4.

Electrodynamic fields

Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

1 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.1 Introduction
Electrodynamics

Maxwell’s Wave
Faraday’s law
equations equations

Lenz’s law Integral Differential Phasor Boundary

form form form conditions

Fig. 4.1 Electrodynamics: Faraday’s law and Maxwell’s equations

2 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.1 Introduction

We will study Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

(the 4th Maxwell’s equations)

Faraday showed that a changing magnetic field creates an
electric field

He was the first person who connected these two forces
(magnetic and electric forces)

Maxwell, in 19th century, combined the works of his
predecessors (the four Maxwell’s equations)

3 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.1 Introduction

Since everything in nature is symmetric, he postulated that a

changing electric field should also produce magnetic field

Whenever the dynamic fields interact with a media interface,
their behavior is governed by electromagnetic boundary
conditions

We will discuss how to obtain Helmholtz wave equations
from the two Maxwell’s curl equations and

generate electromagnetic (EM) waves

4 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

r r r
Bt Bs Bt
2
dl v r
I I v
1

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.2 (a) Case I (b) Case II and (c) Case III

5 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

A major advance in electromagnetic theory was made by
Michael Faraday in 1831

He discovered experimentally that a current was induced in a
conducting loop when the magnetic flux linking that loop
changes

The possible three cases of changing magnetic flux linkage is
depicted in Fig. 4.2

6 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction
Case I: A stationary circuit in a time varying magnetic
field

It has been observed experimentally that when both the loop
and magnet is at rest

But the magnetic field is time varying (denoted by Bt in Fig.
4.2(a)), a current flows in the loop

Mathematically:
r r
r r dφ ∂B r r r ∂B r
ξ = ∫ E • dl = − = −∫ • ds ⇒ ∫ ∇ × E • ds = − ∫ • ds
dt ∂t ∂t

7 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

It is for any arbitrary surface

Hence
∂B
⇒ ∇× E = −
∂t

The emf induced in a stationary closed circuit is equal to the

negative rate of increase of magnetic flux linking the circuit

The negative sign is due to Lenz’s law

8 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction
Case II: A moving conductor in a static magnetic field

When a conductor moves with a velocity in a static magnetic
field (denoted by Bs in Fig. 4.2(b)), a force

F m = qv × B

will cause the freely movable electron in the conductor to

drift toward one end of the conductor and

leave the other end positively charged

9 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

The magnetic force per unit charge
ur
F m r ur
= v× B
q

can be interpreted as an induced electric field acting along
the conductor and

producing a voltage V21

r r 2 r r
2 r
V21 = ∫ E • dl = ∫ (v × B) • dl
1 1

10 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction
Case III: A moving circuit in a time varying magnetic
field

When a charge moves with a velocity in a region where

both an electric field and a magnetic field exists

The electromagnetic force on q is given by Lorentz’s force
field equation,
F = q( E + v × B)

11 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

Hence, when a conducting circuit

with contour C and

surface S

moves with a velocity in presence of magnetic and electric
field, we obtain,
∂B
∫ E • dl = − ∫ ∂t
• ds + ∫ (v × B) • dl
C S C

The line integral in the LHS is the emf induced in the moving
frame of reference

12 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

The first term in the right side represents transformer emf

due to the variation of magnetic field

The second term represents the motional emf

due the motion of the circuit in magnetic field

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction shows that

there is a close connection between electric and magnetic fields

In other words, a time changing magnetic field produces an
electric field

13 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction
Lenz’s law

Fig. 4.3 Lenz’s law

14 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.2 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction

The induced current creates a magnetic flux

which prevents the variation of the magnetic flux generating the
induced emf

For example,

the loop L is drawn to the coil c,

the magnetic flux through the loop increases

The current induced in the loop in this case is in the
counterclockwise direction

15 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The theory of EM field was mathematically completed by
Maxwell

It was James Clerk Maxwell who has combined the previous
works of

Carl Federick Gauss,

Andre Marie Ampere and

Michael Faraday

into four laws

16 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

which completely explains the entire electromagnetic
phenomenon in nature

except quantum mechanics

4.3.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwell

Table 4.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwell (next page)

17 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

Equation Equations Laws

No.
ur ρ
1. ∇• E = v Gauss law for electric field
ε0

r
2. ∇•B = 0 Gauss law for magnetic field
ur r
3. ∇× B = µ0 J Ampere’s law
ur
ur
4. ∇× E = −
∂B Faraday’s law
∂t

18 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

There is fatal inconsistency in one of these formulae

It has to do with the rule that the divergence of curl is always
zero

Apply this rule to 4, we get,

∇ • (∇ × E ) = −
(
∂ ∇•B
=0
)
∂t

This is consistent

LHS is zero

since it is the divergence of curl of electric field vector

19 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

RHS is also zero from Gauss’s law for magnetic field which
states that divergence of a magnetic flux density vector is
zero

