Front Matter.

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HELICOPTER
INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE

2002

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Aviation Safety Program
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1—Instructional Techniques Section F—Emergency Procedures . . . . . . . . . .1-28
Section A—Ground Operations and Autorotative Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-28
Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1 Power Recovery from Practice
Preflight Check and Engine Starting . . . . . .1-1 Autorotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-29
Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2 Autorotations with Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-29
Rotor RPM and Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2 Power Failure in a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-30
Height/Velocity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2 Emergency Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31
Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness . . . . . . .1-3 Settling with Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31
Low G Conditions and Mast Bumping . .1-3 Retreating Blade Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31
Section B—Hovering Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4 Ground Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-32
Vertical Takeoff to a Hover and Hovering . .1-4 Dynamic Rollover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-32
Hovering Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5 Systems or Equipment Malfunctions . .1-32
Hovering Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-6 Antitorque System Failure . . . . . . .1-32
Hovering Sideward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7 Governor Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-33
Hovering Rearward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7 Recovery from Low Rotor RPM . . . . .1-33
Vertical Landing from a Hover . . . . . . . . . .1-8
Section C—Primary Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-9 Chapter 2—Exam Briefings
Straight-and-Level Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-9 Section A—General Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-1
Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-10 Certificates and Documents . . . . . . . . . . . .2-1
Climbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-11 Weather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-12 National Airspace System and Charts . . . . .2-3
Climbing and Descending Turns . . . . . . . .1-12 Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
Coordination Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-13 Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Section D—Heliport and Airport Operations . . .1-14 Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14 Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Runway Incursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14 Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Traffic Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14 Class E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
Normal and Crosswind Takeoff from Special VFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14 Class G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
Normal and Crosswind Approaches to Other Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-16 Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-7
Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-17 Performance and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . .2-8
Section E—Advanced Flight Maneuvers . . . . . .1-18 Weight and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-9
Maximum Performance Takeoff . . . . . . . .1-18 Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10
Running Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-19 Helicopter Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10
Rapid Deceleration or Quick Stop . . . . . .1-19 Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10
Steep Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-20 Powerplant and Related Systems . . . . .2-11
Shallow Approach / Running Landing . . .1-21 Rotor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
Slope Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-22 Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12
Slope Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-22 Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13
Confined Area Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24 Flight Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13
Pinnacle Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24 Equipment Operation and Procedures . .2-14
Pinnacle Takeoff and Climb . . . . . . . . . . .1-25 Minimum Equipment List . . . . . . . . . . . .2-14
Night Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-26 Aeromedical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-15
Cross-Country Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .1-26 Airport and Heliport Operations . . . . . . . .2-16

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Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-17 Chapter 3—Flight Review

Emergency Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-18 Who Needs a Flight Review . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1
Night Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-20 What are the Requirements of the .
Regulations, The Aeronautical Information Flight Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1
Manual, and NTSB 830 . . . . . . . . . . . .2-21 Prereview Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1
Section B—Student Pilot Briefings . . . . . . . . . .2-23 Make, Model, or Type of Helicopter
Solo Cross-Country Briefing . . . . . . . . . .2-23 Flown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1
Section C—Private Pilot Briefings . . . . . . . . . .2-25 Nature of Flight Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
Section D—Commercial Pilot Briefings . . . . . .2-26 Recency of Flight Experience . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
Advance Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-26
Agreement on Conduct of Review . . . . . . .3-2
Pinnacle/Platform Operations . . . . . . . .2-26
Ground Training Considerations . . . . . . . . .3-2
Slope Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-27
In-flight Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
Confined Area Operations . . . . . . . . . .2-27
Running or Rolling Takeoff and Postreview Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2
Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-28 Sample Flight Review Plan
Rapid Deceleration (Quick Stop) . . . . .2-28 and Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-3
Section E—Flight Instructor Briefings . . . . . . .2-30 Sample List of Flight Review Knowledge,
Fundamentals of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .2-30 Maneuvers, and Procedures . . . . . . . . .3-4

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This chapter is intended to aid the instructor in teaching the maneuvers and procedures required of an applicant for
a helicopter rating. Most maneuvers in this chapter are broken into three parts. First is a brief description of the
maneuver. The second part consists of focus points, which are the techniques on how the student should fly the
maneuver. The last part is common student difficulties. You might find it helpful to refer to the Rotorcraft Flying
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21) for additional information on each maneuver.

To aid you with this chapter, it is recommended that you refer to the FAA Practical Test Standards for acceptable
guidelines for each maneuver. In the initial stages of training, no student should be expected to meet this level of
proficiency, but before the practical test, a student should be able to consistently perform well within these stan-
dards. In addition, all maneuvers should be performed within the guidelines set forth in Title 14 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section 61.43.

Each student should be encouraged to strive for better than the quoted standards, and as the instructor, you should
never settle for minimum performance. The quality of early training, and the standards of performance and safety
that you establish will have a dramatic effect on the student throughout his or her flying career. In the final
analysis, the kind of pilot a student becomes is largely a result of your efforts.

SECTION A—GROUND OPERATIONS AND SAFETY

CONSIDERATIONS
PREFLIGHT CHECK AND ENGINE No matter how many times a procedure is repeated, it
STARTING should be conducted by referring to the appropriate
A safe flight begins on the ground. In addition to the checklist. Use of a checklist provides an organized
planning that precedes a flight, it is the responsibility procedure for completing an operation, as well as
of the pilot in command to ensure the helicopter is in an ensuring every significant item is covered. As the
airworthy condition and the required documents are instructor, you should accomplish the first few preflight
onboard. Many instructors use the acronym AROW as inspections, while the student reads the checklist and
a memory aid for the required papers. watches. Thereafter, the student should accomplish the
procedure with you looking on and asking questions to
AAirworthiness certificate determine his/her understanding of each item and its
significance.
RRegistration certificate
The interior preflight and engine starting procedures
OOperating limitations are simple and straightforward but should still be
conducted while referring to the checklist. Obviously,
WWeight and balance data (current data) the engine cannot be started while reading each
individual item, so the checklist is read to prepare for
starting, then rechecked to ensure each item has been
The student pilot must receive thorough instruction on accomplished. There is a temptation to ignore the
all items covered in the preflight inspection. Each item checklist when pressed for time, but that is when it
on the checklist should be covered in detail, explaining becomes most important to use it. A sense of urgency
how a discrepancy is recognized and what its makes it easy to forget an item. The results of such an
significance is to safety. omission can be embarrassing at best, and disastrous at

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worst. It is imperative to clear the area before engine limit on the rotor tachometer, the rotor may not produce
start and main rotor engagement. The engine and flight enough lift to sustain level flight. The high limit of rotor
control check just before takeoff should be r.p.m. is imposed to protect the structural integrity of the
accomplished meticulously and verified by use of the rotor and drive components.
checklist. This is the last opportunity to detect an actual
or potential discrepancy. No student should be allowed Stress to your students that low rotor r.p.m. can also
to witness or participate in a hasty takeoff and lead to blade stall. If the rotor r.p.m. decays to the point
departure because students tend to pattern their behav- where all the rotor blades stall, the result is usually
ior after their instructor. Too many accidents have been fatal, especially when it occurs at altitude. The danger
caused by something that could have been caught on a of low rotor r.p.m. and blade stall is greatest in small
careful preflight. The engine shutdown, parking, and helicopters with low blade inertia. It can occur in a
tiedown procedures are designed to prolong engine life number of ways such as simply rolling the throttle the
and prevent damage to the helicopter while it is parked. wrong way, or pulling more collective pitch than power
They should, therefore, be performed carefully, while available, or when operating at a high density altitude.
emphasizing the importance of each checked item to
the student. Explain that when the rotor r.p.m. drops, the blades try
to maintain the same amount of lift by increasing pitch.
As the pitch increases, drag increases, which requires
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS more power to keep the blades turning at the proper
Good manners are an essential part of helicopter r.p.m. When power is no longer available to maintain
operations. If not operated with consideration for r.p.m., and therefore lift, the helicopter begins to
nearby persons and property, a helicopter can be a descend. This changes the relative wind and further
nuisance, or even worse, a hazard. A considerate increases the angle of attack. At some point, the blades
attitude must be cultivated by example and instruction stall unless r.p.m. is restored. If all blades stall, it is
from the beginning of training. For example, the almost impossible to get smooth air flowing across the
helicopter has the unique capability of being able to blades.
land and take off near a crowd of people. In the process,
its downwash can stir up debris and blow it at high Emphasize that any time the rotor r.p.m. falls below
velocity for a considerable distance, causing possible the r.p.m. limits while power is still available,
injury to people and damage to property. Another simultaneously add throttle and lower the collective. If
potential hazard is the possibility that people on the in forward flight, gently applying aft cyclic loads up
ground may walk into turning rotors. The tail rotor, in the system and helps increase rotor r.p.m. If there is no
particular, is hard to notice. Therefore, it is mandatory power available, immediately lower the collective and
that a student understands the potential hazards to apply aft cyclic.
others and the pilot’s responsibility to prevent them.
The rotor tip-path plane isn’t always easy to see, and it The student must also understand the limits of high
may be difficult to judge its distance from fixed speed in the helicopter and the reasons for imposing
objects. A beginning student should be encouraged to them. Top speed of a helicopter is usually limited by
maintain more than adequate clearance from all objects retreating blade stall, the symptoms of which are main
and to be constantly aware of both main and tail rotor- rotor vibrations, nose pitch up, and a rolling tendency,
tip paths. usually to the left in a helicopter with a counterclock-
wise main rotor blade rotation. High gross weight,
maneuvering, and turbulence all tend to aggravate the
ROTOR RPM AND AIRSPEED retreating blade stall condition.
No discussion of safety considerations would be
complete without at least a mention of the two items Point out to your student that retreating blade stall can
most vital to safe operation in a helicopter—rotor r.p.m. be avoided by adhering to the never exceed speed
and airspeed. Although both are discussed many times (VNE). The decrease in VNE speed with increasing
during training, it is important for the student to density altitude must also be thoroughly explained.
understand not only that there are limits to both, but why
those limits have been specifically defined. The student HEIGHT/VELOCITY DIAGRAM
must understand and be able to explain that the limits for The student must be thoroughly familiar with the
powered operation are dictated by the operating limits height/velocity diagram and its significance. Emphasis
of the engine. At low r.p.m., the engine cannot develop should be placed on understanding the performance
full power, and the high limit is imposed by engine limitations for safe autorotations at high and low
structural limits. Also, point out that if the engine and airspeeds. Before solo, determine, by questioning, that
rotor r.p.m. are allowed to get too low, tail rotor r.p.m. is your student completely understands the reasons for
also greatly reduced. This could possibly lead to an the crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity
inability to keep the helicopter from turning. At the low diagram and the profiles required to avoid them.
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LOSS OF TAIL ROTOR EFFECTIVENESS system, there is no main rotor thrust component to the
Loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) must also be left to counteract the tail rotor thrust to the right, and
discussed. LTE is not related to equipment since the tail rotor is above the CG, the tail rotor thrust
malfunction, but rather is the result of the tail rotor not causes the helicopter to roll rapidly to the right. Point
providing the adequate thrust required to maintain out to your students that if they attempt to stop the right
directional control. LTE may occur at airspeeds less roll by applying full left cyclic before regaining main
than 30 knots and can be caused by a number of rotor thrust, the rotor can exceed its flapping limits and
factors, including main rotor disc interference, cause structural failure of the rotor shaft due to mast
weathercock stability, and tail rotor vortex ring state. It bumping, or it may allow a blade to contact
also depends upon wind direction and speed, altitude, the airframe.
and helicopter design. To help reduce the onset of LTE,
make sure the student understands the limitations of Since a low G condition could have disastrous results,
the training helicopter and those circumstances under stress to your students that the best way to prevent it
which LTE is most likely to occur. For more from happening is to avoid the conditions in which it
information on LTE, refer to Chapter 11 in the might occur. This means avoiding turbulence as much
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21). as possible. If turbulence is encountered, forward
airspeed should be slowed and any control inputs
LOW G CONDITIONS AND MAST BUMPING should be small. If turbulence becomes excessive,
For cyclic control, small helicopters depend primarily consider making a precautionary landing. Even if they
on tilting the main rotor thrust vector to produce are not in turbulent conditions, students should avoid
control moments about the aircraft center of gravity, abrupt movement of the cyclic and collective.
causing the helicopter to roll or pitch in the desired
direction. Pushing the cyclic control forward abruptly A low G condition can be recognized by a feeling of
from either straight-and-level flight or after a climb can weightlessness and an uncontrolled roll to the right. If
put the helicopter into a low G (weightless) flight this condition is encountered, have the student
condition. In forward flight, when a push-over is immediately and smoothly apply aft cyclic. Do not let
performed, the angle of attack and thrust of the rotor is him or her attempt to correct the rolling action with
reduced, causing a low G or weightless flight lateral cyclic. Applying aft cyclic loads the rotor
condition. During the low G condition, the lateral system, which in turn produces thrust. Once thrust is
cyclic has little, if any, effect because the rotor thrust restored, left cyclic control becomes effective, and the
has been reduced. Also, in a counterclockwise rotor helicopter can be rolled to a level attitude.

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SECTION B—HOVERING FLIGHT

VERTICAL TAKEOFF TO A HOVER AND position varies with wind and the amount and
HOVERING distribution of the load.
A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the
helicopter from the ground vertically to a skid height of • Initially, students will probably overcontrol the
two to five feet, while maintaining a constant heading. helicopter. Excessive movement of any flight
Once the desired skid height is achieved, the helicopter control requires a change in the other flight
should remain nearly motionless over a reference point controls. For example, if the helicopter drifts to
at a constant altitude and on a constant heading. The one side while hovering, students will naturally
maneuver requires a high degree of concentration and move the cyclic in the opposite direction. When
coordination. they do this, part of the vertical thrust is diverted,
resulting in a loss of altitude. To maintain
FOCUS POINTS altitude, they must increase the collective. This
increases drag on the blades and tends to slow
• Prior to any takeoff or maneuver, make sure the them down. To counteract the drag and maintain
student ensures the area is clear of other traffic. r.p.m., they need to increase the throttle.
Increased throttle means increased torque, so they
• Head the helicopter into the wind, if possible. must add more pedal pressure to maintain the
Place the cyclic in the neutral position, with the heading. This can easily lead to overcontrolling
collective in the full down position. Increase the the helicopter. However, as their level of
throttle smoothly to obtain and maintain proper proficiency increases, problems associated with
r.p.m., then slowly raise the collective. Use overcontrolling decrease.
smooth, continuous movement, coordinating the
throttle to maintain proper r.p.m. Do not jerk the • To maintain a hover over a point, have the
collective up or hesitate too long when light on student look for minute changes in the
the skids, because this may cause ground helicopter’s attitude and altitude. When these
resonance in some helicopters. changes are noticed, they should make the
necessary control inputs before the helicopter
• As the collective is increased, the helicopter starts to move from the point. To detect small
becomes light on the skids, and torque tends to variations in altitude or position, their main area
cause the nose to swing or yaw to the right unless of visual attention needs to be some distance from
sufficient left antitorque pedal is used to maintain the aircraft, using various points on the helicopter
the heading. (On helicopters with a clockwise or the tip-path plane as a reference. Looking too
main rotor system, the yaw is to the left and right close or looking down leads to overcontrolling.
pedal must be applied.) Obviously, in order to remain over a certain point,
they should know where the point is, but their
• As the helicopter becomes light on the skids, attention should not be focused there.
make necessary cyclic pitch control adjustments
to maintain a level attitude. Unless compensated • As with a takeoff, altitude is controlled with the
for in the helicopter design, translating tendency collective and a constant r.p.m. with the throttle.
requires constant left cyclic in helicopters with Use the cyclic to maintain the helicopter’s
counterclockwise rotating main rotor blades. position and the pedals to control heading. To
Many helicopters are designed to hover in a left maintain a stabilized hover, they must make
skid-low attitude to correct for right drift. small, smooth coordinated corrections. As the
desired effect occurs, they must remove the
• When airborne, use the antitorque pedals to correction in order to stop the helicopter’s
maintain heading and the collective to ensure movement. For example, if the helicopter begins
continuous vertical assent to the normal hovering to move rearward, they need to apply a small
altitude. When hovering altitude is reached, use amount of forward cyclic pressure. However,
the throttle and collective to control altitude, and they must neutralize this pressure just before the
the cyclic to maintain a stationary hover. Use the helicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin to
antitorque pedals to maintain heading. When a move forward.
stabilized hover is achieved, check the engine
instruments and note the power required to hover. • After they gain experience, students develop a
Also note the position of the cyclic. Cyclic certain “feel” for the helicopter. They will feel

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and see small deviations, so they can make the example, the instructor can operate the pedals and
corrections before the helicopter actually moves. collective while the student experiments with the
A certain relaxed looseness develops, and reactions produced by cyclic inputs.
controlling the helicopter becomes second nature,
rather than a mechanical response. TENSION
Tension is the natural result of a student’s efforts to
• Prior to performing hovering maneuvers, you perform satisfactorily. This stage of training requires a
should review low rotor r.p.m. recovery great deal of patience on the part of the instructor and a
procedures with your student. For more informa- lot of positive reinforcement in the form of
tion, see Section FEmergency Procedures. encouragement for the student. When tension builds to
a point where the student is incapable of performing
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES with an acceptable degree of proficiency, you should
take over and allow the student to relax for a minute or
FAILURE TO PROPERLY POSITION CONTROLS so. Usually, it is best to land and talk it over to avoid
The beginning student rarely knows how to position comparing the student’s performance with yours. After
the controls so the helicopter breaks free from the a little encouragement and some constructive criticism,
ground in a level attitude with no tendency to turn. another takeoff can be performed.
Have the student check the tip-path plane of the rotor
HOVERING HEIGHT
before raising the collective, looking forward and to
Many beginning students have a tendency to hover too
each side, to see that it is level.
high or too low. Hovering too high can create a
hazardous flight condition, while hovering too low can
VISUALIZING ATTITUDE result in occasionally touching the skids to the surface.
The problems of visualizing attitude in the early stages To help alleviate this problem, continually reinforce
of training can be compounded in hovering flight by what the correct height should look like.
looking at a point too close to the helicopter. This is a
natural tendency when trying to stay over a spot. The HOVERING TURNS
student should pick a point well in front of the A hovering turn is accomplished by manipulating the
helicopter so the horizon is within normal peripheral antitorque pedals while the helicopter remains over a
vision. This makes it easier to perceive the helicopter’s designated spot at a constant altitude. The turn should
attitude while keeping the exact position in view. be made at a slow, constant rate through varying
degrees of heading.
OVERCONTROLLING
The natural tendency to overcontrol is accentuated by FOCUS POINTS
the responsiveness of the helicopter and the student’s
eagerness to get back over the takeoff spot immedi- • A hovering turn is initiated in either direction by
ately. While the ultimate objective in hovering is to stay applying antitorque pedal pressure toward the
exactly over a spot, the problem of overcontrolling can desired direction. It should be noted that during a
be alleviated by simply having the student stay within a turn to the left, the student needs to add more
general area, with the stated objective of gently power because left pedal pressure increases the
stopping any drift which develops. pitch angle of the tail rotor which, in turn,
requires additional power from the engine. A turn
to the right requires less power. (On helicopters
RPM CONTROL
with a clockwise rotating main rotor, right pedal
In the initial attempts at hovering, the student usually increases the pitch angle and, therefore, requires
does not check r.p.m. and make the necessary more power.)
corrections. On helicopters equipped with a governor
or correlator, r.p.m. control is considerably easier. • As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary
Periodically call attention to it, and point out that (usually into the wind) to keep the helicopter over
changes in engine r.p.m. can also be heard. the desired spot. To continue the turn, add more
and more pedal pressure as the helicopter turns to
COORDINATION the crosswind position. This is because the wind
It is not uncommon for a student, particularly a student is striking the tail surface and tail rotor area,
transitioning from fixed-wing aircraft, to attempt to making it more difficult for the tail to turn into
gain altitude by applying rearward cyclic pressure, or the wind. As pedal pressures increase due to
attempt to turn by using lateral cyclic. To correct this crosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressure
tendency, many instructors operate one or two of the into the wind to maintain position. Use the
controls while allowing the student to concentrate on collective with the throttle to maintain a constant
the reaction produced by the remaining control. For altitude and r.p.m.

