35 Years of Structural Measurements

at Brüel & Kjær

Svend Gade and Henrik Herlufsen, Brüel & Kjær Sound & Vibration Measurement A/S, Nærum, Denmark

Both Gade and Herlufsen started working for Brüel & Kjær
when the modern era of structural measurements began in the
early 1980s. In (Brown and Allemang, Sound & Vibration, pp.
19–25, January 2007), it is even argued that the modern era of
experimental modal analysis already started one or maybe two
decades earlier.
In 1982, we participated at IMAC I, the first international modal
analysis conference in Orlando, FL – the time considered when
modal analysis changed from being a pure scientific concept to be
a practical engineering tool. Many tests were at that time limited
to single-input/single-output (SISO) measurements.
In 1983, we were involved with the release of B&K’s first dual-
channel signal analyzer. Today dual-channel FFT analysis is the
established method of performing frequency response function
measurements used for what we might call classical mobility-
based modal testing and analysis.
Over the years, we have seen progress and development in
all fields of the measurement chain – from the input vibration
Figure 1. Multichannel Analysis System Type 3550 with a typical dual-
transducers via signal conditioning to the analog to digital con- channel mobility shaker setup.
version, real-time and post-processing of functions followed by
modal parameter estimation and applications of the modal model. Volvo station wagon from Copenhagen to Harwich to reach the
This article deals with what we see (and we both have been ferry from Esbjerg just in a nick of time. We carried transducers
involved with from a B&K perspective) as some of the most im- (including a newly developed modal impact hammer), and we
portant steps achieved in this progress. Today it is not unusual were on the road for quite some time covering several countries.
that modal analysis is performed using several hundred high- Probably the most important new application we introduced and
dynamic-range measurement channels connected to dedicated demonstrated was hammer-based mobility measurements and
smart modal accelerometers (with built-in transducer electronic information about the easy extension from dual-channel FRF
data sheets (TEDS) doing multiple-input/multiple output (MIMO) measurements to modal analysis.
measurements with automated modal parameter estimation and
model correlation with large finite-element models. Cross-Spectrum Signal Analyzers
Besides a very large display, Dual Channel Signal Analyzer Type
We were both employed during the first half of 1980 as ap- 2032 was unique in several ways. It was the first analyzer on the
plication engineers at the B&K sales department/headquarters in market that used the concept of measuring at any time what we
Denmark. Some of our first responsibilities were to run frequency called “total documentation,” namely the two autospectra and the
analysis and digital signal analysis courses both internally and for complex cross-spectrum (and the last block of the two input time
customers. Our reference books were Frequency Analysis written signals). All other functions were just derived/post-processed (in
by Bob Randall,1 who was also our colleague back then, as well real time) from these fundamental three spectra. The list of func-
as a Fourier analysis book written by Oran Brigham.2 From these tions was long (actually 34), FRF, coherence, impulse response
sources and our colleague/mentor Niels Thrane, we learned what function, auto- and cross-correlation, cepstra and sound intensity,
we initially needed to know about analog and digital frequency just to mention a few.
analysis. Type 2032 was using three processors in parallel that worked
Using digital techniques was rather new to many of our custom- independent of each other, ensuring the same high real-time speed
ers and colleagues, so there was really a need for training people of 6 kHz (in dual-channel mode) no matter what kind of function
in topics like fast-Fourier-transform (FFT), sampling, aliasing, was displayed during measurements. A measurement processor
convolution, weighting functions, uncertainty principle, units/ controlled by a measurement setup was processing the three basic
scaling, etc., and also to operate and demonstrate the new and spectra; a display processor controlled by display setup param-
more complex digital instrumentation. At that time our digital ana- eters made further processing of the three basic spectra ensuring
lyzers were single-channel instruments basically measuring auto a reasonable high-update live display performance of the desired
spectra either by digital filtering (1/n octaves – acoustics) or FFT functions. Finally, a zoom processor was used for decimation
(narrowband – vibration) techniques, but B&K was in process of (including low-pass filtering and zooming) of data.
developing the Dual-Channel Signal Analyzer Type 2032, including In contrast to other companies on the market, we decided to use
preparing the largest release activity at that time. We were heavily the terminology frequency response function (frequency domain)
involved with testing the functionality, learning and understand- rather than transfer function (Laplace domain), since at least in
ing the dual-channel concept, including reading/studying a newly modal analysis application, it is important to clearly distinguish
released and very inspiring book of Bendat & Piersol,3 and much between these two domains. Most other companies called their
more. In addition, we were writing application notes, sales training similar instruments transfer function analyzers (TFA). Further-
notes and even one of the manuals for the dual-channel analyzer. more, it was the first analyzer on the market that offered several
On April 1, 1983, several application/sales engineers in groups different FRF estimators, H1, H2 and H3, to handle noise at either
of two went on a worldwide tour introducing the Type 2032 ana- input or output. A 2034 version with reduced real-time speed was
lyzer, which became an instant success for B&K, see Reference 4, available for embargo reasons.
Chapter 19. Carrying two 2032 analyzers with last-minute updates, We knew there was a need for more than just two channels in
Herlufsen and Gade started their tour in the UK by rushing in a modal applications, but it was not until 1991 before Multichannel