Let us apply this rule to 3, we get,

r r
( )
∇ • (∇ × B) = ∇ • µ 0 J = µ 0 ∇ • J ( )

20 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The RHS is zero for

steady state currents only

whereas the LHS is zero for all cases

since it is the divergence of curl of magnetic flux density vector

One fundamental question is that

what is happening in between the parallel plates of the capacitor
while

charging or discharging

21 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

From our circuit analysis,

no current flows between the two plates since they are
disconnected

In accordance with Gauss theorem,

for time varying electric flux density and

fixed or static closed surface

r r ∂ r r ∂q
∫ D • ds = q ⇒∫ ∂t D • ds = ∂t ( )

22 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

So the term on the LHS of the above equation is

rate of change of electric flux or

it can be also termed as displacement current

we can add this extra term in the Ampere’s law and we get,
r r ∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t

The 2nd term on the RHS can also be termed as

displacement current density

Both terms on the RHS together is known as the total
current.

23 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
4.3.2 Maxwell’s equations in integral form

Maxwell equations are the elegant mathematical expression
of decades of experimental observations

of the electric and

magnetic effects

of charges and

currents

by many scientists viz.,

Gauss,

Ampere and

Faraday

24 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell’s own contribution indeed is

the last term of the third equation (refer to Table 4.2)

But this term had profound impact on the electromagnetic
theory

It made evident for the first time that

varying electric and magnetic fields could produce or generate
each other

and these fields could propagate indefinitely through free
space,

far from the varying charges and currents

where they are originated

25 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Previously the fields had been envisioned

bound to the charges and currents giving rise to them

Maxwell’s new term displacement current freed them

to move through space in a self-sustaining fashion, and

even predicted their velocity of motion was

the speed of light

Electrodynamics after Maxwell can be represented by the
four Maxwell’s equations in integral form (listed in Table 4.2)
Table 4.2 Electrodynamics after Maxwell (next page)

26 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
Equation numbers Equations Laws

r r Gauss law for electric

1. ∫ D • ds = ∫ ρv dv field

r r Gauss law for magnetic

2.
∫ B • ds = 0 field
r
r r  r ∂D  r Ampere’s law
3. ∫ H • dl =∫  J + ∂t  • ds
r Faraday’s law
4. r r  ∂B  r
∫ E • dl = − ∫  ∂t  • ds

27 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The relations for linear, isotropic and non-dispersive
materials can be written as:
r r r r
D = ε E, B = µ H

where ε is the permittivity and

µ is the permeability of the material

Suppose, we restrict ourselves to time-independent situations

That means nothing is varying with time and

all fields are stationary

28 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

If the fields are stationary (electric and magnetic field are
constant with time),

Maxwell’s equations reduces to four groups of independent
equations
r r r r
1. ∫ D • ds = q 2. ∫ B • ds =0
r r r r
3. ∫ H • dl =I 4. ∫ E • dl =0

29 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

In this case, the electric and magnetic fields are independent
of one another

These are laws for electrostatics and magnetostatics
4.3.3 Differential form of Maxwell’s equations

We can obtain the 4 laws of Maxwell’s equations in
differential form listed below from the integral form of
Maxwell’s equations by applying

Divergence and

Stokes theorems

30 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
r ρv
1. ∇•E =
ε
r
2. ∇• B = 0
r
r r ∂D
3. ∇× H = J +
∂t

ur
ur ∂B
4. ∇× E = −
∂t

31 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Equation 1 means that static or dynamic charges in a given
volume are responsible for a diverging electric field

Equation 2 means that there is no physical medium which
makes a magnetic field diverge

Equation 3 means either a current flow through a medium or
a time-varying electric field produces a spatially curling
magnetic field

Equations 4 means that a spatially varying (curling) electric
field will cause or produce a time-varying magnetic field

32 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell equation include the continuity equation
r
 r ∂D  r
∫  J + ∂t  • ds = 0
4.3.4 Time harmonic fields and Maxwell’s equations in phasor
form

For time harmonic fields
r r
F ( x, y, z , t ) = F ( x, y, z )e jωt

where ω is the angular frequency of the time varying field

33 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
r
∂ r r r F ( x, y , z , t )
∂t
F ( x, y, z, t ) = jω F ( x, y, z, t ); ∫ F ( x , y , z , t ) dt =
jω
+ c1

where c1 is a constant of integration

Since we are interested only in time varying quantities, we
can take, c1=0

∂ ∂2
≡ jω ; = jω × jω = −ω 2
∂t ∂t 2

34 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s equations in phasor form