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• After the 90° portion of the turn, pedal pressure is desired rate of turn is not known. The result is a turn
decreased slightly to maintain the same rate of that is either too slow or too fast, often varying rapidly
turn. Approaching the 180°, or downwind, between the two. The first hovering turns should be
portion, opposite pedal pressure must be practiced in calm or light winds, so a certain pedal
anticipated due to the tail moving from an upwind input results in a specific rate of turn.
position to a downwind position. At this point,
the rate of turn has a tendency to increase at a COMPENSATING FOR CROSSWIND
rapid rate due to the weathervaning tendency of Students usually fail to anticipate the effect of the wind
the tail surfaces. Because of the tailwind as the helicopter turns. The student must understand
condition, hold rearward cyclic pressure to keep that, throughout the turn, the cyclic is displaced into
the helicopter over the same spot. the wind, resulting in an apparent cyclic rotation
opposite to the direction of turn. Also, pedal input must
• Because of the helicopter’s tendency to weather- be increased as the turn approaches the crosswind
vane, maintaining the same rate of turn from the position, then decreased as the downwind position is
180° position actually requires some pedal approached. Passing the downwind position, the
pressure opposite the direction of turn. If student should anticipate an increase in the rate of turn
opposite pedal pressure is not applied, the as a result of the wind force.
helicopter tends to turn at a faster rate. The
COORDINATION
amount of pedal pressure and cyclic deflection
Before attempting hovering turns, you should explain
throughout the turn depends on the wind velocity.
and demonstrate the effects of pedal inputs. For
As the turn finishes on the upwind heading, apply
example, explain how a left pedal input causes a right
opposite pedal pressure to stop the turn.
drifting tendency, which must be compensated for by
Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keep
using left cyclic. Even more noticeable is the effect on
the helicopter from drifting.
engine r.p.m. Left pedal input causes a decrease in
r.p.m., and right pedal input causes an increase. As the
• Control pressures and direction of application
student gains an understanding of these effects, the
change continuously throughout the turn. The
tendency to overcontrol the antitorque pedals should
most dramatic change is the pedal pressure (and
diminish.
corresponding power requirement) necessary to
control the rate of turn as the helicopter moves HOVERING FORWARD
through the downwind portion of the maneuver. Forward hovering should be accomplished at hovering
altitude and at a speed no faster than a brisk walk with
• You can have your students make turns in either heading remaining constant. The forward track should
direction; however, in a high wind condition, the be defined by markings on the ground or by the
tail rotor may not be able to produce enough alignment of two reference points.
thrust, which means they will not be able to
control a turn to the right in a counterclockwise FOCUS POINTS
rotor system. Therefore, if control is ever
questionable, have them first attempt to make a • Before hovering in any direction, maintain a high
90° turn to the left. If sufficient tail rotor thrust enough skid height to allow for adequate ground
exists to turn the helicopter crosswind in a left clearance. Risk of dynamic rollover is greatest
turn, a right turn can be successfully controlled. during any hovering maneuver.
The opposite applies to helicopters with clock-
wise rotor systems. In this case, start the turn to • Apply forward cyclic to start the forward motion,
the right. Hovering turns should be avoided in then release some cyclic pressure to prevent the
winds strong enough to preclude sufficient aft helicopter from accelerating. Hold enough
cyclic control to maintain the helicopter on the forward cyclic pressure to keep forward motion
selected surface reference point when headed at a rate no faster than a brisk walk. Any speed
downwind. faster than this requires a higher skid height to
allow adequate ground clearance for the tail skid
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES when bringing the helicopter to a stop using
In addition to the difficulties already discussed under rearward cyclic.
“Takeoff To A Hover,” there are some difficulties • As the helicopter begins to move forward and lift
associated specifically with the hovering turn. is diverted, add a little power to compensate for
the loss of lift.
IMPROPER RATE OF TURN
Until the student has gained some experience in • Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant
hovering turns, the amount of pedal required for the groundspeed and path over the ground with the

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cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorque maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed and
pedals, altitude with the collective, and the proper ground track with cyclic. Maintain heading,
r.p.m. with the throttle. which in this maneuver is perpendicular to the
ground track, with the antitorque pedals, and a
• To stop the forward movement, apply rearward constant altitude with the collective. Use the
cyclic pressure until the helicopter stops. As throttle to maintain the proper operating r.p.m.
forward motion stops, return the cyclic to the
neutral position to prevent rearward movement. • To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic
Forward movement can also be stopped by pressure in the direction opposite to that of
simply applying rearward pressure to level the movement and hold it until the helicopter stops.
helicopter and letting it drift to a stop. As motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutral
position to prevent movement in the opposite
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES direction. Applying sufficient opposite cyclic
pressure to level the helicopter may also stop
ALTITUDE CONTROL sideward movement. The helicopter then drifts to
The student may not understand that an airspeed of a stop.
about five knots requires the most power to maintain
altitude as ground effect diminishes and translational COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
lift has not begun to help. As the helicopter begins to
move forward in a calm wind, it also tends to sink. The SPEED CONTROL
student may think this is caused by too much forward In sideward flight, lateral cyclic input controls speed. If
cyclic, and the resulting correction causes the the student is looking primarily to the side in an attempt
helicopter to stop. Point out that a slight amount of to maintain the track, roll attitude can be difficult to
increased collective is required as forward motion maintain. Scan must be continuous if the correct
starts. This usually alleviates the problem. attitude is to be maintained. The student must
continuously check to the side, then look in front to
SIDEWARD DRIFT check attitude. This is followed by a check of the r.p.m.,
Drift to the side of the planned ground track can be the then a look back to the side.
result of concentration on trying to maintain the
heading and altitude. If the ground track is being DRIFT
maintained by reference to a line on the ground, the Drift can also be an attitude problem. If the student
student may be looking too close to the helicopter and concentrates too much to the side, pitch attitude can
may not notice changes in the attitude. deviate from level, resulting in drift from the desired
track.
HOVERING SIDEWARD
Sideward flight begins in a hover and is performed at a HEADING
constant heading, altitude, and airspeed. As the helicopter begins to move sideward, the nose
tends to weathercock into the direction of flight. Again,
FOCUS POINTS this may not be noticed if the student is concentrating
his or her attention in the direction of flight.
• The risk of dynamic rollover is highest during
sideward hovering maneuvers. Maintain HOVERING REARWARD
adequate skid height. Rearward hovering is conducted using reference points
ahead of the helicopter to maintain track. Altitude and
• Before starting sideward flight, make sure the heading should remain constant, and groundspeed
student clears the area. This may require some should be no faster than a brisk walk.
clearing turns. Then have him or her pick two
points of reference in a line in the direction of FOCUS POINTS
sideward flight to help maintain the proper
• Before beginning the maneuver, make sure the
ground track. These reference points should be
area behind the helicopter is clear.
kept in line throughout the maneuver.
• Pick out two reference points in front of, and in
• The maneuver is begun at a normal hovering line with, the helicopter as if hovering forward.
altitude by applying cyclic toward the side in The movement of the helicopter should be such
which the movement is desired. As the movement that these points remain in line.
begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral
position to keep the groundspeed at a slow rate • Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering
(no faster than a brisk walk). Throughout the altitude by applying rearward pressure on the

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cyclic. Once the movement has begun, position FOCUS POINTS

the cyclic to maintain a slow groundspeed (no
faster than a brisk walk). Throughout the • Look outside and ahead of the helicopter.
maneuver, maintain constant groundspeed and Focusing on the ground through the chin bubble
ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading leads to overcontrolling and makes it difficult to
with the antitorque pedals, constant altitude with land on the desired spot.
the collective, and the proper r.p.m. with
the throttle. • Always keep the r.p.m. within limits. This allows
for a quick transition back to a hover if the
• When hovering backwards, the helicopter is tilted landing is not suitable. Never allow the
so the tail is low to the ground. Therefore, helicopter to settle to the ground, which might
maintain a higher-than-normal skid height. occur if you reduce the throttle below the r.p.m.
limits.
• To stop the rearward movement, apply forward
cyclic and hold it until the helicopter stops. As • To prevent an overspeed, correct technique
the motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutral requires simultaneously lowering the collective
position. Also, as in the case of forward flight and and reducing the throttle.
sideward flight, use opposite cyclic to level the
helicopter and let it drift to a stop. • Do not abruptly lower the collective once ground
contact is made. First, make sure the ground is
sufficiently stable to support the helicopter. This
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES requires a slow and deliberate lowering of the
collective. The cyclic may be moved in a small
SPEED CONTROL circular motion to determine that the helicopter is
The student may not realize that it takes a steeper pitch firmly on the ground before lowering the collec-
attitude to start the helicopter moving than it does to tive fully.
continue motion at a steady speed. If the nose is not
moved down slightly as the desired rearward speed is • Once the helicopter is firmly on the ground, the
attained, the helicopter continues to accelerate. collective should be lowered completely.

HEADING COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

The faster the helicopter travels rearward, the greater
the tendency for the nose of the helicopter to swing ATTITUDE CONTROL
around toward the direction of flight. With the tail The closer the helicopter comes to the ground, the more
directly into the relative wind, there is little tendency likely it is for the student to focus on a point almost
for it to weathervane, but if the relative wind is a little directly beneath the helicopter. Without proper attitude
bit to one side, the tail tends to continue to the technique, the student may overcontrol when the
downwind side. The resulting heading correction helicopter begins to drift, and the situation may go from
requires a fairly large pedal input, which may cause an bad to worse. The student must be taught to look well
overshoot to the other side, and the process must be out in front of the helicopter and then gently lower it
repeated with opposite pedal input. Speed must be until touchdown is felt, not seen.
reduced to regain control.
RPM CONTROL
VERTICAL LANDING FROM A HOVER During the landing, rotor r.p.m. tends to increase due to
The helicopter is stabilized in a hover directly over the the effects of the increased ground effect and decreased
landing spot, then gently lowered onto the ground. It collective pitch. After touchdown, for those helicopters
should not be drifting in any direction at the point not equipped with a governor, the throttle may need to
of touchdown. be reduced to avoid an overspeed.

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SECTION C—PRIMARY MANEUVERS

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT the cyclic and raise the collective as necessary to
It is important that the student be able to maintain a maintain altitude. To decrease airspeed, the
constant heading, altitude, and airspeed. Explain and student needs to apply rearward pressure on the
demonstrate that straight-and-level flight is actually a cyclic and lower the collective as necessary to
series of small corrections needed to maintain the orig- maintain altitude.
inal attitude and heading following natural deviations
caused by inadvertent control inputs or turbulence. The • Once the correct attitude is found for level flight,
attitude required to maintain straight-and-level flight altitude and airspeed remain constant with a
should be clearly defined using all available visual constant power setting. Small adjustments may
aids. One aid is the distance between the horizon and need to be made to compensate for turbulence,
the tip-path plane of the rotor system. but make sure the student does this with outside
references and not by focusing on the
instruments. Also, heading is easier to maintain if
Roll attitude can be determined by using the tip-path the student is looking outside at some point in
plane or a canopy crossbar and its relation to the line with the intended flight path.
natural horizon. Prominent objects on the ground
should be used for heading reference. This also helps in • Looking outside fulfills another very important
forcing the student to look outside instead of taskscanning for other traffic and obstructions.
concentrating too much on the instruments. While the
student is gaining proficiency in straight-and-level • To prevent overcontrolling, teach control
flight, power is usually not adjusted once it is set in pressures and not movements. This is especially
order to maintain the desired cruise r.p.m. true in the first few lessons when the student is
really concentrating on control input and how the
FOCUS POINTS helicopter reacts.

• It is important that the student learns to recognize COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

the correct attitude for various flight maneuvers.
The attitude of the helicopter determines the VISUALIZING ATTITUDE
airspeed and is controlled by the cyclic. Altitude The forward seating position and the excellent
is primarily controlled by use of the collective. visibility in most helicopters may make it difficult for a
To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path student to visualize the attitude of the helicopter. It is
plane must be tilted forward to obtain the important that you provide all the assistance possible to
necessary horizontal thrust component from the ensure the student can determine an attitude by some
main rotor. This generally results in a nose-low visual reference. Each instructor may develop different
attitude. The lower the nose, the greater the methods of teaching attitude references.
power required to maintain altitude, and the
higher the resulting airspeed. Conversely, the OVERCONTROLLING
greater the power used, the lower the nose must Overcontrolling the helicopter is the most common
be to maintain altitude. difficulty for the beginning student due to two factors.
First, the student fails to notice the attitude deviation
• Teach the students that when in straight-and-level until it has become rather large; and second, in the
flight, any increase in the collective, while attempt to recover to the level attitude, too much
holding airspeed constant, causes the helicopter control is applied because the student is not prepared
to climb. A decrease in the collective, while for the helicopter’s quick response to control inputs.
holding airspeed constant, causes the helicopter Generally, the beginning student does not know when
to descend. A change in the collective requires a to remove control input and usually holds it until after
coordinated change of the throttle to maintain a the required attitude is passed. This results in an
constant r.p.m. Additionally, the antitorque overshoot, followed by another large control
pedals need to be adjusted to maintain heading application, another overshoot, and so on. Explain that
and to keep the helicopter in longitudinal trim. controls are operated by pressure rather than
Note, in this guide, all throttle discussions refer movement, and that it is not necessary to return
to helicopters without a governor or corollator. immediately to the level attitude. As soon as the
student understands these two items and loses the sense
• To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, of urgency, overcontrolling diminishes. It is also
instruct the student to apply forward pressure on helpful to remind the student that when a deviation

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from the desired attitude is noticed, the proper TURNS

technique is to first stop the deviation, then make a Turns are practiced to develop skill in establishing and
smooth correction to return to the original attitude. maintaining a desired angle of bank, while holding the
pitch attitude that is appropriate to the desired
TRIM maneuver. Level turns are practiced first, using bank
For helicopters with electric trim for reducing control angles of approximately 15 to 20 degrees.
pressures, it is imperative to have the helicopter
properly trimmed before the student takes control, FOCUS POINTS
otherwise the term “control pressure” is meaningless.
When the helicopter is out of trim, some control • Before making any turns, make sure the student
pressure must be held just to maintain the desired clears the area in the direction of the turn, as well
attitude, and any instruction to relax control pressure as above and below the helicopter.
can only lead to confusion.
• To enter a turn from straight-and-level flight,
apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in the
COORDINATION direction the turn is to be made. This is the only
Most beginning students have difficulty relating the control movement needed to start the turn.
effect one control has on another. The most obvious of Antitorque pedals are not used to assist the turn.
these is the change in torque as power is changed, Use the pedals only to compensate for torque to
requiring the use of antitorque pedal pressure as power keep the helicopter in longitudinal trim.
is varied. Less obvious is the effect of a power change
on pitch attitude in forward flight due to gyroscopic • How fast the helicopter banks depends on how
precession and differential lift on the advancing and much lateral cyclic pressure is applied. How far
retreating blades. As power is increased with the the helicopter banks (the steepness of the bank)
collective, the nose tends to pitch up; as power is depends on how long the cyclic is displaced.
decreased, the nose pitches down. As speed is After establishing the proper bank angle, return
increased, the nose of the helicopter tends to rise and the cyclic toward the neutral position.
begin a roll toward the retreating blade. These effects
can be most disconcerting to the student unless the • Use the collective and throttle to maintain
instructor thoroughly explains and demonstrates them. altitude and r.p.m. As the torque increases, apply
more pressure to the proper antitorque pedal to
SCAN maintain longitudinal trim. Depending on the
To correct a deviation, it must first be recognized. Most degree of bank, additional forward cyclic
beginning students tend to devote all of their attention pressure may be required to maintain airspeed.
to a specific problem. For example, full attention may
be devoted to an altitude problem while the helicopter • Keep scanning the area for traffic and other
drifts off heading or the airspeed changes. Students obstructions in the direction of turn.
may also fail to see other aircraft or obstacles in the
vicinity if their attention is fixed on a single item. Some • Use outside references when rolling out of a turn.
instructors find it helpful to call out or point to the To prevent an overshoot, start the rollout before
items that should be included in the scan pattern. This reaching the desired heading.
helps the student build a good habitual scan. It is
important that the student be taught to include the COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
engine instruments in the scan, so an impending engine
ATTITUDE
problem does not go undetected.
Visualization of the bank angle is one of the most
common problems for students. The angle between the
KINESTHESIA tip-path plane and the horizon, or any other reference
The sense of motion and pressure changes through on the helicopter, may be used as aids. As the bank
nerve endings and muscular sensations is scientifically angle is established and the perspective changes, there
named “kinesthesia,” but is commonly called “seat-of- is a tendency to use the center of the canopy as the pitch
the-pants flying.” This sense can be developed more reference. It must be emphasized that the correct pitch
rapidly if you call attention to the sensations as they reference is directly in front of the student. The pitch
occur. Development of this sense enables a student to reference point should remain stationary as the
become aware of changes in the helicopter’s attitude helicopter is rolled into the bank, with the helicopter
more quickly. Additionally, the sound of the engine, appearing to pivot around the pitch reference. The
rotor, and transmission give valuable clues as to correct pitch attitude is confirmed by reference to the
changes in r.p.m. altimeter in a level turn. If the student attempts to

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maintain altitude solely by reference to the altimeter, increase the left antitorque pedal pressure to
overcontrolling usually results and the student begins compensate for the increased torque. As the
“chasing” the altitude. airspeed approaches normal-climb airspeed,
adjust the cyclic to hold this airspeed. Throughout
LEANING AWAY FROM THE TURN the maneuver, maintain climb attitude, heading,
There is a natural tendency to keep the body, or at least and airspeed with the cyclic; climb power and
the head, level. If the student is allowed to lean away r.p.m. with the collective and throttle; and longi-
from the turn, perspective changes, making it even tudinal trim with the antitorque pedals.
more difficult to maintain the correct attitude.
• To level off from a climb, start adjusting the
FAILURE TO CLEAR THE AREA attitude to the level flight attitude a few feet prior
The student is frequently so occupied with problems to reaching the desired altitude. The amount of
associated with maintaining altitude, airspeed, bank lead depends on the rate of climb at the time of
angle, etc., that the responsibility of seeing and leveloff (the higher the rate of climb, the more the
avoiding other aircraft is neglected. Clearing the area lead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the
in the direction of the turn must be included in the items climb rate. For example, if the climb rate is 500
you call out while talking the student through the feet per minute, lead the leveloff by 50 feet.
maneuver.
• To begin the leveloff, apply forward cyclic to
adjust and maintain a level flight attitude, which
ROLLING OUT OF THE TURN
is slightly nose low. Maintain climb power until
Difficulties associated with rolling out of a turn are the airspeed approaches the desired cruising
usually related to scan problems. The student who is airspeed, then lower the collective to obtain
preoccupied with other factors often loses track of cruising power and adjust the throttle to obtain
heading. Select a prominent landmark and instruct the and maintain cruising r.p.m. Throughout the
student to anticipate the roll-out by an amount equal to leveloff, maintain longitudinal trim and heading
about half the bank angle. with the antitorque pedals.