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 range covers all), so no need to make preliminary measurements
as long as transducers with a proper sensitivity have been chosen
for the actual application.
Typically, one system has been used for measuring the basic FRF
data (e.g. PULSE LabShop signal analysis software), and another
system (modal analysis software) is used for modal parameter esti-
mation, although both systems may be running in the same PC just
exchanging data using export/import facilities. The PULSE Reflex
Structural Measurement (released 2015) is a fully integrated system
(hardware as well as software) performing all tasks (measurement,
analysis, postprocessing, automated reporting) of modal testing.
That includes MIMO measurements, modal parameter estimation,
validating modal model, correlating test models with finite-element
models to finally creating automated reports in MS Office.
The latest LAN-XI hardware frame Type 3660-C/D-100 (2014)
supports synchronous measurement via the global positioning syn-
chronization (GPS) clock due to built-in GPS receivers (see Figure
3). This is useful when performing a modal test on large structures,
Figure 2. MIMO based on 16-channel Type 3550/3551 system.
especially for operational modal analysis (OMA) applications. A
number of completely independent (unconnected) PULSE data
acquisition systems can make data recordings in synchronism
with each other. One example of this would use an independent
measurement system on each floor of a large building to make phase
synchronous data recordings that can be used for cross-spectra
(FRF) calculations between any channel from any frame and finally
performing modal parameter estimation in reflex modal.
The PULSE Reflex software platform has recently changed
from being a 32-bit to a 64-bit version (in year 2015). This ensures
use of more memory capacity and supports larger datasets, espe-
cially when correlating and comparing large finite-element models
against test models.