If we take the time variation explicitly out, then we can write

1. ∇ × E% = − jω B%
~ ~ ~
2. ∇ × H = jωD + J

~
3. ∇ • D = ρυ

~
4. ∇•B = 0

35 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Some points to be noted on perfect conductors and magnetic
fields:

A perfect conductor or metal can’t have time-varying
magnetic fields inside it

At the surface of a perfect metal there can be no component
of a time-varying magnetic field that is normal to the surface

Time-varying currents can only flow at the surface of a
perfect metal but not inside it
4.3.5 Electromagnetic boundary conditions

36 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

Table 4.3 Electromagnetic boundary conditions for time varying fields

Sl. No. Scalar form Vector form

1. Et1 = Et2 ~ ~
nˆ × ( E1 − E 2 ) = 0
~ ~ r
2. Ht1-Ht2=Js ˆn × ( H1 − H 2 ) = J s

~ ~
3. Bn1=Bn2 nˆ • ( B1 − B2 ) = 0

4. ~ ~ Dn1 − Dn 2 = ρ s
nˆ • ( D1 − D2 ) = ρ s

~ ~
5. Jn1=Jn2 nˆ • ( J1 − J 2 ) = 0

J t1 σ 1  J%  σ
6. =
Jt 2 σ 2
ˆn ×  1  = 1
%
 J2  σ 2

37 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The tangential component of the electric field is continuous
across the boundary between two dielectrics

The tangential component of the magnetic field is
discontinuous across the boundary between two magnetic
materials by the surface current density flowing along the
boundary

The normal component of the magnetic flux density is
continuous across the boundary between two magnetic
materials

38 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The normal component of the electric flux density is
discontinuous across the boundary between two dielectrics
by the surface charge density at the boundary

It states that the normal component of electric current
density is continuous across the boundary

The ratio of the tangential components of the current
densities at the interface is equal to the ratio of the
conductivities

39 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
4.4 Wave equations from Maxwell’s equations
4.4.1 Helmholtz wave equations

In linear isotropic medium, the two Maxwell curl equations
in phasor form are
r r
∇ × E = − jωµH

r r r r r r
∇ × H = jωε E + J = jωε E + σ E = ( jωε + σ ) E

40 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

To solve for electric and magnetic fields,

we can take curl on the first equation and

eliminate the curl of magnetic field vector in the RHS of the
first equation by using the second equation given above
r r r 2
r
∇×∇× E = ∇×∇× E = ∇(∇ • E ) − ∇ E

41 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

For a charge free region,
r
∇•E = 0
r r r r r
∴∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ E = − jωµ (∇ × H ) = − jωµ ( jωε + σ ) E = −γ E
2 2

Hence,

r 2r
2
∇ E −γ E = 0

Similarly,
2
r 2
r
∇ H −γ H = 0

42 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

These two equations are known as Helmholtz equations or
wave equations

γ=α+jβ is a complex number and it is known as propagation
constant

The real part α is attenuation constant, it will show how fast
the wave will attenuate

whereas the imaginary part β is the phase constant
4.4.2 Propagation in rectangular coordinates

43 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

The Helmholtz vector wave equation can be solved in any
orthogonal coordinate system by substituting the appropriate
Laplacian operator

Let us first solve it in Cartesian coordinate systems

Let us assume that the electric field is polarized along the x-
axis and it is propagating along the z-direction
r )
E ( x, y , z , t ) = E x ( z , t ) x

44 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Therefore, the wave equation now reduces to
r
r r 2
∂ E r
∇ E −γ E = 0 ⇒ 2 −γ E = 0
2 2 2

∂z

Hence, the solution of the wave equation is of the form

r ) )
( )
E ( x, y, z ) = Ex ( z ) x = E 0+ e −γ z + E 0− e + γ z x

where superscript + and – for E0 the arbitrary constants

denote for wave propagating along + and – z-axis
respectively

45 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Assuming that the electric field propagates only in the
positive z-direction and of finite value at infinity

then the arbitrary constant for wave traveling along –z axis
must be equal to zero, which means
r ) + −γ z )
E ( x, y , z ) = E x ( z ) x = E 0 e x

Dropping the superscript + in the constant E0 of the above

expression, we can write
r )
E ( x, y , z ) = E 0 e − γ z x

46 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Let us put the time dependence now by multiplying the
above expression by ejωt, which gives
r ) ) )
( ) ( )
E ( x, y, z , t ) = Ex ( z , t ) x = E 0 e −γ z e jωt x = E 0 e −α z e − j β z e jωt x

The real part of this electric field becomes

r ) )
{ }
Re E ( x, y, z , t ) = Re { Ex ( z , t ) x} = E 0 e −α z cos (ωt − β z ) x