CLIMBS • Always clear the area above and below before

The objectives in practicing climbs are to achieve initiating a climb.
proficiency in establishing a climb attitude and
airspeed, setting climb power while maintaining a COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
specified r.p.m., and coordinating the use of flight
controls. Proficiency is also gained by understanding ATTITUDE
the techniques used in leveling off at a designated As in straight-and-level flight, students frequently have
altitude and establishing level cruise flight. difficulty visualizing and establishing the proper
attitude for the climb. Use whatever references are
FOCUS POINTS available in the helicopter such as tip-path
plane, canopy crossbars, or any other structural
In both climbs and descents, focus on: reference point.

1. Transitioning from one pitch attitude to another. OVERCONTROLLING

The difficulty in establishing the correct climb attitude
2. Coordinating the controls as a result of a power may be the result of overcontrolling. Since establishing
change. the correct airspeed is usually accomplished by a series
of pitch attitude adjustments, students may not hold the
• The correct climb attitude is one that maintains a attitude long enough for the airspeed to stabilize. This
specific airspeed, so reference is made to the air- leads to excessive maneuvering while chasing the
speed indicator. Changing the power requires all airspeed. At this point, frustration and tension begins to
the controls to be changed, but the coordination build. When it becomes apparent the student is getting
to do this takes time for the student to learn. frustrated, you may want to have your student return to
straight-and-level flight, or you may take over for a
• To enter a climb from cruising flight, apply aft brief demonstration while the student relaxes.
cyclic to obtain the approximate climb attitude.
Simultaneously increase the collective and COORDINATION
throttle to obtain climb power and to maintain In the process of beginning a climb, all controls are
r.p.m. In a counterclockwise rotor system, utilized. Each control input causes something else to

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change, and the beginning student may have difficulty desired r.p.m., and increase left antitorque pedal
not only in accomplishing the actions in the proper pressure to maintain heading (right pedal
sequence, but also in compensating for control inputs. pressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust the
During the leveloff, some students have a tendency to cyclic to obtain cruising airspeed and a level
decrease power before lowering the nose to cruising flight attitude as the desired altitude is reached.
attitude. Talk the student through the maneuver to
remove any doubt about what is to be accomplished, as • Always clear the area above and below before
well as how and when it is done. initiating a descent.

COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

SCAN
The scan pattern mentioned in straight-and-level flight
becomes more important when the flight condition is ATTITUDE
constantly changing. Several things are happening at Again, visualization of pitch attitude may be difficult
once, and the task becomes more difficult unless the for the student in the initial stages, so make use of any
student has rehearsed the actions and reactions. available reference points on the helicopter. Also, the
student may not realize pitch attitude is the primary
control of airspeed in the descent and may not refer to
DESCENTS airspeed to confirm the correct attitude.
The objectives in practicing descents are to gain
proficiency in establishing the pitch attitude necessary COORDINATION
to maintain the desired airspeed, setting power as The student may have difficulty adjusting throttle and
required to maintain the desired rate of descent while antitorque pedals while simultaneously adjusting the
maintaining a constant rotor r.p.m., and correcting for collective to set descent power. Emphasize that power
changing torque. Generally, descents should be is to be changed slowly and smoothly to minimize
practiced initially at the airspeed and rate of descent coordination problems.
normally used on the approach to landing. Cruise
descents can be covered later when you get into
cross-country training. SCAN
It is common for a student to concentrate on one factor
to the exclusion of others. Two areas students have
FOCUS POINTS difficulty with are maintaining a constant angle of
descent during training and leading the leveloff
• To establish a normal descent from straight-and- sufficiently. This difficulty often results in recovery
level flight at cruising airspeed, lower the below the desired altitude.
collective to obtain proper power, adjust the
throttle to maintain r.p.m., and increase right
antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading in CLIMBING AND DESCENDING TURNS
a counterclockwise rotor system, or left pedal Climbing and descending turns are practiced to further
pressure in a clockwise system. If cruising develop control and coordination. They also provide
airspeed is the same as, or slightly above, the practice required for departures and landing
descending airspeed, simultaneously apply approaches.
the necessary cyclic pressure to obtain the
approximate descending attitude. If cruising FOCUS POINTS
speed is well above descending airspeed,
maintain a level flight attitude until the airspeed • Before making any turns, clear the area in the
approaches the descending airspeed, then lower direction of the turn, as well as above and below
the nose to the descending attitude. Throughout the helicopter.
the maneuver, maintain descending attitude and
airspeed with the cyclic, descending power and • The turn and climb or descent are usually
r.p.m. with the collective and throttle, and initiated simultaneously, however, it may be
heading with the antitorque pedals. easier to establish each maneuver separately at
first until the student gains proficiency. For
• To level off from the descent, lead the descent example, to enter a climbing turn, first establish
altitude by approximately 10 percent of the rate the bank for the turn, then enter a climb. To
of descent. For example, a 500 feet per minute establish a descending turn, first establish a
rate of descent would require a 50 foot lead. At descent, then enter the turn. It is not important
this point, increase the collective to obtain which maneuver is done first, and with practice,
cruising power, adjust the throttle to maintain the they become simultaneous.

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COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES good exercise to teach compensation for power

changes is to make airspeed changes while maintaining
ATTITUDE straight-and-level flight. At a safe altitude, and while
Combining turns with climbs and descents introduces maintaining a constant r.p.m., altitude, and heading,
new attitudes, and the initial perception of these have the student reduce airspeed to 40 knots by
attitudes may be difficult for the student to simultaneously applying aft cyclic and reducing
comprehend. A thorough briefing and demonstration power. Now, instruct the student to accelerate to
minimizes this problem. The first climbing and approximately 80 knots by increasing forward cyclic
descending turns should be established by beginning and power. The maneuver may be repeated, as
the climb or descent, and then rolling into the bank to necessary, for proficiency.
reduce the number of simultaneous control movements
required. As proficiency is gained, the student may be
required to assume the new attitude by simultaneously Another exercise that develops smoothness and coordina-
adjusting power, pitch, and bank. tion is rolling from a medium bank to the left into a
medium bank to the right, then back to the left and
continuing the series while maintaining a constant base
SCAN heading and altitude. Each of these exercises helps develop
As with the previous maneuvers, the scan pattern is smoothness, coordination, and an active scan pattern.
easily interrupted by concentrating on a specific aspect
of the maneuver. During early practice of climbing and
descending turns, you should call out all items If a student is having trouble coordinating r.p.m. and
requiring attention, even though no correction is manifold pressure, an exercise in throttle/collective
required. As proficiency improves, it should be coordination can be used. For instance, have the
necessary to call attention only to the items that require student maintain a constant attitude while disregarding
corrective action. altitude. Now, instruct the student to change the
manifold pressure with the collective while holding a
constant r.p.m. with the throttle. Then, reverse the
COORDINATION EXERCISES procedure by having the student change the r.p.m. with
Once level flight, turns, climbs, and descents have been the throttle while maintaining a constant manifold
introduced, coordination exercises should be practiced pressure with the collective. This exercise allows the
to assist the student in developing subconscious student to concentrate on throttle/collective coordina-
coordinated control and proficiency. For example, a tion without devoting attention to other factors.

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SECTION D—HELIPORT AND AIRPORT OPERATIONS

COLLISION AVOIDANCE • Pay attention to any wind indicators, such as

From the first flight, you must make the student aware wind socks, flags, and smoke.
that it is every pilot’s responsibility to see and avoid
other aircraft. Explain the blind areas in the helicopter • Typically, traffic patterns in a helicopter are
you are flying, as well as those in other aircraft. flown lower and closer than those flown by fixed-
Develop in your students a habit of checking for other wing aircraft. The typical traffic pattern altitude
aircraft during their regular scan pattern. All radio and is 500 feet to 800 feet for helicopters, while for
radar aids should be used to the fullest extent possible, most fixed-wing aircraft it is 800 feet to 1,500
but with the realization that they are only aids, and feet.
vigilance should not be relaxed. Radar traffic
advisories are very helpful, but there is evidence that • For training purposes, a rectangular course
indicates some pilots become complacent when in the should be flown to teach wind drift correction.
radar environment and relax their vigil. Also, no turn
should ever be made without first looking in the COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
direction of the turn to see that the airspace is clear of
other traffic. In the vicinity of an airport, all possible DRIFT CORRECTION
aids should be used, and looking for other aircraft Your student might fail to notice the effect of wind,
should occupy more of the student’s scanning time. especially on the downwind and base legs, resulting in
Landing and anticollision lights should be turned on to a distorted pattern. If this problem persists, it may be
make the helicopter more visible, especially in the necessary to review and practice some ground
vicinity of an airport. reference and tracking maneuvers.

RUNWAY INCURSIONS SPACING FROM OTHER AIRCRAFT

Stress upon your students that even though helicopters It is difficult for beginning students to estimate
do not regularly use runways for takeoffs and landings, distances from other aircraft, to estimate the space
runway incursions need to be understood and required to avoid interference, and to decide whether
discussed. Your students need to listen carefully to any their own aircraft and another are on a collision course.
clearances and instructions from ATC and Point out that with converging aircraft, if the other
acknowledge them in full. They should also be aware aircraft’s relative position is not changing, then both
of their position and the position of other aircraft aircraft are on a collision course. In this case, the
and obstructions. quickest way to change relative position is to turn
toward the other aircraft’s tail. When two aircraft are
During flight training, instructors often use runways to approaching head on, then each pilot should alter their
practice maneuvers and procedures. Extra vigilance course to the right.
must be exercised under these circumstances as the
instructor and student may become so focused on their ALTITUDE AND AIRSPEED
particular maneuver or procedure that they become This problem is usually caused by a failure to scan.
inattentive to the surroundings. Concentrating on the intended landing spot, or on
another aircraft, can lead to small attitude changes,
TRAFFIC PATTERNS which cause deviations from the desired altitude or
The student must be able to describe the traffic patterns airspeed.
used by both helicopters and fixed-wing airplanes,
naming the legs and specifying pattern altitudes. The NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF
student must also demonstrate the ability to fly traffic FROM A HOVER
patterns at uncontrolled fields while avoiding the flow A normal takeoff from a hover is the transition from
of fixed-wing traffic and complying with tower hovering flight into a climb over a specified ground
instructions at controlled airports. track. During the climb, airspeed and altitude should be
such that the crosshatched or shaded areas of the
FOCUS POINTS height/velocity diagram are avoided.

• Learn the correct procedures for fixed-wing FOCUS POINTS

aircraft at controlled and uncontrolled airports.
This provides an understanding of where to • Bring the helicopter to a hover and make a
expect fixed-wing aircraft and how to avoid them performance check, which includes power,
in the traffic pattern. balance, and flight controls. The power check
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should include an evaluation of the amount of After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, crab
excess power available. The balance condition of the helicopter into the wind as necessary to maintain
the helicopter is indicated by the position of the coordinated flight over the desired ground track. The
cyclic when maintaining a stationary hover. Wind stronger the crosswind, the more the helicopter has to
will necessitate some cyclic deflection, but there be turned into the wind.
should not be an extreme deviation from neutral.
Flight controls must move freely, and the
helicopter should respond normally. COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

• Visually clear the area all around. ATTITUDE CONTROL

As in most other maneuvers, smooth, positive attitude
• Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and control is the key to success in the takeoff. If the
slowly easing the cyclic forward. As the student is properly briefed and understands the
helicopter starts to move forward, increase the changing forces during the takeoff, it is possible to
collective as necessary to prevent the helicopter anticipate and correct deviations promptly.
from sinking and adjust the throttle to maintain
r.p.m. The increase in power requires an increase
At about five knots, ground effect diminishes and the
in the proper antitorque pedal to maintain head-
helicopter begins to sink. Depending on available
ing.
power and instructor technique, power should be added
to prevent this sink. Any power change requires an
• Maintain a straight takeoff path throughout the
antitorque pedal adjustment, which in turn requires a
takeoff.
cyclic adjustment to accommodate the increased
translating tendency. If the student does not make these
• As the helicopter accelerates through effective
adjustments, the ground track will not be straight.
translational lift, it begins to climb and the nose
Shortly after forward movement is initiated,
tends to rise due to increased lift. At this point,
translational lift is encountered and the nose pitches up.
adjust the collective to obtain normal climb
This requires forward cyclic to keep the helicopter
power and apply enough forward cyclic to
accelerating.
overcome the tendency of the nose to rise.

• Hold an attitude that allows a smooth accelera- HEADING CONTROL

tion toward climbing airspeed and a commensu- Pedal control requirements also change during the
rate gain in altitude so the takeoff profile does not transition into a climb. From the hover, if additional
take the helicopter through any of the cross- power is added in helicopters with counterclockwise
hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity main rotor blade rotation, the left pedal requirement
diagram. increases. As speed increases, directional stability
increases, so the need for left pedal decreases.
• As airspeed increases, the streamlining of the
fuselage reduces engine torque effect, requiring a CROSSWIND CORRECTIONS
gradual reduction of antitorque pedal pressure. If the takeoff is made in a crosswind condition, the
As the helicopter continues to climb and student may not be aware of the corrections required
accelerate to best rate of climb, apply aft cyclic during the climb unless he or she is briefed in advance.
pressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normal In the hover and during the initial portion of the climb,
climb attitude. cyclic must be applied toward the wind, and downwind
pedal applied to keep the helicopter heading straight
CROSSWIND CONSIDERATIONS DURING TAKEOFFS
along the ground track. As speed and altitude are
If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the
gained, the cyclic is used to establish a crab. Failure to
helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of
correct for the crosswind results in a downwind drift
the maneuver. In this case, the cyclic is held into the
from the specified ground track.
wind a sufficient amount to maintain the desired
ground track for the takeoff. The heading is maintained
with the use of the antitorque pedals. In other words, TRAFFIC
the rotor is tilted into the wind so the sideward The student may concentrate so completely on
movement of the helicopter is just enough to achieving the stated objectives that conflicting traffic
counteract the crosswind effect. To prevent the nose goes unnoticed. Instructing students to look well ahead
from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is of the helicopter and to scan for traffic not only helps
necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on their awareness of other traffic, but also helps improve
the side opposite the rotor tilt. attitude control.

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NORMAL AND CROSSWIND COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

APPROACHES TO A HOVER
An approach is defined as the transition from traffic GROUND TRACK
pattern altitude to either a hover or to the surface. In There can be no basis upon which to build unless the
day-to-day operations, approaches in a helicopter may approach path is consistent. Therefore, the student must
be dictated more by existing conditions than by formal start the pattern from the same indicated airspeed,
patterns. For training, however, a formal pattern is used altitude, and distance from the landing spot. Thereafter,
to give the student a basis upon which to build the the student should be encouraged to maintain the
modified patterns a particular situation may require. correct pattern so each approach does not present a new
Downwind, base, and final approach legs should be set of circumstances. During initial training, wind
flown in accordance with the patterns you outline. A conditions should remain constant so a consistent
normal approach uses a descent profile of between 8° pattern can be made. As experience is gained, the
and 12° starting at approximately 300 feet above student should be briefed on the pattern changes
ground level (AGL). required for different wind conditions.

FOCUS POINTS ALTITUDE

The same comments concerning ground track are
• For the beginning student, each approach should
applicable to altitudes on downwind, base, and the turn
be started at approximately the same position and
to final approach. Changing altitude requires
at the same airspeed and altitude. This allows a
modifications in some other parameter, resulting in a
consistent basis for the student and instructor to
different approach pattern. Therefore, turns to each leg
evaluate each approach. To accomplish this, con-
of the approach should be made from the same spot and
centrate on each leg of the traffic pattern so the
at the same altitude during a single training period.
helicopter arrives at the point where the approach
is started at the correct position, speed,
and altitude. AIRSPEED
Airspeed control is important if the student is to
• After intercepting an approach angle of 8° to 12°, establish and maintain a consistent approach. Thus, it
begin the approach by sufficiently lowering the is important for the student to be aware of, and adhere
collective to get the helicopter descending down to, recommended approach airspeeds.
the approach angle. With the decrease in the
collective, the nose tends to pitch down, APPROACH ANGLE
requiring aft cyclic to maintain the recommended The student must understand the reason for utilizing a
approach airspeed attitude. Adjust antitorque standard approach path. It is to establish the final
pedal as necessary to maintain longitudinal trim. approach leg at a distance and altitude that requires the
same angle to the landing spot on each approach. In this
• Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent manner, the student learns to visualize the correct
groundspeed and rate of closure appear to be approach angle, making it easier to learn the techniques
increasing. At this point, slowly begin for making corrections.
decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly
lower the collective to maintain approach angle.
Use the cyclic to maintain a rate of closure TRAFFIC
equivalent to a brisk walk. With all the other factors requiring the student’s
attention, it is very easy to relax vigilance for other
• At approximately 25 to 40 feet AGL, depending aircraft. Before turning to base leg, the student should
on wind, the helicopter begins to lose effective be required to check for approaching traffic and state
translational lift. To compensate for this loss, whether the pattern is clear of conflicting traffic. Then
increase the collective to maintain the approach on final approach, the area should be checked in all
angle, while maintaining the proper r.p.m. The directions to make sure there are no other aircraft on, or
increase of collective pitch tends to make the about to turn onto, the final approach leg.
nose rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain the
proper rate of closure. POWER ADJUSTMENTS
During the approach, the power setting is usually quite
• As the helicopter approaches the recommended low. In a hover, it is quite high. Most beginning
hover altitude, increase the collective sufficiently students wait until they are very close to the ground
to maintain the hover. At the same time, apply aft before adding power. This can easily lead to
cyclic to stop any forward movement, while overcontrolling. This is usually done while
controlling the heading with antitorque pedals. transitioning through translational lift.