Modal Analysis Software

When B&K released the dual-channel Type 2032 analyzer, the
company was entirely focusing on developing hardware products,
Figure 3. Type LAN-XI 3660-D-100 frame (GSP support) with removable
LAN-XI modules.
so there was a need for working with modal software vendors to
offer complete solutions. In 1980, we had one HP9825 computer
Analysis System Type 3550 (Type 2035 Signal Analyzer Unit in and one programmer in the sales department so he could demon-
Dual Channel configuration) was ready for release. Type 3550 was strate to customers that it was possible to program and control our
based on the same principles and quite similar hardware as Type digital analyzers via the IEEE 488 interface.
2032 but visually extended with a floppy disk drive, see Figure 1. Our first partner was Structural Measurement System, SMS, a
This analyzer had a number of advanced options such as order- company founded by Mark Richardson, Ken Ramsey, Don Kientzy
tracking analysis, 100 kHz frequency range, multichannel option, and Dave Formenti in 1979. The SMS people had great experience
etc. The maximum number of channels was 16, and the 3550 was from developing the first modal analysis software for Hewlett Pack-
able to do MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output0 measurements. ard, the Type HP5423A Structural Dynamics Analyzer released in
In practical situations, MIMO was basically limited to two inputs 1979. The first SMS modal software structural testing and analysis
(two shakers, see Figure 2) to limit the number of cross-spectra system, STAS, was running in HP computers, where you had to
calculations and for not reducing the number of FFT lines from load the Basic 2.0 operating and programming software followed
the “standard” 800 lines. by loading the STAS software using 5.25-inch floppy disks16 before
Meanwhile, personal computers entered the market, and Type any work could take place. No built-in HDD or SSD, of course, were
3550 was based on older technology. So we developed the so- available at that time. Communication between analyzer and HP
called PULSE analysis system, which we introduced in 1996. It computer took place over the IEEE 488 cable and interface. STAS
was unique in several ways. It was the first multichannel (up to was command driven, so you had to learn all necessary commands
a maximum of 32 channels at release) real-time analysis system and parameters by heart, or you had to have the manual open
on the market that was PC and MS Windows (Windows NT Ver. next to you at all times. This was not very user friendly by today’s
3.51) based and being able to do multi-analysis, or the possibility standards – but was the state of the art at the time.
of doing various analysis tasks simultaneously including direct SMS created the first Windows-based modal software (STAR
reporting in MS Office. The number of FFT lines were selectable Modal, Structural Analysis and Reporting System) in 1985, but
in binary steps from 50 to 6400 and nearly eliminated the need had to wait until IMAC V, 1987 for its first official release. This
for zoom measurements. became a very popular platform due to its intuitive user interface
The first release was based on the 3550 input modules, but today and sold by B&K to many users worldwide. The STAR software is
PULSE is using its fifth-generation of hardware (see Figure 3). Some today a product of Spectral Dynamics.
of the major hardware improvements over the years include: First When we entered the multichannel market around 1990, B&K
extending the original 32-channel limit several times, todays LAN- and Leuven Measurement Systems (LMS) started cooperating on
XI system architecture has in principle no channel limitations, multichannel systems. B&K delivered multichannel hardware (a
any limit resides in the PC configuration. Real-time systems with Model 3550-based front-end system called 3551), and LMS the
up to hundreds of measurement channels have been tested and necessary software, the UNIX based CADA-X. For smaller systems
delivered to users. Other improvements are in terms of dynamic (dual channel), B&K delivered the Type 3550 analyzer together with
range going from 16-bit ADCs to 24-bit and finally in 2005 to 2×24 a LMS Windows-based modal software called CADA-PC Modal.
bit – called Dyn-X (dynamics extreme) technology5 that efficiently One important issue was that B&K was constantly behind the
offers 160 dB dynamic range in narrow-band analysis. For the user, market with respect to the number of measurement channels in the
it means that there is no attenuator setting to worry about (one early ’90s due to long development times. When the market needed

