Study Notes

Project Management
 Project Management is a planned and ongoing process that guides all the
development tasks and resources throughout a projects development
 A Project Plan organises the project by specifying who will do the task, what
has to be done, how the task is done, what resources are required, and what
is to be expected

 PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

 Active Listening: Listening to people is the main source of critical
information required for a project to run smoothly. Listening is not the same as
hearing; to listen requires attention and involvement
 Mirroring: Involves repeating back some of the speakers key words –
indicating that you are interested and would like to know and understand more
 Paraphrasing: Listener uses their own words to explain what they think the
speaker just said. The listener reflects feelings as well as meaning in their
response
 Summarising: Listener confirms their understanding in the speakers mind,
and hence helps to bring the conversation to an end
 Clarifying: Listener asks questions or makes statements that encourage the
speaker to provide more detailed explanations
 Motivational: Encourage the speaker and reinforce in their mind that you are
indeed listening and are interested in what they have to say
 Conflict Resolution: Need to manage conflict so that issues are resolved
appropriately for all concerned, and in the best interests of the project
 Negotiation Skills: Negotiation should be a friendly exchange where
differences are argued logically and in a reasoned manner. This can even
prevent situations leading towards conflicts

 TEAM BUILDING SKILLS

 “Tuckman” Stages of Team Development:
 1. Forming – Team members are only just getting to know each other
 2. Storming – People are beginning to feel comfortable with each other
 3. Norming – Team members now recognise their differences
 4. Performing – The team is now operating as an effective, productive unit

 Team Building – building a team of two or more people with complimentary

skills, behaviours and personalities who are committed to achieving a common
goal
 Advantages – The people within the team are much more productive, and the
systems they develop are of higher quality
 Disadvantages – Financial loss, employment loss and missed opportunities –
unable to meet deadlines, produce quality work and operate within financial
constraints
 PROJECT PLAN INCLUDES:
 Gantt Chart: Indicates when tasks need to be completed by
 Journal and Diary Entries: The diary is a record of appointments, events and
meetings. The journal is a detailed record of what happened at each meeting,
how tasks have been allocated, and when tasks are to be completed
 Funding Management Plan: Record of the scheduling and costing of tasks,
and other expenses
 Communication Management Plan: Record of when meetings are to be held
throughout the development of the information system

 SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

 The work environment, including health and safety issues such as ergonomic
design of furniture, appropriate lightning, and appropriate noise levels
 Security of data and information during development
 Copyright issues including who will retrain the copyrights for the new system
 Respect for the rights of needs and individual team members – such as privacy

 1) UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

 Systems Analyst: A person who analyses systems, determines requirements
and designs new information systems
 Requirements: Features, properties or behaviours that a system must have to
achieve its purpose
 Key Question 1: What are the problems with the existing system?
 Key Question 2: How does the existing system work? An understanding of
the operations of the existing system must be understood
 Key Question 3: How do you identify the problems with the existing system?
 Answer to Question 3: Interview and Survey PARTICIPANTS in the existing
system – They are able to identify problems and often they also have ideas in
regard to solving these problems
 Answer to Question 3: Interview and Survey USERS in the existing system –
Most information systems are primarily concerned with fulfilling the needs of
its users, so their views and opinions on the systems are vital
 Prototype: Needs to be developed, and is produced to clarify how the system
works, as well as clarify the nature of the problem, and represent how the new
system may work
 After all the information has been gathered, a REQUIREMENTS
REPORT is produced – A statement about the purpose/requirements of the
new information system
 A requirements report includes aims and objectives of the system, and how
it will HELP the organisation

 2) MAKING DECISIONS/PLANNING
 Economic: to determine whether the system is affordable. This involves
cost/benefit analysis to determine both initial costs to implement the system,
and then recurring costs to maintain the system
 Operational: to determine whether a system will be usable by the target
customers. The users must be able to effectively use, or to operate, the system
 Technical: to determine what hardware and software (Information
Technology) is currently being used, and then to determine whether the
hardware and software to build the system exists
 Scheduling: to determine the time frame in which a system must be
developed. To determine whether it will be able to be completed within the
specified time frame, it is useful to use project planning tools, such as Gantt
Charts

 Traditional (Structured): AS the name suggests, involves very structured,

step-by-step stages, which each must be completed before proceeding to the
next step. – 1. Understanding the problem, 2. Planning, 3. Designing, 4.
Implementing, 5. Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining
 Outsourcing: Involves using another company to develop parts of the system,
or even the complete system
 Prototyping: A CIRCULAR approach to systems development, and new
prototypes of the system are constantly being made in a loop before
implementation: Designing > Testing/Evaluating > Understanding the
Problem > Designing…. The prototypes eventually evolve to a point where
they become the final solution, and are essentially ready to move out of the
loop, and for the next stage - implementation
 Customisation: An existing system is customised to suit the needs and
requirements of the new system. In reality – most business systems are
customised versions of existing systems
 Participant: Means that the same people who will use and operate the final
system develop the system
 Agile: An approach that places emphasis on the team developing the system
rather than following a predefined structured development process

 3) DESIGNING SOLUTIONS/DESIGNING
 Design Tools:
 System Flowcharts are a diagrammatic way or representing both the flow of
data and logic through an information system
 Data Flow Diagrams describe the path data takes through a system. No logic,
and no attempt is made to indicate the timing of events

 Context Diagrams are used to represent entire information systems

 A Data Dictionary contains a comprehensive description of each field in

one of the databases associated with the information system. It commonly
includes (4): field name, data type, field size, and a description of the purpose
  Storyboards give a general overview of the information system. They are
used to document the screens used in a system, and the flow between them.
 Storyboards emphasise the user interface of a system rather than the functions
performed by the system
 Linear Storyboard: modules are arranged in a sequence

 Hierarchical Storyboard: modules are arranged in descending levels

 Decision Tables represent all possible conditions and actions that will result
CONDITIONS RULES - - -
Mark >= 80 Y N N N
Mark >= 60 N Y N N
and <80
Mark >=45 N N Y N
and <60
Mark <45 N N N Y
OUTCOMES GRADES - - -
A X
B X
C X
D X

 Decision Trees are a diagrammatic representation of all possible combinations

of decisions, and their resulting actions

 The new system can be developed from a PROTOTYPE

 Screen Designs for input and output of data must be created
 The Technical specifications of hardware must be identified before hardware
is bought and installed
 Purchasing application software that is readily available may satisfy the
software requirements of the new system
 IF however this does NOT meet exact requirements, then custom software
will need to be written by programmers

 The new system MUST be tested before implementation!