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When power is added, the attitude must be changed to that the helicopter is climbing. This results in a
continue moving forward and down to the intended loss of airspeed if no forward cyclic is added.
landing spot. While paying attention to airspeed and If allowed to continue, the helicopter may
the height/velocity diagram, it may be necessary to begin to settle.
slow the helicopter more than usual in the beginning
phases of training so the student understands, and is • When the decision to initiate a go-around is
comfortable with, the transition from the approach to made, carry it out without hesitation.
the hover.
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
GO-AROUND
Before solo, your student must be taught the INITIATING THE GO-AROUND
procedures and techniques used in a go-around. Even experienced pilots may be hesitant to initiate a
Encourage the student to use the go-around procedure go-around, either from failure to recognize the need for
as a safety precaution at any time he or she is uncom- one or as a matter of pride. Teach the student to
fortable with continuing the approach. recognize the need for a go-around early in the
approach instead of waiting until the last moment. The
FOCUS POINTS safety of the aircraft and its occupants is the first
consideration, and a go-around should be executed at
the first indication of an unsatisfactory approach or any
• A go-around is initiated by adding power to the unsafe conditions on the intended landing point.
climb power setting and accelerating to climb
speed. When power is added, two common errors COORDINATION
may occur: Many things must be accomplished simultaneously as
a go-around is initiated. Collective is increased, r.p.m.
1. With the initial power change, the rate of is adjusted as necessary, antitorque pedal corrections
descent may stop, and the student might not are made, and the attitude is adjusted to first accelerate
continue adding power to the climb to climb speed and then to maintain it. In the process,
power setting. your student might overlook one or more of the
required adjustments. It may help to practice the first
2. When power is added, the nose of the few go-arounds at higher altitudes so the proximity to
helicopter begins to rise, giving the impression the ground is not a distracting factor.

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SECTION E—ADVANCED FLIGHT MANEUVERS

Advanced maneuvers are practiced to increase the knot attitude. This is approximately the same
student’s proficiency and confidence and to introduce attitude as when the helicopter is light on the
the full capability of the helicopter in everyday flight skids. Continue to slowly increase the collective
operations. Advanced maneuvers include high-altitude until reaching the maximum power available.
operations, slope landings, confined area operations, This large collective movement requires a sub-
and pinnacle landings. Practicing rapid decelerations, stantial increase in the proper antitorque pedal
or quick stops, also enhances coordination and pressure to maintain heading.
pilot confidence.
• During the maneuver, use the cyclic, as neces-
MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE TAKEOFF sary, to control movement toward the desired
The maximum performance takeoff is practiced to flight path and, therefore, climb angle.
simulate a takeoff from a confined area with a climb
over an obstacle. Normally, it is begun from the ground
with the collective raised to obtain maximum power • Maintain rotor r.p.m. at its maximum, and do not
while the pitch attitude is adjusted to establish a steep allow it to decrease because the collective would
angle of climb to clear the obstacle. At an altitude of have to be lowered to regain it. Maintain these
about 50 feet, the nose is lowered gently to accelerate inputs until the helicopter clears the obstacle or
to normal climb speed. Some penetration of the until reaching 50 feet for demonstration purposes.
crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity Then, establish a normal climb attitude and
diagram may be unavoidable during this maneuver. reduce power.
However, the student must be aware that the shallowest
climb angle possible, under the circumstances, should • Smooth, coordinated inputs coupled with precise
be used, both to improve climb performance and to control allow the helicopter to attain its maxi-
minimize the time in the restricted area of the mum performance.
height/velocity diagram.
• A maximum performance takeoff in most light
FOCUS POINTS helicopters requires operation within the cross-
hatched or shaded area of the height/velocity
• Before attempting a maximum performance curve. An engine failure while operating within
takeoff, bring the helicopter to a hover and the shaded area may not allow enough time for
determine the excess power available by noting the critical transition from powered flight to
the difference between the power available and autorotation. Check engine condition by monitor-
the power required to hover. Under certain ing the engine instruments and apply maximum
conditions, there may not be sufficient power power smoothly and slowly in order to prevent
available to complete the maneuver. Also perform exceeding the engine limitations.
a balance and flight control check and note the
position of the cyclic. COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
• Position the helicopter into the wind and return COORDINATION
the helicopter to the surface. Normally, this Power, pitch attitude, and directional control are all
maneuver is initiated from the surface. essential when performing a smooth transition from the
surface to a maximum performance climb. The student
• After checking the area for obstacles and other must set power smoothly, yet promptly, to the maxi-
aircraft, select reference points along the takeoff mum allowable manifold pressure while maintaining
path to maintain ground track. Consider alternate maximum r.p.m. Proper pitch attitude must be estab-
routes in case the maneuver cannot be completed. lished to ensure the helicopter accelerates to the desired
climb speed as it gains altitude. Your student should
• Begin the takeoff by getting the helicopter light avoid abrupt or uncoordinated control application.
on the skids.
AIRSPEED
• Pause and neutralize all aircraft movement. Some students try to take off and climb vertically. If the
helicopter does not have sufficient power, this may
• Slowly increase the collective and position the result in a low r.p.m. condition followed by sinking and
cyclic so the helicopter breaks ground in a 40 possibly a hard landing. The other extreme is

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accelerating to an airspeed higher than necessary, maneuvers, after climbing to an altitude of 50

resulting in a takeoff profile that is not steep enough. feet, establish the normal climb power setting
and attitude.
RUNNING TAKEOFF
A running takeoff is practiced to simulate conditions COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
that could exist as a result of high density altitude
RPM
and/or a high gross weight. The student must be aware
of the performance characteristics of the helicopter and It takes some self-discipline to keep from raising the
the techniques to be used if sufficient power is not collective when the helicopter is about to become
available to permit hovering in ground effect. Simulate airborne. Emphasize that increasing collective above
the condition by first determining the manifold the maximum available manifold pressure can only
pressure required to hover at about a three-foot skid result in a loss of r.p.m., producing a loss of lift, rather
height. Then, using one or two inches of manifold than an increase. This can be demonstrated in a hover
pressure less than is needed for a hover, accelerate the by raising the collective while reducing throttle to
helicopter along the ground until translational lift maintain manifold pressure.
permits a takeoff.
ATTITUDE CONTROL
It takes more forward cyclic control to accelerate the
FOCUS POINTS helicopter on the ground, against the resistance of the
skids, than it does to maintain the slightly nose-down
• It may be better to practice running takeoffs from attitude required for acceleration in the air. As effective
a hard surface runway instead of a grassy field. translational lift is gained, the tendency may be to hold
There is less probability of catching a skid, which the attitude and climb too rapidly. However, lowering
could lead to dynamic rollover. In addition, check the nose too much after becoming airborne may result
the condition of the skid shoes before and after in the helicopter settling back to the surface. Once
practicing running takeoffs and landings. airborne, the helicopter should be held in ground effect
until climb speed is reached.
• To begin the maneuver, align the helicopter to the
WIND
takeoff path. Next, increase the throttle to obtain
The student must understand that the greater the
takeoff r.p.m., and smoothly increase the
headwind component, the easier it is to get the
collective until the helicopter becomes light on
helicopter off the ground when power is limited. All
the skids or landing gear.
available means should be exercised to accurately
determine wind direction before attempting the takeoff.
• Move the cyclic slightly forward of the neutral In a crosswind, cyclic must be applied into the wind to
hovering position, and apply additional collective keep the ground track parallel. Maintain this attitude
to start the forward movement. To simulate a even after breaking the ground. Only after climb speed
reduced power condition during practice, use one is reached and the climb has begun, should the
to two inches less manifold pressure than helicopter be crabbed into the wind.
required to hover. Do not apply any forward
cyclic to start the forward motion until simulated RAPID DECELERATION OR QUICK
maximum power has been applied. Applying STOP
forward cyclic before maximum available power The objective of a rapid deceleration is to lose airspeed
is attained may cause the helicopter to dig into rapidly while maintaining a constant altitude and
the ground, requiring even more power to heading. Quick stops are practiced to improve
break free. coordination and to increase proficiency in maneuver-
ing the helicopter.
• Maintain a straight ground track with lateral
cyclic and heading with antitorque pedals until a FOCUS POINTS
climb is established. As effective translational lift
is gained, the helicopter becomes airborne in a • During training, always perform this maneuver
fairly level attitude with little or no pitching. into the wind.

• Maintain an altitude to take advantage of ground • After leveling off at an altitude between 25 and
effect, and allow the airspeed to increase toward 40 feet, depending on the manufacturer’s
normal climb speed. Then, follow a climb profile recommendations, accelerate to the desired entry
that takes the helicopter through the clear area of speed, which is approximately 45 knots for most
the height/velocity diagram. During practice training helicopters. The altitude chosen should

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be high enough to avoid danger to the tail rotor STEEP APPROACHES

during the flare, but low enough to stay out of the Steep approaches are practiced to simulate an approach
crosshatched or shaded areas of the over an obstacle and a landing in a confined area. The
height/velocity diagram throughout the descent begins on the final leg after a normal approach
maneuver. In addition, this altitude should be low to a safe altitude above the obstacle, and is conducted
enough that the helicopter can be brought to a along an approach path of about 15°. It could either
hover during the recovery. terminate in a stabilized hover above a designated spot
or a landing.
• Initiate the deceleration by applying aft cyclic to
reduce forward speed, and simultaneously FOCUS POINTS
lowering the collective, as necessary, to
counteract any climbing tendency. The timing • On final approach, head the helicopter into the
must be exact. If too little down collective is wind and align it with the intended touchdown
applied for the amount of aft cyclic applied, a point at the recommended approach airspeed.
climb results. If too much down collective, a
descent results. A rapid application of aft cyclic • After intercepting an approach angle of
requires an equally rapid application of down approximately 15°, begin the approach by
collective. As collective pitch is lowered, apply lowering the collective sufficiently to start the
proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain helicopter descending down the approach path
heading, and adjust the throttle to maintain r.p.m. and decelerating. Use the proper antitorque pedal
for trim. Since this angle is steeper than a normal
• After attaining the desired speed, initiate the approach angle, reduce the collective more than
recovery by lowering the nose and allowing the that required for a normal approach.
helicopter to descend to a normal hovering
altitude in level flight and zero groundspeed. • Continue to decelerate with slight aft cyclic, and
smoothly lower the collective to maintain the
• During the recovery, increase collective pitch as approach angle. As in a normal approach,
necessary to stop the helicopter at normal reference the touchdown point on the windshield
hovering altitude, adjust the throttle to maintain to determine changes in approach angle. This
r.p.m., and apply proper antitorque pedal pressure point is in a lower position than a normal
to maintain heading. approach. Aft cyclic is required to decelerate
sooner than a normal approach, and the rate of
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES closure becomes apparent at a higher altitude.

• Maintain the approach angle and rate of descent

COORDINATION with the collective, rate of closure with the cyclic,
Because the quick stop demands a high degree of and trim with antitorque pedals. Use a crab above
coordination, your student may encounter difficulties 50 feet and a slip below 50 feet for any crosswind
during initial attempts. All flight controls are used: the that might be present.
cyclic to establish the pitch attitude for the desired rate
of deceleration, collective to control altitude, throttle to • Loss of effective translational lift occurs higher
maintain r.p.m., and antitorque pedals to control in a steep approach, requiring an increase in the
heading. Initial quick stops should be practiced with a collective to prevent settling, and more forward
gentle deceleration rate to reduce the amount of control cyclic to achieve the proper rate of closure.
required. As the student gains proficiency, steepness of
the initial flare can be increased until full down • For training, terminate the approach at hovering
collective is required to prevent a gain in altitude. altitude above the intended landing point with
zero groundspeed. If power has been properly
RECOVERY applied during the final portion of the approach,
During recovery, the helicopter should settle gently very little additional power is required in the
toward the hovering altitude. However, some students hover.
fail to recognize the need for recovery action and allow
the helicopter to settle too rapidly as airspeed COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
diminishes. Late application of collective requires an
abrupt input to stop the rate of descent. In addition, as APPROACH PATH
translational lift is lost and collective is increased, Students frequently attempt to dive toward the selected
forward cyclic should be applied to return to a touchdown point when they seem to be overshooting it.
level attitude. This only builds up airspeed and moves the helicopter

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farther forward. Frequently, the next move is to lower should arrive at the point of touchdown at, or
the collective, which does accomplish a loss of altitude, slightly above, effective translational lift. Since
but also results in a high rate of descent. Conversely, translational lift diminishes rapidly at slow
when undershooting, it is a natural tendency to raise airspeeds, the deceleration must be smoothly
the nose in an attempt to maintain altitude. This leads coordinated while keeping enough lift to prevent
to collective corrections, which could lead to settling the helicopter from settling abruptly.
with power. The student should be taught to regulate
the steepness of the approach path with collective and • Just prior to touchdown, place the helicopter in a
use the cyclic to control the airspeed. Near the spot, the level attitude with the cyclic, and maintain
collective should be increased to slow the rate of heading with the antitorque pedals. Use the cyclic
descent so the transition into a hover is accomplished to keep the heading and ground track identical.
as smoothly as possible. Allow the helicopter to descend gently to
the surface in a straight-and-level attitude,
SHALLOW APPROACH / RUNNING cushioning the landing with the collective.
LANDING
The objective in a running landing is to maintain • After surface contact, move the cyclic slightly
sufficient forward speed to take advantage of forward to ensure clearance between the tailboom
translational lift until touchdown. As in the running and the rotor disc. Use the cyclic to maintain the
takeoff, power should be limited to one or two inches surface track. In most cases, hold the collective
of manifold pressure less than that required to hover. A stationary until the helicopter stops. However, if
shallow final approach should be used to maintain a more braking action is desired, lower the
slow rate of descent. Since the helicopter will be collective slightly. Keep in mind that due to the
sliding to a stop during this maneuver, the landing area increased ground friction when the collective is
must be smooth and long enough to accomplish lowered, the helicopter’s nose might pitch
this task. forward. Exercise caution not to correct this
pitching movement with aft cyclic, because this
FOCUS POINTS movement could result in the rotor making
contact with the tailboom. During the landing,
• It may be better to practice running landings from maintain normal r.p.m. with the throttle and
a hard surface runway instead of a grassy field directional control with the antitorque pedals.
because there is less probability of catching a
skid, which could lead to dynamic rollover. In COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
addition, check the condition of the skid shoes
before and after practicing running takeoffs
and landings. APPROACH ANGLE
The desired approach angle for a running landing is
recommended to be somewhat shallower than a normal
• A shallow approach is initiated in the same
approach, approximately 5 degrees. The student may
manner as the normal approach except that a
have difficulty visualizing and maintaining this
shallower angle of descent (approximately 5°) is
approach angle and achieving the correct attitude,
maintained. The power reduction to initiate the
airspeed, and rate of descent on touchdown.
desired angle of descent is less than that for a
normal approach since the angle of descent
is less. ATTITUDE CONTROL
Correct pitch attitude is vital throughout the approach
• As the collective is lowered, maintain heading and touchdown in a running landing in order to achieve
with proper antitorque pedal pressure and r.p.m. the desired airspeed at the proper altitude above the
with the throttle. Maintain approach airspeed touchdown point. Unless these objectives are met at the
until the apparent rate of closure appears to be correct distance from the designated touchdown point,
increasing, then begin to slow the helicopter with it may be impossible to land within the desired area
aft cyclic. without exceeding the simulated manifold pressure
limits. In such an event, a go-around should be made
• As in normal and steep approaches, the primary and another approach initiated.
control for the angle and rate of descent is the
collective, while the cyclic primarily controls the COLLECTIVE CONTROL
groundspeed. However, there must be a Collective should not be fully lowered until the
coordination of all the controls for the maneuver helicopter has stopped. Students tend to lower the
to be accomplished successfully. The helicopter collective immediately after landing, as in a normal

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landing from a hover. Lowering the collective while direction of the slope. This holds the upslope skid
the helicopter is still sliding results in a deceleration against the slope while the downslope skid is
rate that can impose undue stress on the skid support, lowered with the collective. As the collective is
rotor mast, transmission, or supporting structure. lowered, continue to move the cyclic toward the
slope to maintain a fixed position.
TOUCHDOWN
Common problems on touchdown include improper • The slope must be shallow enough so the
use of the collective and cyclic controls. Just prior to helicopter can be held against it with the cyclic
touchdown, there is a tendency to apply aft cyclic to during the entire landing. A slope of 5° is
cushion the landing. This causes the tail of the skids to considered maximum for normal operation of
touch first, followed by a forward pitching moment. A most helicopters.
student may attempt to correct this action with more aft
cyclic. In extreme cases, this could cause the main rotor • Be aware of any abnormal vibration or mast
blades to contact the tailboom. The correct technique is bumping, which signals maximum cyclic
to level the helicopter, use collective to cushion the deflection. If this occurs, abandon the landing
touchdown, and then apply a small amount of forward because the slope is too steep. In most helicopters
cyclic after touchdown. Collective should be held up, with a counterclockwise rotor system, landings
or even increased slightly, to maintain a slow rate can be made on steeper slopes when the cyclic is
of deceleration. being held to the right. When landing on slopes
using left cyclic, some cyclic input must be used
SLOPE LANDINGS to overcome the translating tendency. If wind is
While landing on a gentle slope is similar to landing in not a factor, consider the drifting tendency when
a crosswind, landing on a slope approaching the determining landing direction.
maximum capability of the helicopter requires smooth,
yet positive, control. Your student should be made • After the downslope skid is on the surface, reduce
aware that it is easier to land on a slope where the uphill the collective to full down, and neutralize the
side is to the right and the wind is coming from the cyclic and antitorque pedals. Normal operating
downslope side. The student should also understand it r.p.m. should be maintained until the full weight
is preferable to land the helicopter uphill from people of the helicopter is on the landing gear. This
so they can approach the helicopter from the downhill ensures adequate r.p.m. for immediate takeoff in
side. Proper technique on a slope landing eliminates case the helicopter starts sliding down the slope.
the risk of dynamic rollover or sliding downslope. The Use antitorque pedals as necessary throughout
limits of the helicopter’s capability are discernible the landing for heading control. Before reducing
before the helicopter is committed to landing, as long the r.p.m., move the cyclic control as necessary to
as the student proceeds slowly and remains alert for make sure the helicopter is firmly on the ground.
sliding or for the cyclic control approaching the lateral
travel limits.
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
FOCUS POINTS
OVERCONTROLLING
• Prior to performing slope landings, make sure the The student’s concern about the possibility of sliding
student has a good understanding of the cause and or overturning usually leads to more uphill cyclic input
effects of dynamic rollover. than is required. The effects of excessive cyclic are not
noticeable as the collective is lowered, since the
• Make the initial approach to the slope at a 45° helicopter has no tendency to slide uphill, but the limit
angle to check the suitability of the landing site. of cyclic travel may be reached earlier than if the
student were using only enough uphill cyclic to prevent
• At the termination of the approach, move the sliding.
helicopter slowly toward the slope, being careful
not to turn the tail upslope. Position the
helicopter across the slope at a stabilized hover SLOPE TAKEOFF
headed into the wind over the spot of intended The takeoff from a slope is much easier than the
landing. landing because it is already known that the helicopter
will rest on the slope. The student must be briefed,
• Downward pressure on the collective starts the however, not to turn away from the slope while still in
helicopter descending. As the upslope skid a hover because this moves the tail toward the slope.
touches the ground, hesitate momentarily in a The helicopter must first be moved away from the
level attitude, then apply lateral cyclic in the landing spot by beginning the climb on the takeoff

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heading or, if obstacles dictate taking off downslope, FOCUS POINTS

moving sideward before beginning the turn.
APPROACH AND LANDING
FOCUS POINTS
• There are several things to consider when
• Begin the takeoff by increasing r.p.m. to the operating in confined areas. One of the most
normal range with the collective full down, then important is maintaining a clearance between the
move the cyclic toward the slope. Holding cyclic rotors and the obstacles forming the confined
toward the slope causes the downslope skid to area. The tail rotor deserves special consideration
rise as the collective is slowly raised. because, in some helicopters, it cannot always be
seen from the cabin. This not only applies while
• As the skid comes up, move the cyclic toward the making the approach, but while hovering as well.
neutral position. If properly coordinated, the Keep in mind that wires are especially difficult to
helicopter should attain a level attitude as the see; however, their supporting devices, such as
cyclic reaches the neutral position. At the same poles or towers, serve as an indication of their
time, use antitorque pedal pressure to maintain presence and approximate height. If any wind is
heading and throttle to maintain r.p.m. With the present, expect some turbulence.
helicopter level and the cyclic centered, pause
momentarily to verify everything is correct, and • Consider the availability of forced landing areas
then gradually raise the collective to complete during the planned approach. Think about the
the liftoff. possibility of flying from one alternate landing
area to another throughout the approach, while
• After reaching a hover, take care to avoid hitting avoiding unfavorable areas. Always leave a way
the ground with the tail rotor. If an upslope wind out in case the landing cannot be completed or a
exists, execute a crosswind takeoff and then make go-around is necessary.
a turn into the wind after clearing the ground with
the tail rotor. • A high reconnaissance should be completed
before initiating the confined area approach. Start
the approach phase using the wind to the best
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
possible advantage. Keep in mind areas suitable
for a forced landing. It may be necessary to
OVERCONTROLLING choose between an approach that is crosswind but
The eagerness to get the helicopter back into a level over an open area and one directly into the wind
attitude may cause the student to use excess cyclic into but over heavily wooded or extremely rough
the slope or to apply up collective too rapidly. terrain where a safe forced landing would be
Emphasize that smoothness is essential to a safe, impossible. If these conditions exist, consider the
comfortable takeoff. Cyclic should be positioned into possibility of making the initial phase of the
the slope before the collective is raised. The rotor disc approach crosswind over the open area and then
should be checked visually to see that it is level with turning into the wind for the final portion of
the natural horizon or inclined slightly toward the the approach.
slope. Increasing the collective slowly enables the pilot
to remove the lateral cyclic input so the helicopter is
• Always operate the helicopter as close to its
level when the upslope skid leaves the ground.
normal capabilities as possible considering the
Antitorque pedal input is gradually increased as the
situation at hand. In all confined area operations,
cyclic is raised, preventing a turning tendency. Caution
with the exception of the pinnacle operation, the
the student to stabilize the hover before beginning
angle of descent should be no steeper than
the climb.
necessary to clear any barrier in the approach
path and still land on the selected spot.
CONFINED AREA OPERATIONS
A confined area is an area where the flight of the • Always make the landing to a specific point and
helicopter is limited in some direction by terrain or the not to some general area. This point should be
presence of obstructions. For example, a clearing in the located well forward, away from the approach
woods, a city street, a road, and a building roof can end of the area. The more confined the area, the
each be regarded as a confined area. Generally, more essential it is that the helicopter be landed
takeoffs and landings should be made into the wind to precisely at a definite point. Keep this point in
obtain maximum airspeed with minimum groundspeed. sight during the entire final approach.