www.SandV.com 50TH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE  27

 16 channels B&K, offered two Two very different estimation techniques are included: a
channels. Then we made 16 nonparametric (and patented) frequency domain decomposition
channels but now there was (FDD) technique, and a parametric data driven stochastic subspace
a need for 32 channels. When identification (SSI) algorithm. Instantly the FDD became a popular
the 32-channel front end was method because it was fast, simple to use, and easy to understand.
ready, the market needed 64 The SSI method was difficult to understand and required, in the
channels and a 32-channel beginning, extensive computer calculations. (Typically an analy-
front end was the last system sis of even a small test required calculations for several hours.)
we offered on that platform, There have been many improvements over the years, so today the
although there was a need for parameter estimation method is fully automated, making the SSI
128 channels we were told. method as fast as and as well accepted/understood as the FDD
Finally, cooperation with method. Modal parameter estimation using current PC technology
Figure 4. Type 8208 impact hammer. LMS ended since LMS was takes just a few seconds even for large-scale testing.
regarded to be a competitor B&K took over the Test for I-deas product portfolio in 2006 after
rather than a partner. B&K MTS Corporation’s Noise and Vibration Division closed down.
introduced its next-genera- Structural Dynamics Research Corporation (SDRC) originally
tion multichannel hardware, developed Test for I-deas. Over time, it was decided to move
Intelligent Data Acquisition this modal product from the UNIX platform to Windows and is
(IDA) in 1995 to be used by presently supported on maintenance contracts. PULSE Reflex
the PULSE LabShop system Modal software was first released in 2009. Today, the Reflex Struc-
from 1999. IDA multichannel tural Analysis solution is a mature product and comprises modal
systems offered a considerable analysis (including structural measurements), model correlation,
cost reduction per measure- operating deflection shapes (ODS) and shock response analysis.
ment channel compared to the Reflex modal and correlation software are offered in exchange
3550/3551 hardware solutions. today free of charge on a one-to-one basis for Test for I-deas users
After the LMS adventure, on maintenance contracts.
Figure 5. Type 4826 modal exciter. B&K went back again to coop- There’s hardly a need to mention that there has been a tremen-
erate with Mark Richardson, dous improvement in modal-parameter estimation (earlier called
who had sold the STAR Modal curve-fitting) algorithms, but it is outside the scope of this article
software to Spectral Dynamics to go into detail. We have seen the market moving from simple
and founded a new company manually controlled local mono-reference SDOF (single degree
Vibrant Technology, Inc. in of freedom) curve fitters to advanced fully automated global
1991. Their main product was polyreference MDOF (multi degree of freedom) parameter estima-
the modal software ME’scope tion methods.21
(later ME’scopeVES). For many
years, ME’scope became the Modal Test Software
preferred modal software sup- One of the first dedicated applications on the PULSE LabShop
porting our Type 3550 and platform was Modal Test Consultant (MTC) released in 1999. This
PULSE systems. has also been one of the most popular PULSE applications over
In 2001, we released the first the years. MTC is an application on top of the PULSE measure-
Figure 6. Type 4524 triaxial acceler- version of a new analysis tech- ment platform and guides the user through a complete modal test.
ometer with mounting slots. nique called “output-only” Typical steps include selecting hardware and transducers, creating
modal analysis, also known as geometry, defining degrees of freedom (DOFs) and measurement
ambient modal or operational sequence. Predefined setups are then chosen for hammer or shaker
modal analysis (OMA) for testing, including ratio calibration to perform geometry-driven
in-situ measurements.20 The measurement. Finally measurement validation is carried out: this
software was developed by is done via FRF-based geometry animation and exporting the data
Structural Vibration Solutions (measurements, DOFs and geometry) to a user-selected modal
A/S, SVS (Palle Andersen) in software or to disk in, for example, the widely accepted universal
cooperation with and support file format (UFF). MTC has dedicated measurement templates for
by B&K (product manager hammer, shaker (including MIMO), ODS and OMA tests.
Niels-Jørgen Jacobsen) and is As mentioned earlier, support of structural measurements has
today the preferred “output- been added to the Reflex platform with a great number of improve-
only” software on the market ments and enhancements compared to MTC. Included (2016) is
with many users worldwide. the use of geometry driven SIMO and MIMO stepped sine excita-
SVS calls the product ARTe- tion and analysis, which has a number of advantages in structural
Figure 7. The 4506 triaxial accelerom-
eter mounted on swivel base. MIS (ambient response testing testing including forced vibration analysis and check and control
and modal identification soft- of non-linearities. It is especially used for testing of larger and/or
ware). The primary use was for complex structures.
extracting modal parameters
of civil engineering struc- Modal Test Transducers
tures and soon for mechanical Besides introducing a wide range of modal hammers (Figure
structures under operating 4, for example) and shakers (Figure 5 for example) over the past
conditions as well. The ad- 35 years many advances have taken place in the design of modal
vantage of the method is that response transducers (accelerometers) and signal conditioning.
no artificial excitation needs to Actually B&K introduced its first accelerometer as early as 1943.18
be applied to the structure or Typical accelerometers in the early 1980s were charge accelerom-
force signals to be measured. eters connecting to the analyzer input via a charge-conditioning
The parameter estimation is preamplifier, such as the widely used B&K Charge Amplifier Type
based on response signals only, 2635. This offered high-quality measurements with a wide fre-
Figure 8. Type 4506 triaxial acceler- minimizing the test prepara- quency range, high- and low-pass filters, adjustable gain, etc, but
ometer with data matrix code. tion work. was an expensive solution per measurement channel.

