Charles Kim, "Lecture Notes on Fault Detection and Location
in Distribution Systems," 2010.
Source: www.mwftr.com
3. Fault Location Algorithms
Charles Kim
June 2010
Fault Location Overview
Traditional Methods of determining the location
of a fault on T&D lines
Impedance Approaches (Our Focus)
Traveling Wave Approaches
Problems in Distribution Network
Other Methods
Short-circuit analysis software
Customer calls (distribution case)
Line inspection
Fault Indicators (4)
New Opportunities
Smart Sensors (6)
Smart Meters (6)
2
Impedance-Based Measurement Technique Overview
Calculation of the fault location from the
apparent impedance seen looking into the line
from one end (or two ends).
Steady-State Approach
Phase-to-ground voltages and current in each
phase must be determined.
Fault Impedance Influence
Loading Influence
Ground Fault Case
Zero-sequence Impedance Information
Ground Compensation Factor
Simple Impedance Equations (with Rf = 0)
k=(ZoL Z1L)/(3 * Z1L) ground compensation factor
ZoL: zero-sequence line impedance
m: per unit distance to fault
IR: Residual Current 4
Basic Model with System Parameters
Simplifiedtransmissionlinewithtwosources
5
Impedance (Distance) Equation
IG:LineCurrentduringfault
If:Faultcurrentthroughthefault
resistorRf.
6
Derivation of If/IG
Derivation Continued
8
Reactive component of fault resistance
2 factors
Current distribution factor, ds
Determined by system impedances
Angle of ds () = 0 if system is homogeneous (Same R/X
ratio of lines)
Circuit loading factor, ns
Determined by the load current (IL) presence in the system
The angle of ns () is not zero if there is a load flow in the
system
If IG is much bigger than IL, the angle will approach zero.
Sum of the angles (+) determines the reactive
component caused by fault resistance, Rf.
Practice with MathCad
10
Mutual Impedance vs. Sequence Impedance
11
k factor from mutual impedance
12
Practical Approaches:
(1) Simplification & (2) Limiting errors
Various techniques to accommodate the two
factors or to reduce the factors
Fault location without using source impedance
(Takagi et al)
Fault location using source impedance: US Patent
5839093 System for locating faults and estimating
fault resistance in distribution networks with tapped
loads Novosel et al. 1998, ABB
Simplification
Reactance Method
Voltage Sag
Rms V and I
13
Reactance Method
Measures the apparent impedance
Determines the ratio of the measured reactance
and to the reactance of the entire line, which is
proportional to the distance to the fault.
Assumptions:
The current through the fault resistance is in phase
with the current at the measurement point
There is no load prior to the fault
One of the earliest algorithms that compensate
for the fault resistance by measuring only the
imaginary part of the apparent line impedance
14
Reactance Method
m: per-unit distance to the fault
15
Reactance Method for Ground Fault Case
16
Further Approximation
17
Reactance Approach
18
Further Approximation
19
Performance
20
Fault Location without Using Source Impedance
Improvement
Elimination of load current by determining the
change in current on occurrence of a fault.
Takagi
Uses the net fault line current (IG )
21
Takagi Method - Patent
22
Takagi Method
23
Takagi Approach Example
24
Variation of A2
Modifiedmethod
Useszerosequencecurrent(IR)(insteadofthe
netfaultcurrent)
Usestheangle ofthecurrentdistributionfactor
derivedfromthesourceimpedancedata
Accountsfornonhomogeneoussystem
Reducesthereactanceeffecterror
Problemwithaccuratecorrectionof.
25
Further Improvement (Modified Takagi &SEL)
26
Differential Equation Approach
L calculationfromsampleddata
ofv andI
TimedomainApproach
ExtractionofRandX
Differentwaysofdealing
Derivative(d/dt)forcomputing
fromsampleddata
NumericalAnalysisofDerivative
Conversionoftheequationinto
integral,thentrapezoidalrule
Discretized elementmodel
27
Discretized Model of Elements EMTP approach
28
Trapezoidal Approximation
Source:ArumG.Phadke andJamesS.Thorp,Computerrelaying
forpowersystems,RSP.Ltd August1994,pp.118131
29
Final Form and Practice with MathCad
30
Differential Equation Approach on SEL
31
Fault Location with Actual Data
32
Fault location using Source Impedance
The current distribution factor, ds, is a function of the source
impedance, line impedance, and the unknown fault location.
If the source impedance is known, fault location can be
estimated without the assumption related with the
33
distribution factor.
Quadratic Equation Derivation
34
Continued
35
Continued-
Problem
Source Impedance in program must be the same as
the actual source impedance of a network
36
Factors affecting the accuracy of the fault estimation
The combined effect of the load current and fault
resistance (reactance effect)
Influence of zero-sequence mutual effect on the
components
Uncertainty about the zero-sequence impedance
Difficult to obtain an accurate zero-sequence
impedance (ZoL) for line
The value is affected by soil resistivity, which can be
difficult to measure, and may be changeable.
