. After they had solved the problem,
the teacher then asked each group to explain what strategies they used to
solve the problem. The teacher was surprised to find that each group used
a totally different method to solve the same mathematical problem. The
study concluded that student-centred lessons promote students to use
their own natural independent thinking and problem solving skills. It also
gave students a chance to work collaboratively and share different
strategies and methods of working out problems. By doing this, students
gained a broader understanding of the content, and also learnt new ways
and strategies of solving mathematic problems from viewing other
students methods.

Taking a student-centred approach to learning fractions is very beneficial

as it allows students and teachers to see that there are many different
perspectives and strategies for working out mathematic problems (Martin,
2009). (Poon & Lewis, 2015) and (Salls, 2014) both say that it is important
for teachers to know that children are different to one another and that
each child can view and think about fractions in a different way. They also
say that it is important for teachers to meet the learning needs of all the
students in the class by using multiple different ways and methods for
explaining the same concepts.

In the past the overall percentage of students failing at fractions has been
high (Chinnappan, Forrester, & Thurtell-Hoare, 2012). This has called for a
further investigation into the development of pre-service teacher training
programs. A study conducted by (Chinnappan, Forrester, & Thurtell-Hoare,
2012) showed that pre-service teachers can have an inadequate
understanding of fractions and also of how to teach them. In an attempt to
explore new methods for educating pre-service teachers in the area of
fractions, (Kondek & Cavel, 2009) has displayed some interesting points.
In their study, a new module was introduced into a pre-service teacher
program, which centred on examining primary students written work and
verbal explanations of fractions. In the module, pre-service teachers
closely watched and examined real life footage of students verbally
explaining their work, and on top of this they also studied the students
written work. After the pre-service teachers had completed the module
they gained a better understanding of how students perceive fractions,
and this made them more confident and competent in teaching fractions.
After the study was conducted, recommendations were made that pre-
service teachers need more units in their education program which
emphasis the analysis of students authentic work. This would help pre-
service teachers gain a better understanding of learning and teaching
fractions and would improve students overall understanding of fractions.

Using task involving models, tools and physical hands on activities is very
beneficial to help students gain a better understanding of fractions
(Clarke, 2009). Using active visual tasks for teaching fractions promotes a
deeper visual understanding and also helps students to see the
connections between mathematics and every day life. (Clarke, Roche, &
Mitchell, 2008) say that teachers should use real life activities and
examples which children can relate to. By doing this it gives the students
a coherent understanding of mathematics, whilst also promoting student
engagement.

The purpose of this literature review was to explore the different reasons
that have led to students failing at fractions, and to also explore new ways
and methods that can promote students to gain a better understanding of
fractions. The clear evidence shown throughout this review is that
fractions are a difficult mathematical concept to learn and to teach, and
that in the past teachers have used ineffective strategies for teaching
fractions. Luckily, there has been successful research and studies done as
seen above, that display positive new ways and strategies to teach
students fractions so that they can develop a better understanding. In
conclusion, to see a positive future in the domain of teaching and learning
fractions new and modified teacher training programs that are based on
successful research studies need to be implemented and enforced into
education programs, so that teachers and pre-service teachers can gain
the sufficient knowledge they need for teaching fractions.
Referencing:

15) Clarke, B. (2009). Using tasks involving models, tools and

representations: Insights from a Middle Years mathematics project. In
Crossing Divides (MERGA32 Conference). Australasia: MERGA.
- (Clarke, 2009)

14) Clarke, D., Roche, A., & Mitchell, A. (2008). 10 Practical Tips for Making
Fractions Come Alive and Make Sense. Mathematical Teaching In The
Middle School, 13(7), 372-380.
- (Clarke, Roche, & Mitchell, 2008)

6) Charles, R. (2005). Big ideas and understandings as the foundation for

elementary and middle school mathematics. Journal of Mathematics
Education Leadership, 7(3), 9-24.
-(Charles, 2005)

11) Cortina, J., Visnovska, J., & Zuniga, C. (2012). Alternative Starting Point
for Fractions. In Mathematic education: Expanding horizons. Singapore:
MERGA.
- (Cortina, Visnovska, & Zuniga, 2012)

20) Chinnappan, M., Forrester, T., & Thurtell-Hoare, E. (2012).

Developments in Pre-service Teachers' Mathematics for teaching of
Fractions. In MERGA 35th annual conference. Singapore: Mathematic
Education.
-(Chinnappan, Forrester, & Thurtell-Hoare, 2012)

4) Gould, P. (2013). Changes in Students' Notation When Fractions Exceed

One-Whole. In Mathematics Education: Yesterday, today and Tomorrow.
Melbourne: MEGRA.
- (Gould, 2013)

3) Kondek Mcleman, L., & Cavell, H. (2009). Teaching fractions. Teaching

Children Mathematics, 12(8), 494-501.
-(Kondek & Cavel, 2009)

5) Martin, J, F. Jr. (2009). The goal is long division. Teaching Children

Mathematics, 15(8), 482- 487
-(Martin, 2009)

13) Moss, J. & Case, R. (1999). Developing Children's Understanding of the

Rational Numbers: A new Model an Experimental Curriculum. National
Council Of Teachers Of Mathematics, 30(2), 122-147.
- (Moss & Case, 1999)

12) Panel of mathematics experts makes 5 recommendations for teaching

fractions. (2016). Educational Research Newsletter and Webinars.
Retrieved 22 April 2016, from http://www.ernweb.com/educational-
research-
articles/mathematics_experts_recommendations_for_teaching_fractions/
- ("Panel of mathematics experts makes 5 recommendations for teaching
fractions", 2016)

17) Poon, R. & Lewis, P. (2015). Unpacking the Division Interpretation of a

Fraction. Teaching Children Mathematics, 22(3), 178-185.
- (Poon & Lewis, 2015)

10) Meagher, M. (2002). Teaching Fractions: New Methods, New

Resources. ERIC Digest.. Ericdigests.org. Retrieved 23 April 2016, from
http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/fractions.htm
- (Meagher, 2002)
1)-Salls, J. (2014). Sharing Cookies: A Case Study. Mathematical Teaching
In The Middle School, 19(6), 368-375.
- (Salls, 2014)

9) Yusof, J. & Malone, J. (2003). Mathematical errors in fractions : a case of

Bruneian primary 5 pupils. In Mathematics education research :
innovation, networking, opportunity : proceedings of the 26th annual
conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia.
Singapore: MEGRA.
- (Yusof & Malone, 2003)