 Test Data is prepared to test any potential problem
 Documentation of the new system is required, which includes a written
description of the development and operation of the information system
 User Documentation provides direction for any person using the system, and
is also necessary to include. It can be in the form of on-screen help, or a user
manual

 4) IMPLEMENTATION/IMPLEMENTING

 Direct: This method involves the old system being completely dropped and
the new system being completely implemented at the same time
 Parallel: This method involves operating both systems for a period of time,
which allows for any major problems faced with the new system to be
encountered and corrected without a loss of data

 Phased: This method involves the gradual introduction of the new system
whilst the old system is progressively discarded

 Pilot: This method involves the new system being installed for a small number
of users. These users learn, use and evaluate the new system. Once the new
system is deemed to be performing satisfactorily then the system is installed
for use by everyone

 Training Techniques
 Traditional Group Training Sessions: The training is performed by a trainer
to a group of people onsite, or at separate premises. The trainer can be a
member of the system development team, or an outsourced specialist
 Peer Training: One or more users undergo intensive training in regard to the
operation and skills needed by the system
 Online Training: Online tutorials and help systems allow users to learn new
skills at their own pace, and as they are needed
 Operation Manuals: Printed operation manuals contain procedural
information which describes step-by-step instructions specific to the new
system

 5) TESTING, EVALUATING AND MAINTAINING

 Testing
 Acceptance Tests: Formal tests conducted to verify whether or not a system
meets its requirements:
 1) Volume data: Ensures the system performs within its requirements when
processes are subjected to large volumes of data
 2) Simulated data: Tests the performance of systems under simulated
operational conditions, allowing an evaluation of the systems performance to
be completed under a variety of scenarios
 3) Live data: Takes place once a system has been installed to ensure that the
system is operating as expected, and that it operates under real conditions
 Evaluation/Evaluating
 Evaluation is the process of examining a system to determine the extent to
which it meets its requirements
 Evaluation is ONGOING
 IF the new system is not performing, chances will need to be made, AND the
SDLC will start again!
 Technical Performance Monitoring aims to evaluate the continuing
achievement of the systems evolving requirements – some old requirements
may go down in priority over time, or even become irrelevant
 Financial Performance Monitoring is largely about evaluating the accuracy
of the real economic situation against the economic predictions made in the
feasibility study

 Maintenance/Maintaining
 Maintenance is any modification to the system by making minor
improvements
 Maintenance may involve installation of new hardware and software
 Involves: 1. Regular Maintenance, 2. Repairs when faults occur
 For each modification, the SDLC commences AGAIN!
 This occurs because it is necessary to ensure the modification works correctly
with all parts of the existing system, and also to ensure all documentation is
updated (Any changes MUST be documented!)

 Examples of Maintenance:
 Perform regular backups of the systems data, and ensure these backups are
secured in a safe location
 Maintain hardware by carrying out all recommended cleaning, as well as other
maintenance tasks
 Protect against viruses by ensuring virus protection software is used and
updated

 An OPERATIONS Manual is created to detail the procedures which the

PARTICIPANTS must follow in using the new system
 The Operations Manual should (3):
 1) Be in a user-friendly format
 2) Have clear and concise instructions
 3) Contain Screen Dumps
Communication Systems
 Communication systems enable people and systems to share and exchange
data and information electronically

 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

 IPT Presentation Level – 7) Application Layer, 6) Presentation Layer
 IPT Communication and Control Level – 5) Session Layer, 4) Transport
Layer, 3) Network Layer
 IPT Transmission Level – 2) Data Link Layer, 1) Physical Layer

 MAC Address: A hardware address that uniquely identifies each node on a

network
 The message is created at the source using some type of software application
 When a message is prepared for transmission, it descends the stack of
protocols from the Application Level, down to where it is ready for physical
transmission by the hardware operating at the IPT transmission level
 The main task of the transmitter is to represent individual bits as a wave –
this wave is the signal that is actually transmitted through the medium
 Transmission occurs as a signal travels through the medium
 To accurately decode a signal requires the receiver to sample the incoming
signal using precisely the same timing used by the transmitter during encoding
 During transmission data packets may pass through many different links, and
it is likely that packets forming part of a single file will travel over quite
different paths from the transmitter to the receiver
 As messages descend the stack prior to transmission, many protocols calculate
checksums or CRC values for error detection and correction, and include
them within their header or footers
 Many protocols restrict messages based on user names and passwords, and
others go a step further by encrypting messages during transmission

 Protocol: A formal set of rules and procedures that must be observed for two
devices to transfer data efficiently and successfully
 Handshaking: The process of negotiating and establishing the rules of
communication between two or more devices
 HTTP: Operates within the PRESENTATION LAYER (layer 6), and is the
primary protocol used by web browsers to communicate and retrieve web
pages from web servers
 TCP: Operates within the TRANSPORT LAYER (layer 4), and together with
IP, it is responsible for the transmission of most data across the internet. Its
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY is to ensure messages are delivered correctly
 IP: Operates within the NETWORK LAYER (layer 3), and is the protocol that
causes data packets to move from sender and receiver
 Each device on the internet must have at least one unique IP address, for
example: 140.123.54.67
 Ethernet: Operates at DATA LINK LAYER (layer 2) and the PHYSICAL
LAYER (layer 1), and because it operates at a physical level, it must be built
into the various hardware devices used to transmit and receive
 Bits Per Second: The number of bits transferred each second – the speed of
BINARY data transmission
 Baud Rate: The number of signal events occurring each second along a
communication channel
 Bandwidth: The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in a
transmission channel, expressed in Hertz (Hz)

 Parity bit check: Seven bits represent the normal ASCII character set when
an eight-bit byte is used in a computer. The eighth bit can be used to check
whether that byte has been received correctly by counting the number of 1’s –
making it odd or even.
 Example of ^: If the number of 1’s is three, which is odd, we add 0 as the
parity bit to maintain odd parity checking: 01010010
 Checksums: All the 1s and 0s in a block of data are summed to make a total
and the receiver calculates a checksum value. If the sent value does not agree,
then an error is detected. The position of the error is unknown
 Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC): The checksum number is substituted
into a formula, and a 16-bit remainder is calculated. Once it has reached its
destination, the received checksum is put through the same process. If the
remainder produced is identical to the one received, then it has been correctly
received

 EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

 Internet: The internet is a worldwide packet switched public network based
on the internet protocol
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is the network of the world's
public circuit switched telephone networks
 An Intranet is a private network maintained by a company or government
organization, and is based on the Internet Protocol
 Extranets are an extension of an intranet to allow access to customers and
other users outside the organization
 Teleconferencing is the live exchange of information among several people
and machines remote from one another, but linked by a single
telecommunications system
 A rotary dial telephone is activated by rotating the numeric dial instead of
activating push buttons. Its an old fashioned and traditional telephone
 A fax is a telecommunications technology used to transfer copies of
documents using affordable devices operating over the telephone network
 Voice mail is a computerised method of storing and forwarding spoken
messages
 Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) refers to communications services that
are transported via the Internet rather than the public switched telephone
network(PSTN)