28  SOUND & VIBRATION/JANUARY 2017 www.SandV.com

 The introduction of accelerometers with built-in charge-to-
voltage converter reduced price per measurement channel con- Operational Modal Analysis Conference, IOMAC. About 150 par-
siderably without compromising accuracy for modal analysis, ticipants have attended each of these conferences. The driving
which is a typical low-to-mid-frequency-range application. This forces behind the two first conferences were the two companies
technological development allowed the accelerometer to operate SVS (Rune Brincker) and B&K (Nis B. Møller). The conference
on a two-wire, low-impedance cable, significantly simplifying and is held in Europe during odd years. (The other European modal
reducing cabling problems (and cost) as well as the calibration conference, ISMA, International Conference on Noise and Vibra-
sensitivity that comes with long cables. Kistler already introduced tion Engineering, is held on even years in Leuven, Belgium.) The
the principle as early as 1965. These types of vibration transducers IOMAC locations have been Copenhagen, Denmark in 2005 and
have a variety of names depending on the manufacturer. Names 2007, Portonovo, Italy 2009, Istanbul, Turkey 2011, Guimarães,
like Piezotron™, ICP® (integrated circuit piezoelectric), DeltaTron®, Portugal 2013, Gijón, Spain 2015 and the next IOMAC in 2017 will
CCLD (constant-current line drive), IEPE (integrated electronic be held at Ingolstad, Germany, May 8-12. B&K (S. Gade) is a member
piezoelectric) are often seen. B&K was late on the market with of the permanent IOMAC committee. Prior to all these conferences
CCLD because it had developed a slightly different principle called S. Gade and C. Ventura have been running an OMA pre-course. The
CVLD (constant-voltage line drive), but it was the CCLD principle IOMAC homepage is located at http://www.iomac.eu/.
that became the de facto standard.
In 1999, smart accelerometers were introduced by Brüel & Modal Seminars
Kjær. These are transducers with a small built-in chip containing In the early 1980s, there was a need for B&K to offer a modal
transducer information such as manufacturer, type, serial number, analysis seminar covering all aspects of modal topics.6 The contents
sensitivity, calibration, polarity and resonance frequency. The user of a generic three-day modal seminar were developed by Niels
can also type in information like measurement position ID (DOF Thrane, Ole Døssing, Henrik Herlufsen and Svend Gade, and the
information) using an editing program. The information is then high-quality lecture material was produced by the B&K literature
automatically identified/read by a smart-transducer-compatible department, initially as overhead transparencies and later trans-
measurement system. The benefits for the user are less setup time, ferred into PowerPoint presentations.4 The seminar is still on the
fewer mistakes and significantly more confidence in measured data, agenda and held twice every year in Nærum, Denmark, by Gade
especially for a high channel count. Smart transducers are also and Herlufsen (on request at other locations).
called TEDS (transducer electronic data sheet) transducers, and the Day one introduces mechanical mobility measurements (FFT
information in the chip is designed according to the accepted IEEE principles, input/output analysis, excitation techniques and mobil-
1451.4 TEDS standard that was finalized in 2004. B&K developed ity, etc.), and day two introduces modal analysis (SDOF and MDOF
the template-based protocol structure that is used in TEDS. models, MIMO and parameter estimation, etc.). Only day three,
Modern dedicated modal accelerometers are of cubic design, which is about model scaling, validation and the use of modal
giving the possibility of mounting the accelerometer on any of model, has seen major changes over the years. Today the focus is
the five measurement surfaces, making it easier to align an ac- on modal model correlation and updating finite-element models
celerometer according to a global rectangular coordinate system, as well as more elaborate validation techniques. Ole Døssing made
for example, by use of a swivel base, a mounting clip and a spirit two B&K primers that cover the topics from day one and day two
level (see Figures 6 and 7). Typical size and weight are 1 cm × 1 of the course.11,12 These can be found on B&K’s homepage http://
cm × 1 cm and 5 grams. There is a wide variety of cubic modal bksv.com/.
accelerometers with different sensitivities, different cable mount-
ing and there are uni- and tri-axial versions. B&K introduced its Computers
first cubic modal accelerometers in 1997 and in 2016 introduced Remember that a large amount of the progress for all scientific
data matrix codes (similar to QR codes™) on accelerometers (see disciplines is heavily impacted by the continuous development
Figure 8). This simplifies and automates multichannel test setups of better and faster computers.13 The introduction of the personal
and gives instant access to specifications, calibration and DOF computer occurred in 1981 with the birth of the IBM PC14 along
information using a smart phone.18,19 with MS DOS and the disk operating system by Microsoft. But we
had to wait another four years until 1985 before we saw the release
IMAC Conference of MS Windows Version 1.0.17
Brüel & Kjær has joined all IMAC conferences from the very IMAC V, in 1987 at Imperial College, London, was the first time
beginning (1982), and both Gade and Herlufsen have participated B&K brought Windows-operated PCs for our modal exhibition and
most years. We normally have one of the largest exhibition booths, for the afternoon hands-on modal exercises. According to the leg-
and we offer a hospitality event for our customers on (typically) endary Moore’s Law from 1965,15 the increase of processing speed
Wednesday evening. Every year B&K presents a couple of confer- (original number of transistors in circuit boards) is predicted to be
ence papers (with quite a few given by Gade and Herlufsen over doubling every 18 months. A prediction that was still reasonably
the years). accurate after the first 10 years in 1975, when Moore’s law was
At the first of many IMACs, B&K supported the classical modal re-introduced. This means that the speed of PCs (according to
analysis pre-course (run in the past by modal society celebrities Moore’s law) may have been doubled about 25 times for the last 35
such as David L. Brown, Randall J. Allemang, Peter Avitabile and years. Two raised to the power of 25 is more than 30 million times!
David Ewins)7 with hands-on at afternoon sessions. We offered
participants hands-on exercises using four complete modal analy- Summary and Conclusions
sis test (both hammer and shaker) and analysis systems using a Both of us have been working for more than 35 years as ap-
significant amount of B&K instrumentation, (see Figure 1) as well plication specialists at Brüel & Kjær. We have both been involved
as highly qualified instructors (Thrane, Døssing, Herlufsen and in a very wide range of applications within the world of sound
Gade). Since 2007 Gade and professor Carlos Ventura (University and vibration, but we have especially had a focus and interest in
of British Columbia) have been running an IMAC pre-course called modal analysis over the years. So we thought it was time to review
Operational Modal Analysis, Background, Theory and Practice. the activities we have been involved in for this application area.
B&K is also involved in the “Basics of Modal Analysis for the New/ Even though the basic principles of modal analysis is nearly
Young Engineer” sessions organized by Mike Mains. The IMAC unchanged, there have been significant advances in theories and
homepage is located at https://sem.org/. practical implementation as well as in instrumentation of modal
testing. We have tried to preserve a great amount of our achieved
IOMAC Conference knowledge in a number of B&K Technical Reviews 8,9,10, along
After the OMA techniques became mature enough, we decided with technical papers at conferences and articles in magazines.
to exchange and share our knowledge more efficiently by introduc-
ing a new international conference with the name International