A 20% error in the ZoL can introduce a 15% error in
fault calculation
The impedance is not uniformly distributed along the
line length (100 to 1 variation in earth resistivity
produces about 2 to 1 change in Zo)
37
Other Factors of Error
Insufficient accuracy of the line model (un-
transposed lines are represented as being
transposed and charging capacitance is
not considered)
Presence of shunt reactors and capacitors
Load flow unbalance
Measurement errors, CT/PT errors
Low resolution or sampling rate at
measurement station
38
Two-Terminal Data Methods
Advantages
More accurate than one-terminal methods
Able to minimize or eliminate the effects of fault resistance,
loading, and charging current.
Positive Sequence components are used instead of zero-
sequence, eliminating the adverse effect of zero-sequence
components
Drawback
The data from both ends must be collected at one location
RequiredEquipment
Measuring devices for 3-phase voltages and currents at each
end with time stamping.
Communication equipment
Central computer for collection of data and calculation of fault
location
39
Some other Fault Location Methods
40
More
41
More
42
Traveling Wave Approach
TransientWaveArrivalTime
TransientWaveFrequencyAnalysis
Features
Highsamplingofdata
TransientFrequencycorrelationtofaultdistance
Moresuitableforlongdistancefaults
43
Overview of High Frequency/Traveling Wave Methods
Reflectionandtransmissionoffaultgenerated
travelingwaveonthefaultedpoint
Accuratebutmorecomplexandexpensivein
implementation
Addedequipment
GPSsystem
Faulttransientdetectorsanddiagnosissoftware
Difficultiesintheconfigurationanlocationof
faulttransientdetectorsduetocomplex
distributionnetwork
44
Traveling Wave Method
CorrelationofIncidentandreflectedwaveform.
Singleendedanddoubleendedapproaches
Bigprobleminmultiplediscontinuity(reflection
points)innetworks
Variations
Highfrequencysignalsmeasuredatthesubstation(with
Waveletanalysis)F.H,Magnago andA.Abur (1999)Anew
faultlocationtechniqueforradialdistributionsystems
basedonhighfrequencysignals.ProcofIEEEPESSummer
Meeting,1:426431
45
Summated Voltage and Current Wave
Inatotaln lines,withthesamevalueZo,connected
toacommonbusbar,thesummatedwavesonthe
linecarryingtheincidentwaveis:
Asthenumberoflinesconnectedtoabusbarincreases
Thesummatedvoltagewilltendtozero
Thesummatedcurrentwavewilldouble
Observationofcurrentwaves(viaCT)maybepreferable
Butbothhavebeenapplied.
46
Accuracy Limitation
Assumption
Thelightspeed:3*108 m/s
Discontinuitiesinelectricalsystemproduceswave
reflections
Twoterminalmethodallowtimingfromtheinitiationof
thefault,hencereflectedwavesarenotused.
Accuracy
300metersevenforlonglines
Wavedetectionerrorduetointerpretationofthe
transientisamajorsourceoferror.Manytransients
and/orreflectedtransientsappearatthesametime.
Oneterminalmethodneedstobemoresophisticated
signatureanalysisrequired.
47
Traveling Wave Method Modes
TypeA(singleended)mode
Flashoveratthefaultpointlaunchestwowavesthattravelinopposite
directionsawayfromthefault
Theeffectiveimpedancesatthelineterminalsareassumedtobe lowerthan
thelinesurgeimpedancesothatsignificantreflectionsareproducedwhich
thentravelbackalongthefaultylinetothefaultpoint.
Ifthefaultarcstillexists,andalsopresentsaneffectiveresistancelowerthan
thesurgeimpedanceoftheline,thenanywavesarrivingatthefaultwillbe
almosttotallyreflectedbacktothelineterminals.
TypeD(twoended)mode
Differenceinthetimesoffirstarrivalofthetwofaultgeneratedwavesatboth
lineterminalsaredetermined.
Reflectionsfromotherdiscontinuities,branches,tappedloads,cablesections
becomeunimportant.
TypeE(SingleEndedCircuitBreakerTransient)mode
Usesthetransientscreatedwhenalineisreenergizedbyclosingacircuit
breaker(closetotheImpulseCurrentMethodoffaultlocationwidelyusedon
undergroundcables)
48
Loss Free Overhead Line
Detection
DeviceatS
Detection
DeviceatR
The distinction between the reflected
wave from the fault point and that
from the remote bus bar is vital. 49
Example Fault Locator
50
Test 1
51
Test 2 (with load)
52
Can we apply the algorithms to Distribution
Systems Faults?