 E-mail is a method of exchanging digital messages. E-mail systems are based

on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems
accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users
 E-mail uses two different APPLICATION level protocols – SMTP, and
either POP or IMP
 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME): The protocol used to code
non-textual data and attachments into ASCII so that it can be transmitted
within e-mail messages
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): The protocol used to send e-mails
from an e-mail client, to an SMTP server, and also to transfer e-mail between
SMTP servers

 Automatic Teller Machines (ATM): is a computerised telecommunications

device that provides the clients of a financial institution with access to
financial transactions in a public space without the need for a cashier or a bank
teller
 Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS) works through the
customer’s card details being swiped in a magnetic strip reader, and this then
allows the direct transfer of the necessary funds from the customers account
into the retailers account
 Internet Banking: allows customers to pay bills, transfer money between
accounts and perform various other functions from the comfort of their home
or office
 Trading over the Internet has become very popular as individuals and small
businesses are able to sell items worldwide with little initial startup costs.
Trading over the internet has created systems such as eBay and PayPal
 Virtual Organisation: an organisation whose members are geographically
separated

 NETWORK COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

 Client-server architecture: servers provide specific processing services for
clients. Clients request the service, and wait for a response while the server
processes their request
 Authentication: the process of determining is someone is who they claim to
be
 Physical Topology: the physical layout of devices on a network, and how the
cables and wires connect these devices
 Logical Topology: show how data is transmitted and received between
devices REGARDLESS of their physical connections
 Bus Topology: One of the simplest designs in networking, where a common
cable (known as the “bus”) connects all the nodes in a bus topology. All nodes
on the network receive data transmitted on a bus network, but only the node to
which it is ADDRESSED accepts and processes the data
 + Easy to expand the network and add new nodes
 - If one node fails, the rest of the network will fail
 Star Topology: All nodes connect to a central node via their own dedicated
cable. Today the star topology is used on almost all LAN’s
 + Each node has its own cable, and can easily be removed without
affecting any other nodes
 - Lots of cabling, if the central node fails – the whole system fails

 Ring Topology: Each node connects to exactly two other nodes. Data packets
circulate the ring in just one direction - meaning each node receives the data
from one node, and then transmits the data to another node. It is the least
commonly used topology in LAN’s today
 + Least data collisions as data packets circulate the ring in one direction
 - If one node fails, then the entire ring is broken, and data stops
transferring
 Mesh Topology: Include more than one physical path between the pair of
nodes. This is the primary topology of the internet, where IP data packets can
travel different paths from the transmitter to the receiver

 Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topologies use a combination of connected bus,

star and ring topologies. Hybrid topologies are the primary topology of most
organisations networks

 Converting analog data to digital data is done using an “analog to digital

converter (ADC)”, and converting digital data to analog data is done using a
“digital to analog converter (DAC)
 NETWORK HARDWARE
 Twisted Pair: Consists of a pair of shielded copper wires twisted together.
Electrical interference is minimised, and makes it less vulnerable to signal
loss. Suited for very high bit rates over short distances, and lower bit rates
over longer distances
 Coaxial Cable: Was designed to transmit analog broadcast TV from antennas
on Television sets, support high frequencies, and provide extra protection from
electromagnetic interference. There are two types:
 1) “Thinnet” – Max Distance 185M
 2) “Thicknet” – Max Distance 500M
 Optic Fibre Cable: Able to support far higher data transfer rates over much
greater distances than either twisted pair OR coaxial cable. Completely
immune to outside electrical interference, and the majority of major
communication links connecting major cities and continents use optical fibre
 Optic Fibre Cables consist of a light-transmitting glass core surrounded by a
reflective cladding layer

 Wireless Transmission Media: Use the atmosphere as the medium to carry

electromagnetic waves between nodes
 E.g. 1 – Terrestrial Microwave – Used to relay wireless signals over large
distances
 E.g. 2 – Satellite – Use microwaves to carry digital signals from and to both
ground based stations, and also between satellites
 E.g. 3 – Wireless LAN’s – Communicate using microwaves with frequencies
in the vicinity of 2.4 GHz
 E.g. 4 – Bluetooth – Communication system for short-range transmission, and
operates within the vicinity of 2.4 GHz. It was designed to replace cables that
connect portable devices
 E.g. 5 – Infrared – Used over short distances, these infrared waves occur with
frequencies of above microwaves and below invisible light in communication
systems
 E.g. 6 – Mobile Phones – Automatically adjust the power of their transmitters
based on the signal level received from their current base station - reducing
electromagnetic radiation, and extending battery life

 Network Interface Card (NIC): converts data in between the computer into a
form suitable for transmission across the network

 Repeater: Any device that receives a signal, amplifies it and then transmits
the amplified signal down another link – increasing the physical range of
transmission media
 HUB: Amplifies the packet of data, and it simply amplifies and retransmits
the packet to all attached nodes

 Bridge: Separates a network into different segments at the data link layer

 Switch: An intelligent device for connecting nodes on a LAN. The message is

directed to the intended receiver
 Gateway: Connects two networks together
 Wireless Access Points: The central nodes on wireless LAN’s, and these
central nodes broadcast to all wireless nodes within the coverage area
 Modulation: The process of encoding digital information onto an analog
wave
 Demodulation: The process of decoding modulated analog wave back into its
original digital signal
 ADSL Modems: Use existing copper telephone lines to transfer broadband
signals
 Cable Modems: Connect to the internet via coaxial cables; usually the same
cable that transmits cable TV stations

 Servers: Provide specific processing services to other nodes (clients)

 Fault Tolerance: The ability of a system to continue operating despite the
failure of one or more of its components
 File Servers: Manages storage and retrieval of files, and also application
software in response to client requests
 Print Servers: Controls access to one or more printers for many clients
 Database Servers: A database server executes SQL statements on behalf of
the client applications, and database management system software (DBMS)
provides the connection to the database, and ensures the rules defined for the
database are maintained
 Mail Servers: Use two different protocols – SMTP, and either POP or IMAP,
and these protocols run on servers associated with these protocols. E-mail
clients, such as Microsoft Outlook, must communicate using these protocols
 Web Servers: Essentially a web server provides services to web browsers –
they retrieve web pages and transmit them back to the requesting client web
browser
 Proxy Servers: Sits between the clients and real servers, and tries to perform
the request itself without bothering the real server
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Network Operating Systems (NOS): Installed on one or more servers where
it provides various services to secure and support the networks resources and
users – one vital service being the authentication of users based on their
usernames and passwords
 Network Administrators: The personnel responsible for the ongoing
maintenance of network hardware and software
 Task 1 – Adding and Removing Users: Each new user has an individual
account created that includes their username and password, together with the
details of any assigned policies and privileges
 Task 2 – Assigning Printers: It makes sense to assign printers to
workstations rather than users, as users will have access to a printer that is
physically close to the workstations where they are currently logged on
 Task 3 – Assigning file access rights: Also known as PERMISSIONS. File
access rights determine the processes a user can perform on a file or directory
at the file level:
 Directory (Folder) Permissions (6): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute,
List Folder Contents, Read, Write