47 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Some points to be noted:

First point is that the solution of the wave equation is a
vector

Secondly, Fig. 4.5 shows a typical plot of the normalized
propagating electric field at a fixed point in time

Thirdly, its phase φ=ωt-βz is a function of both time,
frequency and propagation distance

48 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

So, if we fix the phase and let the wave travel a distance of ∆z
over a period of time ∆t

Mathematically, this can be expressed as

∆ φ = ω ∆ t-β ∆ z = 0 ,

therefore,

vp = ∆ z/ ∆ t = ω / β,

which is the phase velocity of the wave

Hence,

vp = ∆ z/ ∆ t = ω / {ω √ (µε) } = 1/√ (µε)

49 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

For free space this turns out to be vp = 1/√ (µ0ε0) ≈ 3 × 108
m/s

Note that the phase velocity can be greater than the speed of
light

For instance, hollow metallic pipe in the form of rectangular
waveguide has phase velocity
ω c
vp = =
β  f 
2

1−  c 
 f 

50 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

For guided-wave propagation inside rectangular waveguide
fc< f and

correspondingly such guided waves propagate with phase
velocity greater than the speed of light

this doesn’t contradict the Eiensten’s theory of relativity
because

there is no energy or information transfer associated with this
velocity

51 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Note that beside phase velocity, we have another term called
group velocity which is associated with the energy or
information transfer

Inside rectangular waveguide, in fact, the group velocity is
much lower than the speed of light

This can be seen from the another relation between the phase
and group velocity inside rectangular waveguide vpvg=c2

52 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

phase velocity vp = ω / β

group velocity vg = dω / dβ

Fourthly, phase constant is also generally known as wave
number

β = ω / vp = 2 K f / vp = 2 K / λ

Fifth point is that ratio of the amplitude of the electric field
to the magnetic field is known as intrinsic or wave impedance
of the medium

53 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

η = |E| / |H| = ωµ / β = ωµ / {ω √ (µε) = µ / {√ (µε)
= √ (µ/ε)

For free space η = √ (µ0/ε0) ≈ 377 Ω
4.4.3 Propagation in spherical coordinates

We can also calculate the propagation of electric fields from
an isotropic point source in spherical coordinates

We will assume that the source is isotropic and the electric
field solution is independent of (θ,φ)

Assuming that the electric field is polarized along θ-direction
and it is only a function of r

54 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations
r )
E ( r ,θ , ϕ , t ) = Eθ ( r , t )θ

we can write the vector wave equation as follows:

r
r r d  dE  2 2 r
∇2 E − γ 2 E = 0 ⇒  r 2  −γ r E = 0
dr  dr 

For finite fields, the solution is of the form

r ) E0 −γ r
E ( r ,θ , ϕ ) = Eθ ( r )θ = e
r

55 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

 4.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Like before, we can add the time dependence to the phasor
and get the real part of the electric field as follows
r ) E0 −α r )
{ } { }
Re E ( r , θ , ϕ , t ) = Re Eθ ( r , t ) θ =
r
e cos (ωt − β r ) θ

Note that there is an additional 1/r dependence term in the

expression for electric field here

this factor is termed as spherical spreading for the isotropic
point source

56 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013

4.5 Summary
Electrodynamics
Wave
equations
Faraday’s law
r r r r
Maxwell’s ∇2 E − γ 2 E = 0 ∇2 H − γ 2 H = 0
∂B
∫ E • dl = − ∫ ∂t • ds + ∫ (v × B) • dl equations Boundary
conditions
C S C

~ ~
nˆ × ( E1 − E 2 ) = 0
Lenz’s law Integral Differential Phasor r
~ ~
form form form nˆ × ( H1 − H 2 ) = J s
~ ~
r r nˆ • ( B1 − B2 ) = 0
∫ • ds = ∫ ρv dv
D
r ρ
~ ρ
∇•E = v
∇•E = v ε Dn1 − Dn 2 = ρ s
r r ε ~
∇•B = 0
∫ • ds =0
B
r
~ ~
nˆ • ( J1 − J 2 ) = 0
r ∇•B = 0 ~ r ~
r r  r ∂D  r ∇ × H = J + jωD
∫ H • dl = ∫  J + ∂t  • ds r r ∂D
r
 J%1  σ 1
∇× H = J + ~ ~
∇ × E = − jωB nˆ ×   =
%
r r
r
 ∂B  r
∂t  J2  σ 2
∫ E • dl = − ∫  ∂t  • ds r
∇× E = −
r
∂B Fig. 4.6 Electrodynamics in a nutshell
∂t
57 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 2/16/2013