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• When flying a helicopter near obstructions, • During the advanced training conducted for a
always consider the tail rotor. A safe angle of commercial pilot applicant, opportunities should
descent over barriers must be established to be sought to conduct approaches to confined
ensure tail rotor clearance of all obstructions. areas. Several areas should be used to give the
After coming to a hover, take care to avoid student every opportunity to consider all of the
turning the tail into obstructions. factors that influence operation into and out of
confined areas. Have the student fly over a
TAKEOFF projected landing area and then describe the
A confined area takeoff is considered an “altitude over factors involved in a landing to that specific area.
airspeed” maneuver. This means it is more important to Items such as wind direction, favorable approach
gain altitude than airspeed. However, unless path, suitable forced landing areas, obstacles to
operational considerations dictate otherwise, the be cleared, where turbulence might be
crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity encountered, and the helicopter’s expected
diagram should be avoided. performance should be discussed relative to each
approach. The student must also consider the
• Before takeoff, make a ground reconnaissance to performance capability of the helicopter when
determine the type of takeoff to be performed. planning the departure from a confined area.
Doing so helps determine the point from which
the takeoff should be initiated to ensure the COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
maximum amount of available area, and how to
best maneuver the helicopter from the landing PLANNING
point to the proposed takeoff position. Safety of the approach depends mainly on the
thoroughness of the planning that precedes it. Students
• If wind conditions and available area permit, the may not recognize and prepare for hard-to-see
helicopter should be brought to a hover, turned obstacles such as power lines. Point out the supporting
around, and hovered forward from the landing structures that indicate the presence of lines. In a desire
position to the takeoff position. Under certain to make an approach directly into the wind, the student
conditions, sideward flight to the takeoff position might fly over areas unsuitable for a safe landing. Point
may be necessary. If rearward flight is required to out that it is often preferable to make the approach into
reach the takeoff position, place reference a slight crosswind if it would allow the flight to take
markers in front of the helicopter in such a way place over more suitable landing areas.
that a ground track can be safely followed to the
takeoff position. In addition, the takeoff marker Before the takeoff is begun, ask the student to explain
should be located so that it can be seen without the factors being considered and the procedures being
hovering beyond it. planned. This provides an opportunity to introduce
factors the student may not have considered, and gives
• When planning the takeoff, consider the direction you a chance to evaluate the student’s judgment.
of the wind, obstructions, and forced landing
areas. The angle of climb on takeoff should be PINNACLE LANDINGS
normal, or at least no steeper than necessary to Before attempting a pinnacle landing, the student must
clear any barrier. Clearing a barrier by a few feet demonstrate proficiency in precision approaches to a
and maintaining normal operating r.p.m., with spot along a constant approach path. This ability is the
perhaps a reserve of power, is better than clearing essence of a good pinnacle landing. Have your students
a barrier by a wide margin but with a dangerously fly over the selected pinnacle so they can observe
low r.p.m. and no power reserve. obstacles and decide on a suitable approach path, as
well as determine a plan of action if the approach does
• As an aid in helping to fly up and over an not go as planned. The final approach should be started
obstacle, form an imaginary line from a point on at a sufficient distance from the pinnacle to enable the
the leading edge of the helicopter to the highest student to establish an approach angle appropriate to
obstacle to be cleared. Fly this line of ascent with the approach path and wind conditions. Depth
enough power to clear the obstacle. As a rule of perception may be difficult because the surrounding
thumb, during the climbout, if there is an terrain is lower and the approach angle is the only
observed distance between the rotor tip-path means of judging altitude. If the landing spot stays in
plane and the obstacle, the obstacle will most the same angular relationship to the helicopter, the
likely be cleared. After clearing the obstacle, approach angle is constant. If at any time during the
maintain the power setting and accelerate to the approach it appears to be unsafe, the approach should
normal climb speed. Then, reduce power to the be abandoned according to the alternate plan. An
normal climb power setting. approach that requires excessive maneuvering near the

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landing spot is unsatisfactory. Closure rate and collective is used to regulate the rate of descent. If the
approach angle should be carefully monitored during landing spot seems to be moving away, a little forward
the approach because the visual cues, normally used cyclic will correct for it. If the landing spot seems to be
when performing a normal approach, may not be moving under the helicopter, a slight rearward cyclic
available, and translational lift must be maintained correction is appropriate.
until the helicopter is nearly over the landing spot.
AIRSPEED
FOCUS POINTS Explain the importance of controlling airspeed during
the final stages of the approach. An airspeed that is too
• If a climb is needed to reach a pinnacle or ridge- low can cause a loss of translational lift before the
line, do it on the upwind side, when practicable, landing spot is reached, requiring a hover out of ground
to take advantage of any updrafts. Avoid the areas effect. Too high an airspeed may require excessive
where downdrafts are present, especially when maneuvering to avoid over flying the landing spot. The
excess power is limited. The approach flight path pitch attitude and airspeed control procedures become
should be parallel to the ridgeline and into the more critical on a pinnacle approach.
wind as much as possible.
PINNACLE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
• Load, altitude, wind conditions, and terrain The terrain features affecting a pinnacle takeoff and a
features determine the angle to use in the final plan to cope with the situation should be formulated on
part of an approach. As a general rule, the greater the reconnaissance that precedes the landing. A change
the winds, the steeper the approach needs to be to in wind, temperature, or takeoff weight may make it
avoid turbulent air and downdrafts. Groundspeed necessary to consider obstacles, which were not a
during the approach is more difficult to judge factor on the previously planned departure. To build the
because visual references are farther away than habit and to be certain that all items are being
during approaches over trees or flat terrain. considered, the student should be required to review
and describe the factors affecting the takeoff.

• If a crosswind exists, remain clear of downdrafts FOCUS POINTS

on the leeward or downwind side of the ridgeline.
If the wind velocity makes the crosswind landing • A pinnacle takeoff is an “airspeed over altitude”
hazardous, a low coordinated turn into the wind takeoff made from the ground or from a hover.
just prior to terminating the approach might be an Since pinnacles and ridgelines are generally
option. When making an approach to a pinnacle, higher than the immediate surrounding terrain,
avoid leeward turbulence and keep the helicopter gaining airspeed on the takeoff is more important
within reach of a forced landing area as long than gaining altitude. The higher the airspeed, the
as possible. more rapid the departure from slopes of the
pinnacle. In addition to covering unfavorable
terrain rapidly, a higher airspeed affords a more
• On landing, take advantage of the long axis of the
favorable glide angle, and thus contributes to the
area if wind conditions permit. Touchdown
chances of reaching a safe area in the event of a
should be made in the forward portion of the area.
forced landing. If a suitable forced landing area is
Always perform a stability check, prior to
not available, a higher airspeed also permits a
reducing r.p.m., to ensure the landing gear is on
more effective flare prior to making an
firm terrain that can safely support the weight of
autorotative landing.
the helicopter.

COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES • As the helicopter moves out of ground effect on

takeoff, maintain altitude and accelerate to
PLANNING normal climb airspeed. When normal climb speed
As in the approach to a confined area, there are many is attained, establish a normal climb attitude.
factors to consider. The approach should be planned to Never dive the helicopter down the slope after
fly over the most favorable areas and with an approach clearing the pinnacle.
angle only as steep as conditions warrant.
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
APPROACH ANGLE
It may be difficult for the student to maintain a constant PLANNING
approach angle due to the different visual cues as Failure to consider all factors involved in the takeoff
compared with a normal approach in flat terrain. The and climb, or failure to take advantage of wind, the
cyclic is used to control the closure rate and the lowest obstacle, and favorable terrain are items that

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may need to be pointed out frequently. As the daylight flying, a reference well out in front of the
instructor, anything you notice that could enhance the helicopter should be used for attitude control. During
margin of safety of this, or any other operation, could the initial departure from a lighted area into the
help build safety consciousness in your student. darkness beyond, it is necessary to refer to the airspeed
indicator and altimeter frequently in order to confirm
RPM the desired attitude.
As the helicopter leaves the pinnacle, ground effect is
lost almost immediately. The student may increase col- AIRBORNE
lective beyond the capability of the engine to maintain Following the first night takeoff, spend a few minutes
r.p.m., especially at high density altitudes. This away from the traffic pattern in a poorly lighted area.
possibility should be discussed prior to the takeoff and This allows the student to relax and become acclimated
watched carefully during the takeoff. to the night environment and gain confidence in the
ability to maintain flight with minimal visual
AIRSPEED references. During this time, other aircraft should be
The helicopter will be at altitude as soon as departing pointed out so the student can relate the appearance of
the pinnacle. The student should be instructed to gain their lights to their apparent motion.
airspeed rather than try to climb away from
the pinnacle. APPROACH
A standard traffic pattern should be used for training in
night approaches. Particular attention should be paid to
NIGHT FLYING attitude control, to assist in visualizing the correct
Night flying introduces a new environment to the approach angle. Since depth perception is more
student and must, therefore, be preceded by thorough difficult at night, the approach angle is especially
preparation. Briefing for the first night flight must important.
include at least the following items:
Landings should be practiced with and without the use
1. Equipment required for night flight of the landing light. If the landing light is used, it
should be used only on the final leg, preferably during
2. Airport and heliport lighting the last 100 feet or so of the descent. The student must
be cautioned not to concentrate only on the area
illuminated by the landing light, but rather to look
3. Night flying physiology
ahead of it for better attitude control and depth
perception.
4. Weather considerations
CROSS-COUNTRY OPERATIONS
5. Night flying techniques Cross-country flight training should include pilotage
and dead reckoning, radio navigation, radar services,
The student’s first night flight can be conducted at dusk diversions, and lost procedure. These operations
so visual impressions are introduced gradually and require a good working knowledge of the airspace
adaptation to the night environment is accomplished system, chart interpretation, radio navigation, and
over a period of time rather than instantaneously. The communication. This is usually too much to teach
regulations now require night cross-country while in the helicopter. Therefore, a cross-country
aeronautical experience for both private and training flight should be preceded with one or more
commercial pilot applicants. For private pilot ground training sessions. The regulations require night
students, this should be taught only after the cross-country instruction for both private and
student is comfortable with both night and commercial applicants. However, this should be taught
cross-country operations. only after the student is comfortable with both night
and cross-country operations.
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
FOCUS POINTS
TAKEOFF
Attitude control problems during the takeoff and climb • Make sure your students have a good working
to 500 feet above the ground may be caused by several knowledge of the airspace system. They should
factors. Initially, the student might be tempted to look be able to interpret airspace boundaries from
at reference points that are too close to the helicopter, the charts, as well as understand the
focusing on things that can still be seen clearly. As in operational, communication, equipment, and

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weather requirements to operate within a This must be done before the flight, and all equipment,
particular airspace. logs, and charts required for the cross-country flight
must be placed in such a way that they are readily
• Make sure the student has a good working available and usable. Have the student practice
knowledge of aeronautical charts. All symbols preparing the cockpit prior to flight so everything is
and markings must be clearly understood, and the easily accessible.
student should be able to read and understand
topography and any potential hazards. POOR CROSS-COUNTRY PLANNING
A thorough understanding of the airspace system and a
• Teach dead reckoning and pilotage first. This good working knowledge of aviation charts are prereq-
gives a good foundation for cross-country navi- uisites for any cross-country flight. If the student is
gation without having to rely on navigation lacking in any of these areas, the result is poor cross-
equipment. However, it is equally important for country planning. When planning a flight, use check-
the student to learn how to operate all available points that are easily recognizable, even if they require
navigation radios. a little deviation from the most direct route. For a
beginning student, it may be advisable to skirt certain
• Cockpit Resource Management (CRM), espe- airspace in order to reduce communication workload.
cially for solo flight, is essential. At least one As experience increases, flight into busier airspace can
hand must be on the flight controls at all times, so be increased.
all navigation information such as charts and
flight logs must be easily accessible and ready for RELIABILITY ON NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
use. Have the student use a kneeboard for charts Several helicopters now have GPS navigation equip-
and logs. ment. This equipment has a host of features, including
moving maps, airspace and airport information. While
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES GPS is very useful, the beginning student must not rely
on it. A thorough knowledge and understanding of
POOR PREFLIGHT PREPRATION pilotage and dead reckoning is required. If the training
Because one hand is required on the flight controls at helicopter is equipped with GPS or any other naviga-
all times, both hands are not available for retrieving tional equipment, use it only as a backup, especially
charts and logs from flight bags or for folding charts. during the initial training with your student.

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SECTION F—EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

The outcome of any emergency that might occur in an idling speed, but not high enough to cause
aircraft is directly related to the pilot’s ability to react rejoining of the needles. The manufacturer often
instantly, to act correctly, and in taking the proper recommends the r.p.m. to use.
corrective action since there may be limited time to
analyze the problem. Although a pilot could spend an • Adjust attitude with cyclic control to obtain the
entire career in helicopters without actually manufacturer’s recommended autorotation or
encountering an emergency situation, the demonstrated best gliding speed. Adjust collective pitch control
ability to cope with any situation is essential to safe as necessary to maintain rotor r.p.m. in the green
operations and pilot confidence. Therefore, it is arc. Aft cyclic movements cause an increase in
necessary to introduce emergency procedures early in rotor r.p.m., which is then controlled by a small
the training program and to practice them frequently. increase in collective pitch control. Avoid a large
collective pitch increase that results in a rapid
decay of rotor r.p.m. and leads to “chasing the
AUTOROTATIVE DESCENTS r.p.m.” Avoid looking straight down in front of
An autorotative descent is used in the event of engine the aircraft. Continually cross-check attitude,
failure or tail rotor failure. Autorotations should be trim, rotor r.p.m., and airspeed.
introduced first with an intentional entry so the student
can practice establishing an autorotative glide. When • At approximately 40 to 100 feet above the
the student develops proficiency in performing surface, or at the altitude recommended by the
autorotations to a selected spot, the instructor should manufacturer, begin the flare with aft cyclic
initiate autorotations when the student is not expecting control to reduce forward airspeed and decrease
them by announcing “engine failure.” the rate of descent. Maintain heading with the
antitorque pedals. Care must be taken in the exe-
As the student demonstrates the ability to react cution of the flare so that the cyclic control is not
properly, the instructor should announce “engine moved rearward so abruptly as to cause the
failure” as he retards the throttle to further develop the helicopter to climb, nor should it be moved so
student’s reactions. Never give the student a simulated slowly as to not arrest the descent, which may
engine failure unless you are sure that an autorotation allow the helicopter to settle so rapidly that the
can be made safely to the surface. Don’t assume a tail rotor strikes the ground. When forward
power recovery will prevent a landing to an unsuitable motion decreases to the desired groundspeed,
area because the engine may hesitate or even which is usually the slowest possible speed, move
completely shut down when rolling off the throttle the cyclic control forward to place the helicopter
during the autorotation entry. To prevent inadvertent in the proper attitude for landing.
engine shut down during practice autorotations, follow
the procedures outlined in the Rotorcraft Flight • The altitude at this time should be approximately
Manual (RFM). 8 to 15 feet, depending upon the helicopter being
used. Extreme caution should be used to avoid an
excessive nose high and tail low attitude below
FOCUS POINTS 10 feet. At this point, if a full touchdown landing
• Perform practice autorotations to a known area is to be made, allow the helicopter to descend
free of obstructions, where a safe landing to the vertically. Apply collective pitch, as necessary, to
surface can be made at any time. check the descent and cushion the landing.
Additional antitorque pedal is required to
• From level flight at the manufacturer’s maintain heading as collective pitch is raised due
recommended airspeed, between 500 to 700 feet to the reduction in rotor r.p.m. and the resulting
AGL, and heading into the wind, smoothly but reduced effect of the tail rotor. Touch down in a
firmly lower the collective pitch control to the level flight attitude.
full down position, maintaining r.p.m. in the NOTE: A power recovery can be made during train-
green arc with throttle. Coordinate the collective ing in lieu of a full touchdown landing. (Refer to the
movement with proper antitorque pedal for trim, section on power recoveries for the correct tech-
and apply aft cyclic control to maintain proper nique.)
airspeed. Once the collective is fully lowered,
decrease throttle to ensure a clean split of the nee- • After touchdown and after the helicopter has
dles. After splitting the needles, readjust the come to a complete stop, lower the collective
throttle to keep engine r.p.m. well above normal pitch to the full-down position. Do not try to stop