 File Permissions (5): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute, Read, Write
 Task 4 – Installation of software and sharing with users: It is the network
administrator who must ensure that software applications are installed on
individual client workstations - making them available for use by any user that
logs onto the workstation. NOS’ are able to automate this process – saving
considerable time for network administrators
 Task 5 – Client installation and protocol assignment: Every network will
have a different specific set of steps for installing new clients, and it is
commonly the network administrator who performs these installation steps.
For example: 1) Ensuring the new machine has a compatible NIC installed,
and 2) Ensuring the clients operating system is compatible with the NOS etc.
  ISSUES
 Internet Fraud: Some kind of deception that includes false statements that
intentionally aim to cause another person to suffer a loss (e.g. Spam, Phishing
and Identity Theft)
 Power and Control: Those who control access to information are placed in a
position of power over the users whose access they control. Not only can
access be restricted, but the activities of users can also be MONITORED (e.g.
Internet Filtering, Employers can watch internet sessions of employees etc.)
 Removal of Physical Boundaries: In cyberspace, one’s physical location is
of little or no relevance, and individuals and organisations can trade across the
globe (e.g. Virtual organisations and communities are created as needs arise)
 Interpersonal Issues: Electronic communication systems have changed the
way many people have formed relationships. Ideas delivered electronically can
often appear less forceful and caring when compared to face-to-face
communication (e.g. Online Dating Sites)
 Work and Employment Issues: Electronic communication systems have
changed the way many people work and where they complete their work.
They have provided the means for many people to work from home, or
virtually any other location. Most research shows that people who work from
home are more productive, and work longer hours. However, working from
home can also present problems as people must find the balance between work
and their personal lives

Multimedia Systems
 Multimedia systems combine different types of media into interactive
information systems

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIMEDIA AND PRINT

 Mode of Display – Print media is hard copy, Multimedia can be implemented
for computer use
 Interactivity – The user is able to make an immediate response to what is
happening in multimedia
 Dynamic Nature – Once a book is published, it cannot change. A multimedia
product can change either by the user (preferences), or the author (edit, new
versions)
 Ease of Distribution – Multimedia is easy to distribute between other
computers, making it very convenient. Printing requires scanning the
document onto the computer using a scanner

 CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH OF THE MEDIA TYPES

 Text and Numbers: Two most common methods of digitally representing
texts are ASCII and EBCDIC
 In multimedia systems, both texts and numbers are displayed as IMAGES
using FONTS
 Raster Fonts: store a bitmap of each character
 Outline Fonts: describe characters using mathematical descriptions
 Hyperlinks: The organisation of hypertext and hypermedia is based on
hyperlinks. In everyday usage, the word hypertext has taken the same meaning
as hypermedia!
 Hypertext: Bodies of text that are linked in a non-sequential manner
 Hypermedia: Extension of hypertext to include links to a variety of different
media types, e.g. Sound and Images
 Within Multimedia systems, hyperlinks are routinely constructed to transfer
the user to other parts of the PRESENTATION

 Audio: All waves have two essential components – frequency and amplitude
 Frequency: measured in HERTZ (Hz) and is the number of times per second
that a COMPLETE WAVELENGTH occurs
 Amplitude: measured in DECIBELS (db) and determines the volume or
level of sound. Very low amplitude waves cannot be heard, whereas very high
levels can damage hearing
 Sampled Audio: The level of an audio signal recorded at precise intervals
 Individual Notes: Represented digitally as a series of individual notes

 Images: Two different techniques for representing images – BITMAP and

VECTOR
 Bitmap: Represent each element or dot in the picture separately. Each dot
(pixel) can be a different colour – represented by a binary number
 8 Bits are required for EACH PIXEL (1 byte = 8 bits)
 Vector: Represent each portion of the image mathematically, just like
OUTLINE FONTS
 Each shape within the vector image is a separate object, and can be altered
without affecting other objects

 Animation: Displaying a sequence of images one after another

 Cel-based animation: A sequence of images (cel) with small changes
between each cel – an illusion of movement is created
 Path-based animation: A line (path) is drawn for each character to follow –
the character moves along the line when the animation is playing
 Animated Gifs = Cel-Based and Flash .SWF Format = Both (Animation is
organised as VECTOR images)
 Morphing: smooth and progressive transformation of one image into
another – e.g. Transforming a photo of you into a LION

 Video: Combines image and sound data together to create information for
humans in the form of movies
 Like in animation, the illusion of movement is created by displaying images
one after another in sequence

 HARDWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA

 Video Cards: An interface between the system bus and a screen
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Specialised vacuum tube in which images are
produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Electrical and Optical device used to display
digits, characters and images (Uses Light)
 Plasma: Plasma is the fourth state of matter and it is formed when Gas is
heated (like Gas is formed when liquid is heated). Plasma Televisions consist
of this matter, and what is displayed in each pixel on the Plasma Television is
determined by the way this matter is being manipulated
 Touch Screen: A computer display screen that is sensitive to human touch,
allowing a user to interact with the computer by touching pictures or words on
the screen (3 Types: Resistive, Surface Wave, Capacitive)
 Digital Projectors: Use a strong light source to project images onto a screen
 Sound Card: A device that converts digital sound into analog sound, and
vice versa
 Speakers: Analog devices that convert an alternating current into sound
waves
 Headsets: A combination of a microphone and a speaker in a single device
 Head-up Displays: A transparent screen where the user can view critical
information while keeping their head up and looking forward at what is going
on in front of them
 Optical Storage: Retrieving data from an optical disk can be split into two
processes – spinning the disk as the read head assembly is moving in, or
through reading and translating reflected light into electrical signals

 SOFTWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA

 Presentation Software – e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint
 Word Processors – Including sound and video, such as through => embedding
and linking
 Authoring Software – e.g. Adobe Flash CS3 Professional
 Animation Software – e.g. Xara3D
 HTML Editors and Web Browsers – e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer

 EXAMPLES OF MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS

 Education and Training – e.g. Multimedia Tour of IE 7 Tabbed Browsing
 Leisure and Entertainment – e.g. MMO Games, Action Games
 Provision of Information – e.g. Information Kiosks
 Virtual Reality and Simulation – e.g. Aircraft Flight Simulators