Numerous factors affecting the algorithms in
distribution networks
Conductor size change
Multiple feeder taps and laterals
Inaccurate models and system data and dynamic
configuration
Effects of fault impedance
Different Grounding Methods
Solid grounding
Ungrounded Network
Petersons coil
Resistance Grounded
53
Distribution Network Topology
HeterogeneousFeeders
Differentsizeandlengthofcables
Presenceofoverheadandundergroundlines
Presenceofsingle,double,andthreephaseloads
Presenceoflateralsalongthemainfeeder
Presenceofloadtapsalongthemainfeederandlaterals.
Causeofestimationerrorinfaultlocations
Model
Lumpedparametermodel
Symmetricalcomponentsonphasorbasedalgorithms
Singlelinetogroundfaultismostcommon
Differentvaluesoffaultresistance
54
Fault Location at SDG&E
FaultLocationEfforts
DataMeasurement(PQNode)at36Substations
DataAnalysisusingPQView
Algorithm(reactanceapproach)Programmed
byEPRI
OfflineEvaluationforafewSubstationCircuits
55
Fault Location EPRI Example
North Bus Creelman - 12/17/2006 22:52:39.8470
Reactance to Fault
North Bus Creelman - 12/17/2006 22:52:39.8470 Va Vb Vc Vab Vbc Vca Ia
Va Vb Vc Ia Ib Ic Ires
Ib Ic Iab Ibc Ica Ires XTF
10
12
Voltage (kV)
5
Voltage (kV)
10
0 8
-5
2
Current (kA)
-10
2 1
1 0
Current (kA)
Reactance (ohms)
4.50
0
4.25
-1 4.00
3.792 (k1=3.500)
1B 3
3.75
-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Time (s) Time
EPRI/Electrotek PQView
56
Strength and Weakness of the Current Approach
Current
approach
Simple
and
Effective
Load
dependen
cy
Overreac
hing&
Under
reaching
Problem
57
Reproduction of EPRI Approach
3 4
210 210
3
1.94510 1.04910
4
3 4
Ia 110 110
Va
Ib
Vb 0
Ic 0
Vc
Ir 4
3 110
110
4
3
1.05410
1.95910 4
210
3
210 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
4 T 0.133
4 T 0.133 2.60310
2.60310
4
2 10
North Bus Creelman - 12/17/2006 22:52:39.8470
Reactance to Fault
Va Vb Vc Vab Vbc Vca Ia
Ib Ic Iab Ibc Ica Ires XTF
12
Voltage (kV)
10
2
Current (kA)
0
Reactance (ohms)
4.50
4.25
4.00
3.792 (k1=3.500)
1B 3
3.75
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Time
58
Strength and Weakness of the Current Approach
Currentapproach
Simpleand
Effective
Loaddependency
Overreaching
&Under
reaching
Problem
MinimumData
Length
Requirement
atleast2cycles
offaulteddata
areneeded.
59
Simpler Approach
RMScurrentOnly
FaultCurrentCalculationateach
everynode
LookupTable
Fault Current Vs Fault Distance
Progress Energy Example
2500
2000
Fault Current
Current [A]
1500 Ambient Load
Eqn
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20
60
Fault Distance [mi]
Characterization of Specific Fault
VoltageDipEnergyIndex(Edip)
Characterizationofspecificfault
Integrationofthedropinsignalenergyoverthe
durationofanevent.
V(t):RMSvoltageovertime
Vnom:Ratedvoltage
61
Fault Location by RMS current main tool
DeterminetheaverageofRMScurrentduringthefault(initial
andsteadystateportions)duration
Determinethecurrentindex:Iindex
p:predictedvalue
Exp:experimentalvalue
Comparethecurrentindexatseveralnodesdeterminedby
DSFL(byfaultcurrent&recloser,etc?)
Pickthelocationwherethecurrentindexisminimum(i.e.,the
leasterrorlocationbetweenmodelvs actual)
62
Example
63
Other Methods
DistributedDevices
VoltageSensormatrix
Voltagemagnitudeandphaseangletableofallsections
andnodesinthenetwork
Measureddatavs.historicalfaultdata.
HybridMethods
Faultdistancecalculation&DistributedDeviceMethod
FaultIndicatorMethods
UseofSmartMetersandSmartGridCommunication
Infrastructure
64
References
L.Nastac andA.Thatte,DistributionSystemsFault
Locator ElectricalInfrastructureTechnology,
TrainingandAssessmentProgram,DOETechnical
ReportunderCooperativeAgreementDEFC02
04CH11241,September30,2006
L.Nastac,AdvancedFaultAnalysisSoftware(or
AFAS)forDistributionPowerSystems, Centerfor
GridModernizationProgram,DOETechnicalReport
underCooperativeAgreementDEFC0205CH11298,
July31,2007.
NumerousUSpatentsandpatentpublications
65