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the forward ground run with aft cyclic because FOCUS POINTS
the main rotor blades can strike the tail boom.
Rather, by lowering the collective slightly during • Establish the aircraft on downwind at
the ground run, more weight is placed on the recommended airspeed at 700 feet AGL, parallel
undercarriage, slowing the helicopter down. the touchdown area. In a no wind or headwind
condition, set the ground track approximately 200
• Do not hesitate to initiate a go-around if either feet away from the touchdown point. If a strong
you or your student is uncomfortable with the crosswind exists, it will be necessary to move the
autorotation. downwind leg 50 feet closer or farther out. When
abeam the intended touchdown point, reduce
• Establish minimum requirements for rotor r.p.m., collective and split the needles. Apply proper
airspeed, and trim conditions. antitorque pedal and cyclic to maintain proper
attitude. Cross check attitude, trim, rotor r.p.m.,
POWER RECOVERY FROM PRACTICE and airspeed.
AUTOROTATION
A power recovery is used to terminate practice • After the descent and airspeed are established,
autorotations at a point prior to actual touchdown. After roll into a 180° turn. For training, initially roll
the power recovery, a landing can be made or a into a bank of at least 30°, but no more than 40°.
go-around initiated. Check the airspeed and rotor r.p.m. It is important
to maintain the proper airspeed and to keep the
FOCUS POINTS aircraft in trim throughout the turn. Changes in
the aircraft’s attitude and the angle of bank cause
• At approximately 8 to 15 feet above the ground, a corresponding change in rotor r.p.m. Adjust the
depending upon the helicopter being used, begin collective as necessary in the turn to maintain
using forward cyclic control to level the rotor r.p.m. in the green arc.
helicopter. Avoid excessive nose high, tail low
attitude below 10 feet. Just prior to achieving • At the 90° point, check the progress of the turn by
level attitude, with the nose still slightly up, glancing toward the landing spot. Plan the second
coordinate upward collective pitch control with 90 degrees of turn to roll out on the centerline. If
an increase in the throttle to join the needles at too close, decrease the bank angle; if too far out,
operating r.p.m. The throttle and collective pitch increase the bank angle. Keep the helicopter in
must be coordinated properly. If the throttle is trim with antitorque pedals.
increased too much or too fast, an engine
overspeed can occur; if throttle is increased too • The turn should be completed and the helicopter
little or too slowly in proportion to the increase in aligned with the intended touchdown area prior
collective pitch, a loss of rotor r.p.m. results. Use to passing through 100 feet AGL. If the collective
sufficient collective pitch to stop the descent and pitch was increased to control the r.p.m., it may
coordinate proper antitorque pedal pressure to need to be lowered on rollout to prevent a decay
maintain heading. If a landing is to be made in r.p.m. Make an immediate power recovery if
following the power recovery, bring the the aircraft is not aligned with the touchdown
helicopter to hover at normal hovering altitude. point, or if the rotor r.p.m. and/or airspeed are not
within proper limits.
• If a go-around is to be made, the cyclic control
should be moved forward to resume forward flight. • From this point, complete the procedure as if it
In transitioning from a practice autorotation to a were a straight-in autorotation.
go-around, exercise care to avoid an altitude-
airspeed combination that would place the COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES IN
helicopter in an unsafe area of the height/velocity AUTOROTATIONS
diagram for that particular helicopter.
ESTABLISHING DESCENT
AUTOROTATIONS WITH TURNS The desired reaction is an immediate positive but
A turn, or a series of turns, can be made during an smooth reduction in collective while maintaining pitch
autorotation in order to land into the wind or avoid attitude. Slamming the collective down could result in
obstacles. The turn is usually made early so that the reduced G-forces with a corresponding loss of cyclic
remainder of the autorotation is the same as a straight- pitch control. On the other hand, a hesitation in
in autorotation. The most common types are 90° and lowering the collective can cause an undue loss of rotor
180° autorotations. The technique below describes a r.p.m. It is important to establish the correct attitude
180° autorotation. early so the appropriate airspeed can be attained. It is a

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common error for the student to hold the nose up and and rotor. The throttle must be adjusted to maintain
bleed off airspeed once collective has been lowered. r.p.m., while antitorque pedal corrections are made to
Sometimes the student overcompensates and lowers maintain heading. Simultaneously, pitch attitude must
the nose too much, resulting in a dive with a high rate be corrected to transition from the flare to a level land-
of descent to the ground. ing attitude. Repeated practice is required to develop
the control coordination required to make a smooth
SELECTING A LANDING SPOT power recovery.
The cardinal rule in any emergency is to “fly the
helicopter.” In the process of getting the collective TOUCHDOWN
down and checking rotor r.p.m., the task of looking for If your school allows full touchdown autorotations,
a suitable landing spot may be neglected. The student remember the major difficulties associated with the
also may be indecisive regarding the best of two or touchdown include timely application of collective
three available landing sites. Emphasize that once the pitch and the urge to hold the helicopter off the ground
helicopter is started toward a spot, the decision has with aft cyclic. The student must understand the
been made. Generally, it is poor practice to change the helicopter is going to land within a very short time after
selection enroute, however, small changes to avoid collective is increased because rotor inertia dissipates
obstructions can be made. When the landing site has quite rapidly. Therefore, it is necessary to delay
been selected, sound judgment of the pattern, suitable collective application until the helicopter’s forward
gliding speed under existing wind conditions, and speed has been reduced and its rate of descent slowed.
available maneuvering altitude are essential. The
student must thoroughly understand the effects of wind POWER FAILURE AT A HOVER
on the approach pattern, as well as the airspeeds Hovering autorotations are practiced to develop the
appropriate to the desired performance. These factors coordination required to maintain heading, then
are outlined in the performance section of the flight cushion the landing following an engine failure at a
manual and must be studied and reviewed frequently. hover. Following a demonstration, the student should
initiate the first hovering autorotations. As proficiency
RPM is gained, the instructor may retard the throttle without
The student also must understand the factors that can warning.
affect rotor r.p.m. during the autorotative descent. If the
helicopter seems to be falling short of the landing spot, FOCUS POINTS
there is a tendency to raise the collective. This lowers
the r.p.m. and actually reduces the gliding distance. In • To practice hovering autorotations, establish a
a tight turn, however, it may be necessary to raise the normal hovering altitude for the particular
collective to prevent exceeding allowable r.p.m. helicopter being used, considering its load and
Frequent monitoring of the r.p.m. during the descent is the atmospheric conditions. Keep the helicopter
the only way to avoid exceeding the r.p.m. limits. headed into the wind and hold maximum
allowable r.p.m.
FLARE
Practice is required for the student to become familiar • To simulate a power failure, have the student
with the various options in the recovery techniques and firmly roll the throttle into the spring loaded
when to initiate them. The flare serves two purposes: it override position, if applicable. This disengages
slows both the rate of descent and forward speed. the driving force of the engine from the rotor,
Judging when to start the flare is one of the more thus eliminating torque effect. As the throttle is
difficult tasks since it usually is started too high or too closed, apply proper antitorque pedal to maintain
low. If students are having difficulty, have them initiate heading. Usually, a slight amount of right cyclic
a very gentle flare a little early and then increase the control is necessary to keep the helicopter from
flare as they get closer to the ground. This slows down drifting to the left because of the loss of tail rotor
the flare process and shows the required control input. thrust. Use cyclic control only as required to
Pay close attention to the r.p.m. as it builds rapidly in ensure a vertical descent and a level attitude.
the flare, and collective may need to be increased to Leave the collective pitch where it is on entry.
maintain r.p.m. limits. Emphasize from the start that it
is vital for the helicopter to be level at the completion • In helicopters with low inertia rotor systems, the
of the recovery. aircraft begins to settle immediately. Keep a level
attitude and ensure a vertical descent with cyclic
POWER RECOVERY control while maintaining heading with the anti-
Control coordination presents the greatest challenge to torque pedals. At approximately one foot above
a student during the power recovery. Throttle must be the surface, apply upward collective pitch control
increased slowly to smoothly synchronize the engine as necessary to slow the descent and cushion the

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landing. Usually the full amount of collective avoided. Some of these emergencies may not be
pitch is required. As upward collective pitch demonstrated, only discussed, because demonstration
control is applied, the throttle has to be held in would likely result in damage to the helicopter. They
the closed position to prevent the rotor are included here to remind you to make sure your
from re-engaging. students are able to discuss the problems, and how they
can be avoided.
• In helicopters with high inertia rotor systems, the
aircraft maintains altitude momentarily after the SETTLING WITH POWER
throttle is closed. As the rotor r.p.m. decreases, Both private and commercial students must be able to
the helicopter starts to settle. When the helicopter explain that settling with power can occur as a result of
has settled to approximately one foot above the attempting to descend at too low an airspeed in a down-
surface, apply upward collective pitch control wind condition, or by attempting to hover out of ground
while holding the throttle in the closed position to effect at a weight and density altitude greater than the
slow the descent and cushion the landing. The helicopter’s performance will allow. Students must also
timing of this collective pitch control application, thoroughly understand that the only way to recover
and the rate at which it is applied, depends upon from the condition is to lower the collective and fly out
the particular helicopter being used, its gross of the downwash. Adding collective while the helicop-
weight, and the existing atmospheric conditions. ter is descending vertically only aggravates the situa-
Cyclic control is used to maintain a level attitude tion. Settling with power can occur only if the rotor is
and to ensure a vertical descent. Maintain powered.
heading with antitorque pedals.
A demonstration of settling with power may be
• When the weight of the helicopter is entirely on
required of the applicant for a commercial helicopter
the skids, cease the application of upward
rating. The private pilot applicant may only be required
collective. When the helicopter has come to a
to discuss recognition and avoidance, but should have a
complete stop, lower the collective pitch to the
demonstration of settling with power to better
full down position.
understand its effects. The demonstration should begin
• The timing of the collective pitch is very from an altitude high enough above the ground to allow
important. If it is applied too soon, the remaining room for a safe recovery. When simulating an attempt
r.p.m. may not be sufficient to make a soft land- to hover out of ground effect, the airspeed is gradually
ing. On the other hand, if collective pitch control slowed and power is added to maintain altitude. Care
is applied too late, surface contact may be made must be taken to avoid any rearward speed. If the
before sufficient blade pitch is available to helicopter can hover out of ground effect, it may be
cushion the landing. necessary to reduce power to begin settling, then add
power to increase rotor downwash. As soon as the
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES effects of settling with power are noticeable, recovery
should be initiated. The noticeable effects are
HEADING vibration, reduced control effectiveness, and a high rate
The sudden loss of power causes a strong turning of descent. Recovery is accomplished by reducing
tendency, which must be corrected immediately by collective and lowering the nose to pick up forward
antitorque pedal input. Delayed or inadequate pedal speed. This moves the helicopter out of its downwash
correction might result in a heading change that is and into translational lift. When the helicopter is well
too great. out of the downwash and forward speed is indicated, a
DRIFT climb may be started to regain the lost altitude.
The large pedal change required at the time of power
RETREATING BLADE STALL
loss causes a change in drift induced by the tail rotor.
Retreating blade stall normally cannot be demonstrated
This requires a cyclic correction to prevent the
without exceeding the VNE or maneuvering limits of the
helicopter from drifting.
helicopter. Each student, however, must be able to
COLLECTIVE explain that the cause of retreating blade stall is
Explain that, because of inertia, the helicopter usually excessive forward speed for the existing circumstances.
maintains altitude momentarily. The collective should The manufacturer’s recommended VNE provides
not be moved until just before touchdown, at which protection for normal situations. However, if the
time it should be raised enough to cushion the landing. helicopter is heavily loaded and then flown into
turbulence at or near VNE, or if it is maneuvered
EMERGENCY SITUATIONS abruptly, retreating blade stall can occur. The student
There are a few situations unique to helicopter must understand that the procedure for recovery from
operations that must be understood if they are to be retreating blade stall is to lower the collective, increase

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r.p.m., if possible, and reduce speed. If corrective SYSTEMS OR EQUIPMENT

action is introduced at the first vibration indicating MALFUNCTIONS
retreating blade stall, there should be very little effect. During briefing and debriefing sessions, students
If the blade stall is allowed to progress to the point that should be questioned to determine their familiarity with
the helicopter pitches up and rolls, trying to stop the the symptoms and the corrective actions required in
pitch and roll with cyclic inputs only aggravates the response to systems or equipment malfunction. Flight
situation. Allowing the helicopter to pitch up reduces manual recommendations should be followed in each
speed and alleviates the blade stall condition. Roll case.
control is then effective. The best way to prevent
students from encountering retreating blade stall is to During flight training, you should periodically
instill in them the practice of flying at airspeeds below announce a malfunction, such as an electrical problem
VNE. The margin should be increased if turbulence or engine problem, and ask the student to define the
is encountered. course of action to take. Routine checks, such as
covering an engine instrument then asking the student
what the gauge reads, can improve the student’s
GROUND RESONANCE awareness and scan habit.
A student should be able to explain which type of rotor
systems are susceptible to ground resonance, the ANTITORQUE SYSTEM FAILURE
factors that tend to cause it, and the means to avoid it or Antitorque failures usually fall into two categories.
recover from it if it does occur. It should be understood One focuses on failure of the power drive portion of the
that if the helicopter is allowed to touch down in other tail rotor system resulting in a complete loss of
than a level attitude so a pitching or rolling motion is antitorque. The other category covers mechanical
induced, the rotor blades might be forced out of their control failures where the pilot is unable to change or
normal phase relationship. This causes an out-of- control tail rotor thrust even though the tail rotor may
balance condition, which makes the helicopter lurch to still be providing antitorque thrust.
the side. The skid on the other side contacts the ground
and the rotor blades are forced farther out of balance. Tail rotor drive system failures include driveshaft
The opposite skid then contacts the ground more failures, tail rotor gearbox failures, or a complete loss
violently and an uncontrollable oscillation develops. of the tail rotor itself. In any of these cases, the loss of
Since the skids contacting the ground cause the rotor to antitorque normally results in an immediate yawing of
become unbalanced, the obvious means for fixing the the helicopter’s nose. The helicopter yaws to the right
situation is to lift the helicopter free of the ground and in a counterclockwise rotor system and to the left in a
allow the blades to assume a balanced condition. If clockwise system. This discussion assumes a
r.p.m. is too low for flight, the next best corrective helicopter with a counterclockwise rotor system. The
action is to lower the collective to place the blades in severity of the yaw is proportional to the amount of
low pitch. power being used and the helicopter’s airspeed. An
antitorque failure with a high power setting at a low
airspeed results in a severe yawing to the right. At low
power settings and high airspeeds, the yaw is less
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER severe. High airspeeds tend to streamline the helicopter
Another potentially hazardous situation peculiar to and keep it from spinning.
helicopter operation is termed “dynamic rollover.” A
student must be able to explain that for dynamic If a tail rotor failure occurs, power has to be reduced in
rollover to occur, some factor has to first cause the order to reduce main rotor torque. The techniques
helicopter to roll or pivot around a skid, or landing gear differ depending on whether the helicopter is in flight
wheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached. or in a hover, but will ultimately require an
Beyond this point, main rotor thrust continues the roll autorotation. If a complete tail rotor failure occurs
and recovery is impossible, regardless of any cyclic while hovering, enter a hovering autorotation by rolling
corrections made. off the throttle. If the failure occurs in forward flight,
enter a normal autorotation by lowering the collective
and rolling off the throttle. If the helicopter has enough
A number of factors could cause a helicopter to pivot forward airspeed (close to cruising speed) when the
around its skid or wheel, including the failure to failure occurs, and depending on the helicopter design,
remove a tiedown, contacting an obstruction while the horizontal stabilizer may provide enough
hovering sideways, or if the gear gets stuck in ice, soft directional control to allow it to be maneuvered to a
asphalt, or mud. Dynamic rollover may also occur if a more desirable landing sight. Some of the yaw may be
poor landing or takeoff technique is used while compensated for by applying slight cyclic control
performing slope operations. opposite the direction of yaw. This helps in directional

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control, but also increases drag. Care must be taken not is to regain r.p.m. without allowing the helicopter to
to lose too much forward airspeed because the touch down. To prevent touchdown, the collective
streamlining effect diminishes as airspeed is reduced. should be raised slightly to stop the rate of descent.
Also, more altitude is required to accelerate to the Practicing this maneuver also graphically demonstrates
correct airspeed if an autorotation is entered into at a to the student the fact that, if rotor speed is lost to the
low airspeed. point where the helicopter begins to settle, collective
pitch alone should not be increased in an attempt to
A mechanical control failure limits or prevents control maintain altitude. While in flight, r.p.m. may be
of tail rotor thrust and is usually caused by a stuck or regained by lowering the collective slightly and
broken control rod or cable. While the tail rotor is still increasing the r.p.m. Aft cyclic while lowering the
producing antitorque thrust, it cannot be controlled by collective may also help increase rotor r.p.m., but is
the pilot. The amount of antitorque depends on the usually not required unless the r.p.m. is critically low.
position where the controls jam or fail. Once again, the
techniques differ depending on the amount of tail rotor FOCUS POINTS
thrust, but an autorotation is generally not required.
• Under certain conditions of high weight, high
Simulated tail rotor failures should be given to the temperature, or high density altitude, a situation
student to help gain proficiency and confidence. might exist in which the r.p.m. is low even though
During flight, simulated tail rotor thrust failures should maximum throttle is being used. This is usually
be performed at a high enough altitude to allow time the result of the main rotor blades having an angle
for the student to enter a safe autorotation. A simulated of attack that creates so much drag that engine
tail rotor thrust failure, while hovering, requires power is not sufficient to maintain or attain
adequate space to allow the helicopter to turn before normal operating r.p.m.
the student recognizes and reacts to the maneuver.
• In a low r.p.m. situation, the lifting power of the
To practice a mechanical control failure you can move main rotor blades can be greatly diminished.
and hold the pedals to a position that represents a stuck Therefore, as soon as a low r.p.m. condition is
left, neutral, or right pedal. Then have your student detected, immediately apply additional throttle, if
perform an approach to a suitable landing spot. As with available, while slightly lowering the collective.
an autorotation, recovery needs to be made with full This reduces main rotor pitch and drag. Under
use of the controls. training conditions, make sure the skids do not
contact the ground. However, in an actual
FOCUS POINTS situation where the engine did not have sufficient
power to accelerate the rotor, smoothly lower the
• If a complete loss of antitorque occurs, an helicopter to the ground, if conditions permit.
autorotation is required. Once on the ground, the collective can be
lowered a little more to regain r.p.m. Do not try to
• Most stuck pedal situations can be flown to a maintain a hover by raising the collective when
suitable landing site. the r.p.m is too low and the throttle is wide open.
GOVERNOR FAILURES
Most training helicopters and all turbine-powered • As the helicopter begins to settle, smoothly raise
helicopters are equipped with engine governors. It is the collective to stop the descent. At hovering
valuable training for the student to learn how to altitude, this procedure might have to be repeated
manually control the throttle in the event of a governor several times to regain normal operating r.p.m.
failure. In some helicopters, the governor can be safely This technique is called “milking the collective.”
turned off for training purposes. Consult the Rotorcraft
Flight Manual for correct procedure and techniques. • When operating at altitude, the collective may
have to be lowered only once to regain rotor
RECOVERY FROM LOW ROTOR RPM speed. The amount the collective can be lowered
Before the student is allowed to solo, the technique for depends on altitude.
recovery from low rotor r.p.m., in both a hover and in
flight, must be practiced. While in a hover, rotor r.p.m. • Since the tail rotor is geared to the main rotor, low
is reduced until the throttle alone will not increase the main rotor r.p.m. may prevent the tail rotor from
r.p.m. The student should then take the controls and producing enough thrust to maintain directional
attempt to recover r.p.m. by lowering the collective just control. If pedal control is lost and the altitude is
enough to allow the helicopter to settle gently toward low enough that a landing can be accomplished
the ground while increasing the throttle. The objective before the turning rate increases dangerously,

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slowly decrease collective pitch, maintain a level necessary to allow the helicopter to settle into increased
attitude with cyclic control, and land. ground effect while the throttle is increased.