 EXPERTISE REQUIRED
 Content Provides – Provide content which is ready to be used
 System Designers – Work through the stages of the SDLC (e.g. Identify the
purpose, make decisions on the most feasible solution etc.)
 Project Managers – Develop the project plan and ensure it is followed during
development
 Writers – Produce textual content in multimedia systems, and create storylines
 Video Production Personnel – Includes at least a director, camera operator,
sound engineer and a few actors. These videos are then used in presentations
 Audio Production Personnel – Specialise in the recording and editing audio,
including voice, music and special effects. These sounds are then used in
presentations
 Illustrators and Animators – Artists who draw figures and scenes
 Graphic Designers – Improve the readability of multimedia by enhancing the
visual appeal of the presentation
 Technical Personnel – Ensure the final system will operate correctly on the
users machines

 INFORMATION PROCESSES
 1) ORGANISING
 Organising can be seen in multimedia systems in STORYBOARDS:
 A storyboard is an illustrated scene-by-scene layout of the multimedia
presentation. There are 4 main types:
 Linear Storyboard: sequential movement through the project

 Hierarchical Storyboard: top down approach - users have multiple choices at

some stages

 Non-Linear: the user can choose the path of the navigation through the
project – NO restrictions!
 Composite: aspects of all three types (shown above) are incorporated

 2) COLLECTING
 Collecting can be seen in multimedia systems through collecting the raw
analog data, and then converting it into digital data
 Flatbed Scanner: Collect light as their raw analog data, and transform it into
binary digital data – Also involves ANALYSING, ORGANISING AND
PROCESSING
 Digital Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, and have
transformed the photographic process since recording has been replaced by
electronic and digital processes
 Microphone: Collects data in the form of sound waves, and converts these
waves into electrical energy
 Video Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, using
traditional mechanical and chemical processes
 Analog to Digital Conversion: Repeatedly sample the magnitude of incoming
electrical current, and convert these samples to binary digital numbers

 3) STORING AND RETRIEVING

 Storing and retrieving can be seen in multimedia systems through the number
of different file formats which are used to store information in multimedia
production:
 Note: There is NO compression in Vector Images (e.g. PDF, SWF, WMF
etc.) => ONLY in Bitmap Images
 AUDIO: MP3 (lossy), MIDI (lossless or none), WAV (either, or none)
 VIDEO/ANIMATION: AVI (usually lossy), MPEG (lossy), Animated GIF
(lossless), FLV (lossy)
 BITMAP IMAGE: JPG (lossy), TIFF (lossless), BMP (lossless), GIF
(lossless)

 4) PROCESSING
 Processing can be seen in multimedia systems through the creation of the final
multimedia presentation using a suitable software application
  Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint would be used to produce slideshow
presentations, and can combine, manipulate and link multimedia content
(processing is the manipulation of data), e.g.:
 1) Import existing content into the application (through a library, or a
collection of media created by the application)
 2) Create screens, add and format content, and create hyperlinks
 3) Create the final file or files for distribution and display

 ISSUES
 Copyright: Copyright laws are used to protect the legal rights of authors of
original work
 Integrity: It is common in multimedia systems to have content derived from a
variety of sources, and makes the job of verifying the correctness of
presented information more difficult. As a result, it is important to reference
all data to ensure its accuracy
 Emerging Trends: Virtual worlds is a good example – an online simulated
environment where people take on another persona using avatars

Information Systems and Databases - *Syllabus Notes

Information systems

Characteristics
• Organisation of data into meaningful information
• Analysing information to gain knowledge

Types & purposes

Transaction processing systems (TPS)
• Collects, stores & modifies transactions of an organisation
• Provides data to other systems
• E.g. credit card systems, EFTPOS, POS terminals
Management information systems (MIS)
• Takes data & organises it into information reports (usually from TPS)
• Provides information on the performance of an organisation
• E.g. Execute information systems (EIS) – strategic issues
Decision support systems (DSS)
• Takes data (usually from TPS, MIS & external sources) to assist in decision
making
• Provides analysis tools, information & models
• E.g. in statistical analysis, stock market, trade figures
Office Automation System (OAS)
• Manages vast quantities of data within an organisation
• Improves efficiency, effectiveness in completing administrative tasks
• Software & communication technology e.g. voicemail, word processors,
spreadsheets
Database Information Systems

School databases
Environment
• School community (students, staff, parents)
• Authorities e.g. BOS, government
• Any organisation, business, or individual that receives information generated
by the school or supplies data for the system
Purpose
• To maintain the efficient operation of the school, personnel, resources &
administration tasks
• To provide information on student enrolments, subject selections &
assessments for both school staff & educational authorities
Data/Information
• Information on people, resources & processes
• Equipment registers, finance & purchase orders, library loans, staff
information, timetables, student marks & grades
Participants
• Office & library staff who enter data
• Teachers
Information technology
• Computers
• Barcode readers
• Scanners
• Software- spreadsheet applications

RTA systems
Environment
• Drivers, instructors, examiners
• Vehicle owners, vehicle inspectors
• Gov departments e.g. NSW department of transport
• Police & courts
Purpose
• To manage registration of all drivers & motor vehicles in NSW
• To provide information to drivers/applicants on matters such as licensing,
vehicle registration etc as well as statistical information to government &
other authorities
Data/information
• Drivers’ details – contact, payment, driving history, license information
• Vehicle owner details – registration numbers, payment, inspection records
Participants
• Data entry operators
• Administration staff at offices
• Inspectors
• Police department- traffic branch
Information technology
• Computers
• Cameras
 • Barcode scanners
• Networking between computers

Video stores’ systems

Environment
• Customers & staff
• Suppliers
• Other chain stores, head office
Purpose
• To keep accurate records of the stock (rental & sales)
• To collect data for further analysis by store management
Data/Information
• Customer details (current loans, overdue items)
• Rental records (in stock/on loans)
• Saleable item records (videos, snacks)
• Rental/Sales figures
Participants
• Staff who check out videos & other products, process returns, authorise orders
for new stock
• Head management
Information technology
• Computers
• Barcode scanners
• WAN link from head office (update new rental titles)
• DB management & sales software
• Network communication software

Organisation

Non-computer methods of organising

Examples
• Filing cabinet e.g. small businesses
• Telephone books
• Card catalogues e.g. libraries
• Reference books e.g. encyclopaedias
Advantages
• No specific skills or training required
• Inexpensive
• Highly portable & lightweight
• Don’t require power supply/batteries
Disadvantages
• Access/organisation is usually by one method (e.g. alphabetical)
• Inflexible layout
• 1 person only can access at one time
• Easily misplaced
Computer-based methods of organising
Examples
• Flat file systems
• Database management systems
• Hypermedia
Advantages
• Easily exchanged between applications & over networks
• Easily edited
• Much faster processing
• Large storage of data
Disadvantages
• Costly
• Exchange of data on a network creates security & confidentiality problems