www.SandV.com 50TH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE  29

References 12. Døssing, O., Structural Testing, Part 2, Modal Analysis and Simulation,
1. Randall, R. B., Application of B&K Equipment to Frequency Analysis, Brüel & Kjær Primer, 1988.
Brüel & Kjær Book, 1977. 13. UNIX Workstation – History and Time Line, http://www.unix.org/
2. Brigham, E. O., The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice-Hall¸Inc. 1974. what_is_unix/history_timeline.html
3. Bendat, J. S., and Piersol, A. G., Engineering Applications of Correlation 14. The birth of the IBM PC https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/
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Inc., 2012. 16. History of the floppy disk, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
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namic Ranges of Data Acquisition Systems Based on 24-bit Technology,” 17. A History of Windows, Microsoft, http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/
Inter-Noise Proceedings, 2005. windows/history#T1=era1
6. Ewins, D. J., Modal Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies Press., 18. Licht, T. R., “Five Decades of Accelerometer Development at Brüel &
Ltd, Brüel & Kjær Book, First Edition 1984, Second Edition 2000. Kjær,” 67’th Shock & Vibration Symposium, Monterey, CA, 1996.
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Analysis, One Historical Perspective,” Sound & Vibration, pp. 19-25, and Epilogue, 2006,” Sound & Vibration, January 2007.
January 2007. 20. Brincker, R., Ventura, C., Introduction to Operational Modal Analysis,
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Kjær Technical Review No. 1 & 2, 1984. 21. Allemang, R. J., Phillips, A. W., “The Unified Matrix Polynomial Ap-
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Brüel & Kjær Technical Review No. 3 & 4, 1987. Proceedings of ISMA, 2004.
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& Kjær Technical Review No. 1 & 2, 1994.
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ments, Brüel & Kjær Primer, 1988. The author can be reached at: [email protected].

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