HEADING
COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES It is possible to reduce r.p.m. so low that the tail rotor
can no longer produce sufficient thrust to
OVERCONTROLLING counteract engine and main rotor torque. It should be
In an attempt to recover the lost r.p.m. quickly, the stu- demonstrated that in a helicopter with a
dent might lower the collective too far. Then, in an counterclockwise main rotor blade rotation, a left
attempt to stop a rapid rate of descent, the student crosswind could be beneficial. Therefore, if there is any
might raise the collective farther than its initial wind blowing, allowing the nose of the helicopter to
position, resulting in further loss of r.p.m. If corrective turn gently to the right as it settles makes it easier to
action is initiated soon enough, it may only be regain r.p.m., and the left crosswind helps offset torque.

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This chapter provides the necessary questions and subject areas for both the student pilot pre-solo briefing and
written exam, as well as the private, commercial, and flight instructor practical tests. The general questions in the
first section are applicable to all pilots. Those questions specifically for student pilots, private pilots, commercial
pilots, or flight instructors are under separate subheadings. Answers that are not of a local nature, such as the
specifics of the helicopter being flown or local airspace, are provided for many of the questions. An FAA reference
is also included where appropriate. The regulations referenced in this chapter are from Title 14 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

SECTION A—GENERAL QUESTIONS

This section contains questions that are applicable to 3 At what time of day may a pilot begin logging night
all students. The areas covered are certificates and flight time?
documents, weather, airspace, sectionals, performance,
weight and balance, systems, aeromedical factors, At the end of evening civil twilight, as published in
airport and heliport operations, emergencies, night the American Air Almanac. [1.1, 61.57]
operations, aerodynamics, and regulations.
4. When is a flight review required and who can
CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS give it?

1. What must be logged in the pilot logbook? To act as pilot in command, a pilot must have a
flight review every 24 calendar months that is
Section 61.51 requires a pilot to log the following: administered by any appropriately rated flight
instructor. Alternate ways of satisfying the recent
1. The minimum time required for a certificate experience requirements are listed in section 61.56.
or rating,
5. If a second class medical certificate was issued on
2. The recency of experience requirements, the first of November, what is its expiration
date for:
3. The flight review. A. a commercial pilot?
B. a private pilot, 40 or over?
2. What are the recency of experience requirements a C. a private pilot, under 40?
pilot must meet to act as a pilot in command of a D. a student pilot, 40 or over?
helicopter carrying passengers during the day, as E. a student pilot, under 40?
well as at night? F. an airline transport pilot?

Day: 3 takeoffs and landings as the sole A. 11/30; 1 year later.

manipulator of the flight controls within the pre- B. 11/30; 2 years later.
ceding 90 days in the same category and class (and C. 11/30; 3 years later.
type, if type rating is required). D. 11/30; 2 years later.
E. 11/30; 3 years later.
Night: 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop within F. Does not apply since an airline transport pilot
the preceding 90 days as the sole manipulator of must have a first class medical certificate to
the flight controls in the same category and class of perform the duties of an ATP. A first class
aircraft during the period 1 hour after sunset to 1 medical certificate expires at the end of the 6th
hour before sunrise. [61.57] month after the date of issuance. [61.23]

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6. Under which category is this helicopter 9. What equipment, in addition to that required for
certificated? flight during the day, must be installed for
operations at night?
The aircraft category is included on the
airworthiness certificate. For aircraft certification, For night VFR, in addition to the equipment for day
category relates to the intended use of an aircraft VFR, a helicopter must have position lights,
and sets strict limits on its operation. For anticollision lights, electric landing light (if
helicopters, the two categories are normal and operated for hire), an adequate source of electrical
transport. Transport is further broken down into energy, and a spare set of fuses that are accessible
two sub-categories. Category A transport to the pilot in flight. [91.205, 91.209]
helicopters have two or more engines and are
capable of maintaining continued safe flight in the
10. Must the engine and airframe logbooks be carried
event of an engine failure. Category B helicopters
on board the helicopter?
have multi-engines or a single-engine but do not
have guaranteed stay-up ability. In other words, if
an engine failure occurs an unscheduled landing is No, but they must be made available upon request
assumed. Most small helicopters fall under the by the administration or an authorized NTSB
normal category. representative. [91.417]

7. What documents must be on board the aircraft 11. Which aircraft require an annual inspection? How
before operation? Where are they normally often are they due?
located?
All aircraft, operating under part 91, require an
These documents must be available in the aircraft annual inspection. There are some exceptions,
at all times, and are usually located in the cabin: which mainly relate to special flight permits and
A—An airworthiness certificate, which is leg- experimental aircraft. Commercial operators
ible and visible to the pilot and passengers under parts 121 and 135 have different regulations
(must be signed in ink). and do not require an annual inspection. Annual
inspections are due by the last day of the 12th cal-
R—The registration certificate issued to the endar month since the previous annual inspection.
owner. There is no grace period, however, an aircraft out
of annual can be ferried to a maintenance facility
O—Operating limitations for that helicopter, by obtaining a special flight permit (ferry permit).
which may be in the form of an FAA [91.409]
approved rotorcraft flight manual, placards,
or markings. 12. If the engine logbook does not reflect a current
W—The current weight and balance data for annual inspection but the aircraft logbook does, is
that helicopter. the helicopter legal for operation?

Some helicopters, specifically those used in If the aircraft logbook shows the “aircraft” has a
commercial operations, may require a mini- current annual, then the aircraft is legal for
mum equipment list (MEL). operation since “aircraft” includes the engine. If it
only shows a current “airframe” inspection, it is
8. List the minimum equipment and instruments that not.
must be installed and in operable condition in this
helicopter for day VFR flight.
13. When is a 100-hour inspection required?
A helicopter with a carburetor, air-cooled engine
requires an airspeed indicator, altimeter, magnetic A 100-hour inspection is required for any aircraft
direction indicator, tachometer for each engine, oil operated for hire. This includes carrying persons
pressure gauge, oil temperature gauge, and a fuel or property for hire or giving flight instruction for
gauge for each tank. Additional minimum equip- hire in an aircraft that you provide. This can be
ment also includes safety belts and shoulder exceeded by 10 hours flight time to get the aircraft
harnesses as specified in the regulations. [91.205] to a place where the inspection can be performed.
However, the excess time used to reach a place
Some instructors use the acronym SOFA TACOS where the inspection can be done must be included
(safety belts, oil pressure gauge, fuel gauge, in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.
altimeter, tachometer, airspeed indicator, compass, An aircraft is operated for hire anytime the aircraft
oil temperature gauge, and shoulder harness). and crew are provided together. [91.409]

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14. If the helicopter has a transponder, how often does AIRMETS are issued on a scheduled basis and are
it need to be inspected? usually significant for smaller aircraft. AIRMETS
include moderate icing, moderate turbulence,
Within 24 calendar months since the previous sustained surface wind speeds of 30 knots or more,
inspection. [91.413] mountain obscuration, and widespread areas of
IFR conditions.
15. If a helicopter is equipped with a transponder and
the aircraft logbook indicates the inspection has 3. What is a PIREP?
expired, can the transponder still be used?
A PIREP is a pilot report of weather conditions
No, section 91.413 prohibits use of a transponder encountered in flight. These real-time reports
when the inspection time period has expired. A confirm the existence of conditions that may or may
transponder waiver may be requested to operate not be forecast, including cloud tops, icing, and
the helicopter, but the transponder must be turbulence. [AIM, AC 00-45]
turned off.
4. How can a pilot update weather reports and
forecasts during flight?
16. Describe the items you can use to determine the
operating limitations of the aircraft. Enroute flight advisory service (EFAS) can be
found on 122.0 up to 17,500 feet MSL. TWEB is
Approved rotorcraft flight manual and/or the appli- available over selected VORs and/or NDBs.
cable pilot’s operating handbook (POH), placards, HIWAS is also available on selected VORs. [AIM]
markings, or any combination of these. [91.9]
5. If the destination does not issue a Terminal
17. What is an airworthiness directive (AD)? Forecast (TAF), how can the forecast weather at
the ETA be determined?
It is a regulatory notice that is sent out by the FAA
to the registered owners of aircraft informing them For a flight under VFR, use an area forecast or
of the discovery of a condition that keeps their terminal forecasts for nearby airports.
aircraft from continuing to meet the conditions for
6. Explain what weather product could be used to
airworthiness. Airworthiness Directives must be
obtain the most current weather condition at the
complied with within the required time limit, and
destination.
the fact of compliance, the date of compliance, and
the method of compliance must be recorded in the Besides a call to the airport, the most current
aircraft maintenance records. weather can be obtained from an aviation routine
weather observation (METAR). If not available at
WEATHER INFORMATION the destination, use the METARs for nearby
airports. This allows a pilot to compare the actual
1. How can a pilot obtain weather reports and fore- with the forecast conditions reported in the
casts? Where does a pilot find a listing of appropri- terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF). [AC 00-45]
ate telephone numbers?
7. Explain how to read METAR, TAF, and FD reports.
FSS and NWS telephone briefing numbers are
listed in the Airport/Facility Directory and in tele- Use computer generated reports, and have student
phone directories under the U.S. Government list- explain each area. [AC 00-45]
ings. 1-800-WX-BRIEF is usually available
anywhere in the US. Other sources include DUATS NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM AND
and TEL-TWEB. [AIM] CHARTS
AIRSPACE
2. What are SIGMETS and AIRMETS?
1. What is the difference between controlled and
SIGMETS are issued any time hazardous weather is uncontrolled airspace for VFR operations?
considered significant for all aircraft. They usually
include severe or extreme turbulence, severe icing, Besides being areas where ATC does or does not
dust storms, sand storms or volcanic ash that exercise control, the main difference between con-
reduce visibilities less than three miles, and trolled and uncontrolled airspace is the basic VFR
volcanic eruptions. Convective SIGMETs cover any weather minimums, which are higher in controlled
significant weather associated with thunderstorms. airspace compared to those in uncontrolled

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airspace. Communication with ATC is only

required in certain classifications of controlled
airspace. There are also aircraft equipment
requirements to operate in some classifications of
controlled airspace.

2. What are the minimum visibility and cloud clearance requirements (basic VFR weather minimums) for VFR
helicopter flight in both controlled and uncontrolled airspace (all classes of airspace)?

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from clouds Notes

Class A (Controlled) NA NA All aircraft operate

IFR

Class B (Controlled) 3 statute miles Clear of clouds

Class C and D (Controlled) 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal

Class E (Controlled) 3 statute miles 500 feet below

Less than 10,000 ft. MSL 1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal

At or above 10,000 ft. MSL 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal

Class G (Uncontrolled) No Minimum visibilty Clear of clouds Night weather

1,200 ft. or less AGL requirement, but must minimums are the
(regardless of MSL altitude) operate at a speed that same as controlled
allows adequate airspace weather
opportunity to see and minimums
avoid traffic and
obstructions

More than 1,200 ft. AGL Day: 1 statute mile 500 feet below
but less than 10,000 ft. Night: 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
MSL 2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 ft. AGL Day and night: 1,000 feet below
but at or above 10,000 ft. 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above
MSL 1 statute mile horizontal

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CLASS A Class C airspace consists of two circles of

airspace, both centered on the primary airport. The
1. Describe the boundaries of Class A airspace. inner circle begins at the surface and has a 5 n.m.
radius from the center of the airport. The outer
Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL up circle begins at 1,200 feet AGL and has a radius of
to and including FL 600 within the contiguous 10 n.m. Both circles have an upper limit of 4,000
United States. [AIM] feet above the airport elevation. There is an outer
area, which is not depicted on the chart, that begins
at the 10 n.m. radius and extends to a 20 n.m.
2. What are the pilot and equipment requirements to
radius. The outer area extends from the lower
fly in Class A airspace?
limits of radar/radio coverage up to the ceiling of
the approach control’s airspace. In the outer area,
A pilot must have an instrument rating, be current, participation in the radar service is not mandatory,
and operate on an IFR clearance. The aircraft must however, it is recommended. [AIM]
be equipped for IFR, including a radio and appro-
priate navigation equipment. [91.135, 91.171, 2. What are the equipment and procedural
91.203, 91.205, 91.215] requirements to operate within Class C airspace?
CLASS B Aircraft must have a two-way radio and
transponder with Mode C. A pilot must establish
1. Where is Class B airspace most likely to be found? radio contact before operating in the inner (5 n.m.
What are its dimensions? radius) core surface area or the outer (10 n.m.
radius) shelf area. [AIM]
Class B airspace surrounds some of the country’s
busiest airports and is used to separate all arriving 3. A pilot has called ATC prior to entering Class C
and departing traffic. The boundaries of each airspace, and the controller responds with his/her
Class B airspace are unique as they are designed call sign and says “Standby.” Is he/she now
around a particular terminal. Each Class B allowed to enter this airspace without any further
airspace has a VFR Terminal Chart depicting instructions? Explain.
boundaries, ATC frequencies, landmarks, and
other pertinent information. [AIM] Yes. Communications have been established if the
controller responds to the radio call with,
2. What are the equipment and procedural require- “(aircraft call sign) standby.” If the controller
ments to operate within Class B airspace? responds to the initial radio call without using the
aircraft call sign, communications have not been
The helicopter must have a two-way radio and a established and the pilot should not enter the Class
transponder with Mode C. If IFR, a VOR receiver C airspace. [91.130]
is also needed. A pilot must have ATC clearance CLASS D
prior to entering unless in a VFR corridor.
[91.131] 1. What are the typical dimensions of Class D
airspace? What requirement(s) must be met prior
3. A pilot has called ATC just prior to entering the to entry?
Class B airspace, and the controller tells him/her
to, “Squawk 2466 and ident.” Is the pilot now Typically, Class D airspace extends from the
allowed to enter the Class B airspace without any surface up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. The
further instructions? Explain. lateral dimensions are depicted on sectional charts
as blue dashed lines. Two-way radio communica-
tions with the control tower must be established
No. Appropriate authorization from ATC must be and maintained within Class D airspace. [91.129]
received prior to entering Class B airspace.
Establishing contact does not mean a pilot has a 2. Can ground reference maneuvers be practiced
clearance to enter. Generally, ATC will say, within Class D airspace? Explain.
“…cleared into Class B…” when authorized to
enter. [91.131] No. Unless otherwise authorized or required by
ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within
CLASS C Class D airspace except for the purpose of landing
or taking off from an airport within that area.
1.What are the dimensions of Class C airspace? [91.129]

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CLASS E CLASS G

1. What is Class E airspace? 1. What is Class G airspace?

Class E airspace is general controlled airspace. It Class G airspace is general uncontrolled airspace.
consists of all the airspace from 14,500 feet MSL It consists of all other airspace from the surface up
up to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL. to, but not including, 14,500 feet MSL that is not
However, it does not include the airspace within Class B, C, D, or E. [AIM]
1,500 feet AGL or restricted and prohibited areas.
Class E airspace below 14,500 feet MSL is 2. What are the requirements to fly VFR in Class G
depicted on sectional charts and may begin at the airspace?
surface, 700 feet AGL, 1,200 feet AGL, or as
specified on the chart. There are no communication requirements to fly in
Class G airspace. Different weather minimums
2. Referring to a sectional chart, how is Class E apply to different altitudes. [AIM] [91.126]
airspace, which begins at the surface, identified?
OTHER AIRSPACE
The surface area of Class E airspace is depicted by
a dashed magenta line on the chart. 1. Explain the limitations when operating within the
following areas: prohibited, restricted, warning,
3. What are the requirements to fly VFR in Class alert, and MOA.
E airspace?
Prohibited: No flights are permitted, although
There are no communication requirements to fly in some exceptions may apply. [73.83] [91.133]
Class E airspace. For VFR flight, VFR weather [AIM]
minimums must be adhered to.
Restricted: Authorization from the using or
4. What is the purpose of Class E airspace? controlling agency is required. [73.13] [91.133]
[AIM]
Under VMC, class E airspace serves little purpose.
However, it provides air traffic control for IFR Warning: Pilots are not restricted, but operate at
traffic. It provides controlled airspace to contain their own risk. [AIM]
standard instrument approach procedures without
imposing a communications requirement on pilots Alert/MOA: Pilots are not restricted, but they are
operating under VFR. responsible for collision avoidance and should
contact ATC or flight service for advisories. [AIM]
SPECIAL VFR
Controlled Firing Area (CFA): Contains activities
1. What is a surface area? What are the VFR weather that could be hazardous to nonparticipating
minimums in a surface area? aircraft. No restrictions are imposed. CFAs are not
charted, however, all other special use airspace
A surface area is controlled airspace starting at the areas are charted. [91.133, AIM]
surface, which is usually around the primary
airport within that airspace. This includes the 2. How can it be determined when the control tower
surface areas of Class B, C, D, and E airspace. For is in operation at part-time locations?
VFR flight, the ceiling must be 1,000 feet or greater
and visibility at least 3 s.m. The hours are listed on sectional charts and in the
Airport/Facility Directory.
2. What is a special VFR clearance? Can it be
requested at night? What visibility and cloud 3. What is an airport advisory area? How can it be
clearances apply? determined where one exists?

It allows a pilot to operate within the lateral It is the airspace within 10 s.m. of an airport
boundaries of the surface areas of controlled without a tower, or where the tower is closed, and
airspace designated for an airport when the on which a nonautomated FSS is located. The
weather is less than basic VFR. A helicopter pilot service, called local airport advisory, is provided
can request special VFR day or night as long as on a common traffic advisory frequency that is
there is adequate forward visibility and the published in appropriate aeronautical
helicopter can remain clear of clouds. [91.155] publications. [AIM]

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4. Explain what operations require a Mode C 7. How are VORs, VORTACs, and VOR/DMEs iden-
transponder. tified on a sectional chart?

Within 30 n.m. of the primary airport of a Class B See the Chart Legend.
airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL. This
area also includes the Class B airspace itself. 8. Are VOR radials aligned to magnetic or true north?
Within Class C airspace and above the lateral
Magnetic north.
limits up to 10,000 feet MSL.