Logical organisation of flat file databases

• Single table of data stored as a single file
• All rows (records) are composed of the same sequence of fields (attributes)
• Allows you to use & manage 1 database at a time
Files
• Block of data which is divided into a set of related records
Records
• Collection of facts about one specific entry in a database
• Organised in rows
• Divided into 1 or more related fields
Fields
• Specific category of data in a database
• Made up of characters
• Organised in columns (attributes)
Key fields
• Used to uniquely identify a record in each file
• Used to sort & retrieve information
• Usually, each key holds a unique item that applies to only one record
• Convenient- when sorted not all data has to be read/retrieved
Characters
• Single unit of data used in a database
• E.g. letter or symbol

Logical organisation of relational databases

• Organises data using a series of related tables, linked by common keys
• Draws information from one or more additional files
Schemas
• Organised plan of the entire database
• Shows how & where data is found, description of data, data relationships
• Entities- specific title of which attributes are detailed under e.g. customer,
orders
• Attributes- Defined property of an entity e.g. CustID, Firstname
Field names, same as fields in a flat file database
• Relationships- the way entities relate to each other
 One to many: one record in the 1 st entity relates to many records in the 2 nd
entity
One to one: one record in the 1 st entity relates to 1 record in the 2 nd
Many to many: each record in the 1st entity relates to many records in the 2 nd
Tables
• Implementation of entities
• Attributes
• Records
• Linking tables
- Primary key: uniquely identifies a record (field or combination of fields)
- Foreign key: Attribute of a table that is a primary key of another table

Data modelling tools (for organising databases)

Data dictionaries
• Describes characteristics of data- metadata
• Field name
• Data type
-Alphanumeric: letters/numbers/symbols
-Numeric: numbers & numeric symbols
-Boolean/logical: true/false, yes/no
-Date data: dd/mm/yy
-Time data: hh/mm
• Data format
• Field size- number of characters allowed in the field
• Description- explains contents of the field
• Example- illustrates content
Schematic diagrams
• Graphical tools that help define the database
• E.g. ERD – determines data to be included/excluded
Normalisation
• Reduces data redundancy by removing repeating fields or reorganising data
where needed, hence improving performance
• Avoids inconsistencies among values
• Analysing data to create the most efficient database structure

Logical organisation of hypermedia

• Storage/linking of media & documents
• May contain text, numbers, images, audio, animation & video
• Each document is independent & can be retrieved electronically using
hypertext
Nodes & links
• Nodes: Computer that has destination of the link
• Links: Links nodes in a hyper document- associated with bookmarks &
anchors
Uniform resource locators (URL)
• Address of file/resource on the web
• Protocol: allows access to web pages based on hypertext- ‘http’
• Domain name: address of specific computer where resource is located
‘www.whatever.com’
 • File path: path followed to the file being retrieved
HTML tags (hypertext markup language)
• Metadata- information about data
• Indicates how parts of a document are displayed & navigated
• Viewed as pages in web browsers

Tools for organising hypermedia

Storyboards
• Series of frames, each representing a different action or screen image
• Consists of navigation paths, information & graphics
• Linear: sequential path
• Hierarchical: choices branch off into further choices, based on navigation
• Non-linear: no structure- free navigation
• Composite: mix of all layers
Webpage creation software
• Allows text, graphics & sounds to be hyperlinked
• HTML tags inserted automatically by the software

Storage & retrieval

Database management systems (DBMS)

• Software application that allows the entry, manipulation & storage of data in a
database
• Handles access to the database- establishes & maintains data security by
restricting access to authorised personnel
• Carries out validation & verification of data
• Independence of data from the DBMS

Access of data
Sequential
• Each record must be accessed in a linear progression, from 1 st to last
• E.g. accessing data on magnetic tape
Direct
• Data is accessed in any order i.e. without accessing previous data items
• E.g. storing data on disc & logical location of data within a database

Storage
Online
• Storage device permanently positioned
• Available immediately to connected computers
• E.g. hard drive, CD & DVD juke boxes
Offline
• External devices used to store data
• Cannot be accessed until storage media is mounted into a drive
• E.g. USB, CD ROM, DVD, memory cards, magnetic tape
Storage media
Hard discs
• Stores data magnetically on precision aluminium or glass platters
• Direct access
CD-ROMs
• Data is read & written using laser technology
• Direct access
Cartridges
• Magnetic tape encased in a cartridge
• If it is linear -> sequential
• If it is non-linear -> direct
Magnetic tape
• Stores large amounts of data inexpensively
• Used for backup
• Sequential access
• Erasable, reusable

Encryption/decryption
Encryption
• Process of encoding data -> maintains confidentiality & security
• Algorithm or key is required to encode the data
• Involves manipulations of bit patterns
Decryption
• Process of decoding data -> receiver can translate
• Reverse algorithm or key is required to decode the data
Asymmetric
• Requires public key for encryption & a private key for decryption
Symmetric
• Same key required for encryption & decryption e.g. DES

Backup & security procedures

• Storing/copying data to another permanent storage device
• Physical security measures- locking rooms/buildings
• Usernames & passwords
• Encryption/decryption
• Restricting access using DBMS views
• Record locking

Centralised & distributed databases

Centralised
• Accessed through a single DBMS server
• Single database
• All users connect directly to DBMS
Decentralised/distributed
• Set of connected databases stored on multiple computers
• Appears as 1 large database to users
Tools for database storage & retrieval
Searching & sorting
• Carried out on a field alphabetically, numerically or chronologically ->
relevant information is extracted
Query by example (QBE)
• Operator enters criteria against a field
• Records meeting specific conditions are displayed
Structured query language
• Specialised language designed to search a database
• Manipulates display of data in a search- more specific
• Commands
- Select: fields i.e. data to be displayed
- From: tables i.e. source of data
- Where: criteria i.e. query
- Order by: fields i.e. order in which fields are to be displayed

Tools for hypermedia search & retrieval

Free text searching
• Technique for searching a computer based document or database for
characters or words
• Search engine searches all words and tries to match search words supplied by
the user
Search engines
• Indexing- databases of indexed websites that can be searched using keywords
• Search robots- programs that facilitate indexing by accessing websites &
gathering information
• Metadata

Reporting on data found in hypermedia systems

• Web browsers
• Stand alone applications
• Media players

Other information processes for databases

Displaying
• Reporting- formatted & organised presentation of information
E.g. mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries & telephone lists
• Constructing different views of a database for different purposes e.g. form-
used to enter, view & edit data

Issues related to information systems & databases

Acknowledgement of data sources

• Permission from source to use data before publication
• Data source acknowledged
• Ensures justification of outputs e.g. results from surveys
 • Provides a mechanism for tracking & auditing data -> determines accuracy of
data
• Requirements of source organisation
• Legal requirements- copyright
• Gives company credibility

Access to, ownership & control of data

• Limited access to authorised personnel only -> control over data
• Prevents: unauthorised access, alteration/destruction of data or programs,
unauthorised use of resources & release of information
Freedom of Information Act (Federal)
• Allows individuals to obtain access to information held as records by the
government, request amendments to records, appeal against decisions not to
grant access to information or to amend personal records
• Information such as school, health, superannuation records (personal)
government policy documents, research materials, product testing records
• Agencies/public bodies- unis, public hospitals, ministers, government
departments
• Exempt information- personal affairs of another person/business, the
economy, law enforcement

Privacy principles
• Protects an individual’s personal information e.g. health, racial, criminal,
financial
• Security measures to prevent unauthorised access into the system & the
release of personal information
• Organisations/corporations must abide by these principles to maintain legal
compliance and ethical reputation

Accuracy & reliability of data

• System must be able to resist user mistakes, system malfunctions, deliberate &
accidental alteration
• Error detection & correction methods
• Data bias- the way the data is collected, interpreted & manipulated
• Accuracy of data sources e.g. Wikipedia very unreliable, BOM reliable

Quality of data
• Data must be fit for its intended use i.e. to fulfil the needs of its users as well
as suitability for applications

Data matching to crosslink data across multiple databases

Current & emerging trends (organisation, processing, storage/retrieval)
Data warehouses
• Stores raw data which is collected electronically from a variety of sources
• Data may be available for sale to interested parties -> privacy issue e.g.
medical records, credit cards etc
• E.g. real estate agency may buy information from council
Data mining
• Process of searching through data, trying to match any patterns e.g. customers
with common interest
• Security issue e.g. centralising personal information into 1 warehouse
Online analytical processing (OLAP)
• Provides statistical evidence to corporations -> assists in decision making

Transaction Processing Systems - *Syllabus Notes

4.1 Characteristics of TPS’s

A Transaction Processing System is a system that collects, stores, modifies and
retrieves the transactions of organisations. A transaction is an event that generates or
modifies data that is eventually.
• 4 main characteristics

• Components of TPS
o Purpose: What is it’s overall aim
o Data: Raw facts
o Information Technology: Hardware and Software
o Processes:
o Participants: People involved in the operation of a system
• Batch Processing
o Batch Transaction Processing involves collection and storage of data
as a batch. The batch is then processed later at a scheduled time (i.e.
there is a time
delay)
o Transactions
will be stored
(usually on
magnetic tape or
paper) until it is
convenient or
economical to
process them
• Real Time Processing (e.g. airline reservation systems and banking TS’s)
o Real Time transaction processing is the immediate processing of data
o It provides instant confirmation of a transaction but does not require
access to an online database.
o Two main concerns
▪ Concurrency
• Ensures that no two users can change the same data at
the same time
• e.g. if a ticket is starting to be reserved by an airline
agent, another agent cannot tell another passenger its
available
▪ Atomicity
• Ensures that all the steps involved in a transaction are
completed successfully as a group. If any step fails no
other should be completed.
• E.g. in a bank transfer, if the withdrawal succeeds, the
transfer must also succeed, otherwise the entire
transaction is abandoned.

•
•
•
•
•
• Differences in Batch and Real Time
o Each transaction in real time is unique; it is not part of a group
o Real time requires the master file to be available more often for
updating
o Real time has fewer errors as data is validated and then entered
immediately
o With batch, errors can occur when data is organised and stored
o More computer operators are required in real time
• Data validation in TPS’s
o Data validation involves checking of data as it is entered into a system
o Data validation is critical in transaction processing as inaccurate data
will have dire consequences on the completion of a transaction
o Methods of Validation
▪ Range check (e.g. Date of birth from 1900 to current)
▪ List check (e.g. drop down boxes)
▪ Type check (e.g. Integer/Boolean)
▪ Check digit (perform addition  arithmetic, obtain chckdigt)
• Historical Significance of transaction processing systems as the first type
of information systems
o TPS’s were used during the 1950s (UNIVAC was first one)
o These formed the basis for further development of TPSs
o Manual transaction systems are business systems that operate without
the use of machines
o Computerisation of manual transaction systems provided large benefits
4.2 Types of TPS’s
• Users/Participants/People
o Users are people that receive an output from the TPS
o Participants are people that conduct the information processing
o People from the environment are becoming participants as they
directly enter transactions and perform validation
• Different types
o Web based
o Non Web based
o On-line Real Time
o Batch
• Examples of RT systems
o Reservation system
o Point of Sale terminals
o Library loan system
• Examples of Batch systems
o Cheque clearance
o Bill generation
o Credit card sales transactions
• Systems that appear real time (respond as the transaction occurs) but are
actually updating in batch (EG Credit card transaction)

4.3 Storing and retrieving in TPS’s

A TPS requires an efficient method for the storage and retrieval of data. Data is
normally stored in a database or data warehouse and requires well designed backup
and recovery procedures.
• Storage of digital data in databases and files
o A database is an organised collection of data
• Hierarchical: Series of levels with a top down structure
• Network: Series of nodes connected by branches
• Relational: Uses related tables to build relationships
o Database Design Features
• Good data placement: Place frequently accessed data close
• Short transactions: short transactions enables quick processing
• Real time backup: Do backups at low access times
• High normalisation: Keep redundant data to a minimum
• Archiving historical data: Archive rarely used data
• Good hardware configuration: Good hardware = quick response
o A file is a block of data, which, in databases, is divided into related
records, fields and characters

• Retrieval of stored data to conduct further processing (printing invoices)

• Systems to store paper records of transactions

• Data backup (copy of data used to rebuild a system) and recovery

o Grandfather, Father, Son
• Grandfather, father, son is a traditional
system of backups that stores the latest
backup and the two previous ones.
• Each time a new backup is made it
becomes the “son”, and the previous
“Son” becomes the “Father” and the
previous “Father becomes the
“Grandfather” and the previous
“Grandfather” is either archived or
recycled.

o Off site storage

• Offsite refers to a location which is physically separated from
the main system, and hence, off-site storage is storage of data
on magnetic disks or Removable hard disks at an Employee
house etc.

o Secure on-site storage

• On-site refers to a location is that is physically close to the
system, and hence, Secure on-site storage refers to the storage
of data through the use of hard disks etc.
 •Secure On site storage provides faster access to the backup data
but requires extra precaution and is more risky than “off site
storage”.
o Full and partial backups
• A Full Backup involves copying all files. It is usually done
weekly or monthly
• A partial backup involves copying files that have been created
or changed since the last backup, which reduces the backup
time tremendously and therefore can be done daily.
• Partial backups are broken up into;
• Differential: All the files that have changed since the
last full backup
• Incremental: All the files that have changed since the
last full or partial backup
Backup Procedure Advantages Disadvantages
Incremental Faster, uses less space The full backup and the
daily backup has to be
loaded to restore all the data
Differential The full backup and only the Slower than incremental,
last daily backup have to be each backup needs more
loaded to store all the data space
o Recovery testing
• Recovery testing is the process of testing a backup after is has
been made by restoring files into a temporary directory
• Backward recovery undoes unwanted changes
• Forwards recovery beings with the backup copy and processes
all transactions from the partial backups in order through to the
current.
o Suitable media
• Storage media ranges from floppy disk to magnetic disks, to
CDs, DVDs, Hard disks and Zip disks etc
• Even though magnetic tape is slow and sequential, it is
inexpensive and often used for backups
• See table 4.5 Page 164 Jacaranda for more information
o Specialised backup software
• Specialised backup software provides considerable control over
the backup and restoration processes by;
• Combining full and partial backup procedures
• Providing backups of selected files
• Selecting files for backup by date/size/type
• Providing optimal compression
• Providing unattended backup
•Scheduling backups, Encrypting backups, Logging
backups
o Transaction logs
• Transaction logs record events that have occurred
o Documenting backup and recovery procedures
• Recovery
o Mirroring
 o Roll back
• A roll back is the process of converting the current system back
to its old system, or going from a son backup and loading a
father.
• Data warehousing
o A data warehouse is a database that stores large amounts of
information from

o Data mining is the process of analysing large amounts of data to reveal

hidden patterns or relationships
o
• Updating in batch systems (no considerable user interaction)
o Historical significance
• Paper record systems were collected in batch and transactions
were updated on a fixed basis.
• When punched cards/tape was only available, updating was
considerably timely and expensive
o Limitations of batch processing
• Usually time consuming due to the use of sequential storage
o Technology required
• Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be
sequential)
• Software does not have to allow for online work or a simple
user interface as only well trained and experienced participants
use it.
o Steps in batch update
• All changes are made to the transaction file and stored
• The transaction file is sorted by a key field in the same
sequential order as the master file
• The files are matched by the key field and the relevant records
in the master file are updated
o Suitable applications
• Updating in on-line real time systems (requires considerable user
interaction)
o Relevance and impact
o Technology required
 • Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be direct
access so response time is very quick
• Software must enable online work for multiple simultaneous
use (provide access to an online database)
• Software must include a user friendly interface as many
participants will use it
o Steps in on-line real time processing
• Read the key field from the transaction file record
• Using a mathematical procedure or algorithm (such as the hash
storage calculation), the location of the same record in the
master file is found
• If the master record Is being used, wait until it is finished
• Update the master record by overwriting with the old record
o Notes
• Requires considerable interaction with the user
• Requires user friendly software (possibly online help)
• Requires real time data validation
• Requires direct access storage to access data quickly

4.4 Other information processes in TPS’s

• Collecting
Collecting from a TPS involves generating the transaction data
o Hardware
• MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition)
• MICR systems are used by banks to read account
numbers on cheques
• Characters are printed using magnetic ink that contains
magnetised particles
• ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)
• An ATM is a banking terminal for common transactions
• Barcode Readers
• Barcode readers are used in retail industries to collected
product information and point of sale
• The reflected light off the barcode lines identifies the
prod.
o From forms (Form: a document used to collect data from a person)
• Paper Form: Written on to provide data and then processed
• Onscreen Form: Usually completed for data entry to populate
DBs
• Web Form: For users wanting to purchase products off the
internet
o Screen design for online data collection
• Drop down menus, radio buttons, command buttons, check
boxes
• Use of colour, alignment, white space, images etc
 • Analysing data, in which output produced is used as input in other
systems
The results of processed transactions are stored in a database and are analysed in ways
to meet the information needs of users.
o Decision support systems
• DSSs assist people in making decisions by providing
information, models and other analysis tools.
• For example, a business may use a TPS to process its sale
transaction, and then use a DSS to summarise its sales by
date/region/product. This information will then be used for
decisions
• Data mining is used in DSSs to find relationships and patterns
in data stored in a database
o Management Information Systems
• MISs provides information about basic facts such as sales
performance, payroll, and budgets.
• The MIS shares the data from a TPS, which is then manipulated
to create reports (Scheduled reports, forecast reports, on
demand)

4.5 Issues related to TPS’s

Both positive and negative issues arise from TPSs
• Changing nature of work
o Automation of jobs once performed by clerks
▪ Automation of jobs refers to the use of information technology
to perform tasks once done by people
▪ Workers are required to learn new skills and complete ongoing
training or face being replaced by a more skilled worker
▪ This can either result in extra stress on workers or increased
happiness
▪ Information systems can expand the scope and significance of a
users job or they can reduce it (affects meaning of work)
o Shifting of workload from clerks to members of the public
▪ TPSs allow every user with access to a terminal to enter and
retrieve data, which is what a clerk would have done
• Need for alternative procedures when the TPS is unavailable
o Blackouts or breakdowns can completely disable some TPSs and
businesses must plan for such times.
o Non-computer procedures must be in place, and these must have been
checked and tested
• Bias in data collection
Bias means that data is unfairly skewed to a particular result or direction.
o When establishing the system and deciding what data to collect
▪ Data collection methods should be specified carefully
▪ Loaded questions must be avoided in questionnaires or web
forms
o When collecting the data
▪ Adhere to protocols established earlier.
 ▪ ‘random sampling’ does not apply to web surveys as not
everyone has the internet
• Importance of data in transaction processing
o Data security
▪ Data security protects a systems data against accidental or
deliberate damage
• Passwords and biometric methods (fingerprints etc)
• Encryption
• Firewalls
o Data accuracy
▪ Data accuracy is the correctness of the data (extent to which it
is free of errors)
▪ Errors can occur;
• Data collection errors: Poor handwriting/badly worded
questions
• Data entry errors: Typo’s
• Out-of-date errors: Person’s data changes (move etc)
• Mismatching errors: Data relates to a similar person,
maybe with a different name
o Data integrity
▪ Data integrity is the reliability of data, it involves accuracy,
currency and relevance of the data
▪ In real time transaction processing, data integrity is achieved
when the ACID test is passed
• Atomicity: All steps of a transaction are completed
together
• Consistency: Correct programming, such as always
debiting and crediting the correct account
• Isolation: Ability for transactions to be processed at the
same time as others, but still behave independently
• Durability: Changes become permanent when
committed
• Control in transaction processing and the implications for participants
o Controlling transaction processing starts with collecting and includes
the way the TPS manipulates the data and the way errors are corrected.
o People should not become completely dependent on a TPS. They need
to maintain control over their organisation’s operations
o Due to the immense volume of data errors are caused, and if no control
measures are taken these errors will be unnoticed and have dire effects
on the transaction, the transaction system and the organisation.
• Current and emerging trends in transaction processing

End of Study Notes

By Chromatic