At or above 10,000 feet MSL when operating above 9. Locate an example of each of the following types
2,500 feet AGL. of airspace and explain its lateral and vertical lim-
its, as well as its significance to a VFR flight.
Within 10 miles of certain designated airports,
excluding airspace outside Class D and below A. Class D
1,200 feet AGL. [AIM]
Lateral limits vary, but the vertical limit is typically
CHARTS 2,500 feet AGL, unless otherwise indicated.
Contact must be made with the control tower prior
You, or the student, should provide a sectional chart of to entry and radio contact must be maintained
your local area to answer the following questions. within the Class D airspace. The VFR weather
minimums should be as specified in Part 91.155.
1. Provide at least 10 different items of information [91.129]
pertaining to a controlled airport. Use provided
chart to determine this information. B. Class E

2. What basic restriction affects VOR signal Limits vary. Even though radio contact is not
reception? required, IFR traffic may be operating in Class E
airspace. Controlled airspace weather minimums
VOR signals travel by line-of-sight. They can be apply. [AIM Glossary]
interrupted by obstacles or terrain, especially if the
flight altitude is too low. [AIM] C. Uncontrolled airspace (Class G)

3. What does the flag on a chart indicate? Overlying controlled airspace may be 700 or 1,200
feet AGL, 14,500 feet MSL, or otherwise indicated.
Visual checkpoint. [Chart Legend] Lower cloud clearance and visibility minimums are
allowed, and there is no air traffic control. [AIM
4. What does a small square in the lower right corner Glossary]
of a VORTAC facility box indicate?
D. Restricted airspace
HIWAS on the navaid frequency. [Chart Legend]
Dimensions are as shown on aeronautical charts.
5. What frequency can be used to obtain an airport Permission must be obtained to fly through a
advisory at an uncontrolled airport? restricted area. [AIM]

Use the designated CTAF frequency. [AIM] E. Military operations area (MOA)

6. What other frequencies can be used to Dimensions are as shown on aeronautical charts.
communicate with the FSS? VFR operations are not prohibited, but extreme
caution should be exercised while flying within an
The sectional chart legend states that 122.2 and active MOA. Since the status of activity in an MOA
121.5 are normally available at all FSSs and are may change frequently, contact any FSS within 100
not shown. Other frequencies are shown above the miles of the area to obtain accurate real-time
communication boxes. Where an FSS is located at information concerning the MOA hours of opera-
the airport, the local airport advisory frequency is tions. Prior to entering an active MOA, contact the
usually 123.6. [Chart Legend] controlling agency for traffic advisories. [AIM]

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F. Military training route (MTR) PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

MTRs are normally established below 10,000 feet 1. What is the maximum positive G-loading approved
MSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250 for this helicopter?
knots. However, route segments may be defined at
higher altitudes for route continuity. Both VFR Refer to the POH.
(VR) and IFR (IR) routes are included. Route
centerlines are depicted on sectional charts. Width 2. What is the VNE at sea level for this helicopter?
varies for each MTR and can extend several miles How is this speed depicted on the
on either side of the charted MTR centerline. Flight airspeed indicator?
within an MTR is not prohibited; however, extreme
vigilance is recommended for flight through or
Refer to the POH. The never-exceed speed is
near these routes. Contact FSSs within 100 NM of
depicted by a red radial line. [FAA-H-8083-21]
a particular MTR to obtain current information or
route usage in their vicinity. Available information
includes times of scheduled activity, altitudes in use 3. What other airspeed limitations exist for
on each route segment, and actual route this helicopter?
width. [AIM]
Refer to the POH.
8. Locate an obstruction on the sectional chart.
Immediately adjacent to it are two numbers (one in 4. What are the maximum takeoff and landing
parentheses). What is the significance of each weights for this helicopter?
number?
Refer to the POH.
The upper number is the elevation of the top in feet
MSL. The lower number, in parentheses, is the 5. Compute the density altitude based on the
height AGL. [Chart Legend] following conditions.
Field elevation………………………4,000 ft.
Te m p e r a t u r e … … … … … … … … … … 2 4 ° C
9. Locate a maximum elevation figure (MEF).
Altimeter setting…………………….30.00 in. Hg
Explain its significance.
Gross weight………………………..1,650 pounds

It represents the highest known terrain or obstruc-

First find the pressure altitude (PA) by correcting
tion in a quadrangle bounded by ticked lines of lat-
for the nonstandard pressure. Use the difference
itude and longitude. It is rounded up to the next
between 30.00 and 29.92 (equivalent to -80 feet) or
100-foot level and then adjusted upward 100 to 300
use a conversion chart. From this chart, it is -73
feet depending on the nature of the terrain or
feet. Apply -73 to the field elevation to find the PA
obstacle. [Chart Legend]
of 3,927 feet. The computed DA is 5,847. [FAA-H-
8083-21]
10. On a sectional chart, what can be used to determine
the terrain elevation? 6. Using the data from the previous question,
determine the in-ground effect hover ceiling.
Contour lines and spot elevations show terrain
elevation. The airport elevation and obstacle Refer to the POH.
elevations can be used indirectly to show
terrain elevation.
7. Define best angle-of-climb and best rate-of-climb
airspeed. What are these airspeeds for this
11. Discuss the different colors associated with an helicopter?
airport beacon and what each represents.
Best angle-of-climb (VX) is the airspeed that
Civilian airports have an alternating green and provides the greatest gain in altitude for horizontal
white beacon. Military airports have a split white distance traveled. In a helicopter, this would
beam between the green flashes. A seaplane naturally be zero. Best rate-of-climb (VY) is the
airport has a flashing white and yellow beacon. airspeed that gives the greatest gain in altitude
Heliports alternate between green, yellow, and over a period of time. Refer to the POH for the best
white lights. [AIM] rate-of-climb speed. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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8. How can indicated airspeed be converted to F. Allowable center of gravity (or moment) range.
calibrated airspeed? Is this conversion necessary
during normal operations? Center of gravity (CG) limits, both forward and aft,
are established by the manufacturer for each
Use the airspeed correction table in the POH. For weight of a helicopter. The computed CG of a
small training helicopters, the difference between helicopter with a given load must fall between
CAS and IAS is very small, and the conversion is these limits to allow for safe operation.
seldom necessary. [FAA-H-8083-21] [FAA-H-8083-21]

9. Compared to a paved surface, does it take the same 2. Where can the helicopter’s empty weight and
amount, more, or less power to hover on a moment be found? What is the empty weight and
grass-covered surface? moment for this helicopter?

The empty weight and moment can be found in the

More power is required to hover over a grass-
helicopter’s weight and balance records.
covered surface.
[FAA-H-8083-21]
WEIGHT AND BALANCE 3. Is it acceptable to use the empty weight posted in
the pilot’s operating handbook sample problem for
1. Define the following terms. What are they for weight and balance computations? Explain.
this helicopter?
No, because equipment may have been added or
A. Basic empty weight removed. Refer to the helicopter’s weight and
balance records. [FAA-H-8083-21]
It includes the weight of the standard helicopter,
optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full 4. How can it be determined if the weight and balance
operating fluids including full engine oil. data of the helicopter has been changed? How is
[FAA-H-8083-21] the change and the nature of the modification
recorded?
B. Payload
This information should be available in the
The weight of the passengers, cargo, and baggage. helicopter’s weight and balance records. If data
[FAA-H-8083-21] has been changed, it will be marked “superseded,”
along with the effective date of the new
C. Useful Load information. [FAA-H-8083-21]

The difference between the gross weight and the 5. Calculate the weight and balance for the helicopter
basic empty weight. It includes the flight crew, as it will be loaded for the flight test, assuming the
usable fuel, drainable oil, if applicable, examiner weighs 180 pounds.
and payload.
Refer to the Current Weight & Balance record for
D. Gross weight this helicopter.

The sum of basic empty weight and useful load. 6. What flight characteristics may be expected if the
[FAA-H-8083-21] helicopter is loaded with the CG too far forward,
too far aft, or out of lateral limits?
E. Reference datum
A CG too far forward creates an aft cyclic
The reference datum is an imaginary vertical condition that can make autorotations difficult, if
plane, fixed at a point along the longitudinal axis not impossible. Loading with a CG too far aft
of the helicopter, from which all horizontal forces the cyclic forward, thereby reducing forward
distances are measured for weight and balance cyclic travel, which results in reduced airspeed. If
purposes. It may be located at the rotor mast, at the carrying external loads in a position that requires
nose of the helicopter, or in front of the helicopter. large lateral cyclic control displacement to
Refer to the POH and/or the weight and balance maintain level flight, fore and aft cyclic
records for the exact position of the reference effectiveness could be dramatically limited.
datum. [FAA-H-8083-21] [FAA-H-8083-21]

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7. If the weight of an adult passenger is unknown, As the helicopter moves through the air, the
what should be used for weight and balance relative airflow through the main rotor disc is
computations? When should the standard weights different on the advancing side than on the
not be used? retreating side. The relative wind encountered by
the advancing blade is increased by the forward
A person of average stature is considered to weigh speed of the helicopter, while the relative wind
170 pounds. However, if the helicopter is loaded speed acting on the retreating blade is reduced by
near a weight and balance limit, or a passenger’s the helicopter’s forward speed. Therefore, as a
weight is obviously different from the standard result of the relative wind speed, the advancing
weight, use actual weight. [FAA-H-8083-21] blade side of the rotor disc produces more lift than
the retreating blade side. At a high forward speed,
AERODYNAMICS the retreating blade stalls because of a high angle
of attack and slow relative wind speed.
1. What is the primary purpose of the tail rotor [FAA-H-8083-21]
system?
7. How is transverse flow effect recognized?
The purpose of the tail rotor system is to
counteract the torque produced by the main rotor. Transverse flow effect can be recognized by the
[FAA-H-8083-21] increased vibrations of the helicopter at airspeeds
just below effective translational lift on takeoff and
2. What is translating tendency? after passing through effective translational lift
during landing. [FAA-H-8083-21]
Translating tendency causes a hovering helicopter 8. What is blade coning?
to move laterally in the direction of tail rotor
thrust. [FAA-H-8083-21] Blade coning is upward sweep of the rotor blades
as a result of lift and centrifugal force. In a fully
3. What is the imaginary circular plane outlined by articulated rotor system, the blades assume an
the rotor blade tips? upward angle through movement about the
flapping hinge. On semirigid and rigid rotor
This is the rotor tip path plane. It is used as a systems, coning results in blade bending.
horizontal reference during all phases of flight. [FAA-H-8083-21]
[FAA-H-8083-21]
9. What is gyroscopic precession?
4. Explain ground effect.
The principle of gyroscopic precession states that
When hovering near the ground, a phenomenon when a force is applied to a spinning gyro, the
known as ground effect takes place. This effect maximum reaction occurs approximately 90° later
usually occurs less than one rotor diameter above in the direction of rotation. [FAA-H-8083-21]
the surface. As the surface friction restricts rotor
downwash, the lift vector increases. This allows a HELICOPTER SYSTEMS
lower rotor blade angle for the same amount of lift,
which reduces induced drag. [FAA-H-8083-21] FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. What is the purpose of the collective?
5. Explain effective translational lift.
Pulling the collective upward increases the pitch
Translational lift is present with any horizontal angle of all rotor blades, and it also increases the
flow of air across the rotor, and is most noticeable power output of the engine (if equipped with a
when the airspeed reaches approximately 16 to 24 governor or correlator). Lowering the collective
knots and where the rotor moves out of its own pitch decreases the pitch angle of the rotor blades
vortices and into relatively undisturbed air. At this and power output of the engine. [FAA-H-8083-21]
point, the airflow is more horizontal, which reduces
induced flow and drag with a corresponding 2. What is the purpose of the cyclic?
increase in angle of attack and lift. This excess
power that develops is called “effective Moving the cyclic control changes the pitch of
translational lift.” [FAA-H-8083-21] rotor blade individually as it rotates through one
cycle. The cyclic controls the tilt of the rotor disc
6. What is the relationship of dissymmetry of lift as it and, consequently, the direction and velocity of
relates to retreating blade stall? horizontal movement.

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3. What is the purpose of the pedals? plug insulator, or almost any damage around the
combustion chamber.
The antitorque pedals are used to control the pitch
of the tail rotor or air difusser in a NOTAR 4. State the purpose of the ignition system.
system. The tail rotor or diffusser counteracts the
torque produced by the turning rotor blades. The ignition system provides the spark that ignites
the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders.
4. What is the purpose of the swashplate assembly?
5. Describe the magneto system.
The purpose of the swashplate assembly is to
transmit collective and cyclic pitch control The magneto is a self-contained, engine-driven unit
movements to the main rotor blades. that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs.
[FAA-H-8083-21] It uses permanent magnets to generate an
electrical current completely independent of the
5. What is the purpose of a trim system for those
aircraft’s electrical system. The magneto generates
helicopters without hydraulically boosted controls?
sufficiently high voltage to jump a spark across the
To relieve the pilot from having to hold spark plug gap in each cylinder. The system begins
control forces as speed or power changes. to fire as soon as the starter is engaged and the
[FAA-H-8083-21] crankshaft begins to turn.

POWERPLANT AND RELATED SYSTEMS 6. How can a malfunctioning ignition system be

identified prior to takeoff?
1. Explain the four steps involved in the four-stroke
cycle of a reciprocating engine. During the pre-takeoff check, observe the decrease
in r.p.m. that occurs when the magneto switch is
When the piston moves away from the cylinder first moved from BOTH to RIGHT, and then from
head on the intake stroke, the intake valve opens BOTH to LEFT. A small decrease in engine r.p.m.
and the fuel/air mixture is drawn into the is normal during this check. If the engine stops
combustion chamber. As the piston moves back running or if the r.p.m. drop exceeds the allowable
toward the cylinder head, the intake valve closes limit, don’t fly the helicopter until the problem is
and the fuel/air mixture is compressed. When corrected.
compression is nearly complete, the spark plugs
fire and the compressed mixture ignites to begin the 7. What are the two functions performed by the
power stroke. The rapidly expanding gases from engine oil system?
the controlled burning of the fuel/air mixture drive
the piston away from the cylinder head. This The engine oil system lubricates the engine’s
provides the power that rotates the crankshaft. moving parts and aids in engine cooling by
Finally, the exhaust stroke expels the burned gases reducing friction and removing some of the heat
from the chamber through the opened exhaust from the cylinders.
valve. [FAA-H-8083-21]
8. Briefly describe the operation of the engine oil
2. What is detonation? Explain. system.
Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition
The engine oil system usually contains a reservoir
of the fuel/air mixture within the cylinder’s
or sump in which a specific amount of oil is carried
combustion chamber. Detonation causes high
with a mechanism in place to drive an oil pump that
cylinder temperatures and pressures, which can
draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine.
lead to overheating, power loss, and damage to
After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to
the engine.
the sump. In some aircraft engines, additional
3. What is preignition? Explain. lubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft,
which splashes oil onto portions of the engine.
Preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture
ignites too soon. In extreme cases, it can cause 9. The maximum oil capacity of this helicopter
serious damage to the engine in a short period of is________ quarts, and the minimum oil capacity
time. Preignition is caused by residual hot spots in to begin a flight is _______ quarts.
the cylinder. A hot spot may be a small carbon
deposit on a spark plug, a cracked ceramic spark Refer to the POH.

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Ch 02.qxd 10/30/02 11:13 AM Page 2-12

10. How is engine cooling accomplished? flaps down, the other flaps up. Feathering is
accomplished by the rocking hinge, which changes
While the engine oil system is essential to internal the pitch angle of the blade. [FAA-H-8083-21]
cooling of the engine, additional cooling is
required to maintain normal temperatures. Much FUEL SYSTEM
of the remaining heat is dissipated in the exhaust
gases, but outside air is also used for cooling. An 1. Is this helicopter equipped with a carburetor or a
aircraft engine is built with thin metal fins fuel injection system?
projecting from the cylinder walls. Air is circulated
over the engine and oil cooler by means of an Refer to the POH.
impeller powered by the engine drive shaft. The
impeller is mounted in a shroud, which directs the 2. How many fuel tanks does this helicopter have?
cooling air into specific areas of the engine. Baffles What is the total amount of usable fuel?
mounted on the engine case direct the air over the
cooling fins on the cylinders and then overboard. Refer to the POH.

3. What is the purpose of the fuel pump, if

ROTOR SYSTEMS
appropriate, on this helicopter? When should it
be used?
1. What are the three rotor blade movements?
It provides fuel under pressure for engine starting
Flapping, feathering, and hunting. and as a backup in case the engine-driven pump
[FAA-H-8083-21] malfunctions. Refer to the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21]
2. How are rotor systems classified? 4. What grade or grades of fuel can be used safely in
this helicopter? What are the colors of the
Fully articulated, semirigid, and rigid. recommended fuels? What happens to the color of
[FAA-H-8083-21] the fuel if two grades are mixed?
3. Explain a fully articulated rotor system. Generally, using a fuel grade lower than specified
causes cylinder head and engine oil temperatures
In a fully articulated rotor system, the blades to exceed normal operating limits, which can cause
undergo all three movements independently. Each detonation. This can damage the engine and/or
blade is attached to hinge pins and bearings. The cause it to fail. When the recommended fuel grade
horizontal, or flapping, hinge allows for up and is not available, using the next higher grade may
down movement. The drag hinge allows the blade be acceptable, if approved by the manufacturer.
to lead and lag, or hunt. The rotor blade grip Aviation fuel has a dye additive to help pilots and
features a feather bearing that allows the blades to maintenance personnel identify the proper grade.
change pitch around the spanwise axis. Typically, Grade 80 is red, 100 LL is blue, and 100 is green. If
this type of system incorporates three or more various grades of aviation fuel are mixed, the color
blades. [FAA-H-8083-21] tends to become clear. The color of turbine fuel is
also clear.
4. Explain the process of feathering.
5. If the specified grade of fuel is not available,
Feathering changes the pitch angle of the blade should a lower or higher than normal grade of fuel
through the use of the blade grip feather bearing. be used? Why?
By changing the pitch angle of the blades, the
thrust and direction of the main rotor disc can be If approved by the manufacturer, use the next
controlled. [FAA-H-8083-21] higher grade for a short time. Using a lower grade
than recommended can be extremely harmful to the
5. How is a semirigid rotor system different from the engine. [FAA-H-8083-21]
fully articulated system?
6. Where are the fuel drains located on this
The semirigid system allows for two different helicopter? When should they be used?
movements, flapping and feathering. This system
uses two blades, which are rigidly attached to the Refer to the POH for the location of the drains.
rotor hub. The hub is then attached to the rotor Drains allow samples to be taken and visually
mast by a trunnion bearing or teetering hinge. This checked for contamination. Drain fuel during the
allows the blades to flap together. As one blade pre-flight inspection.

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7. Where are the fuel tank vents located? What is their off the master switch and all other switches (except
purpose? ignition). Close vents and heater. Use the fire
extinguisher if needed. If electrical power is
Refer to the POH for the location of the tank vents. required, turn on the master switch and electrical
Tank vents are incorporated to equalize air switches one at a time to isolate the fault.
pressure inside the tank with that outside the tank.
This prevents a vacuum from forming, which would 5. Does this helicopter have a generator or an
keep fuel from flowing out of the tank. alternator? Does it produce alternating current
[FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23] (AC) or direct current (DC)?

8. When should the fuel tanks be checked for Refer to the POH.
fuel contamination?
6. What basic advantages does an alternator have
Before each flight. over a generator?

9. What are some ways to reduce the possibility of Lighter weight, lower maintenance, and uniform
fuel contamination? output, even at low engine r.p.m. [FAA-H-8083-25,
formerly AC 61-23]
Refill the tank after the last flight of the day and
make sure fuel caps are properly secured. 7. What is the purpose of the voltage regulator?
[FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23]
It controls the alternator’s rate of charge to the
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM battery by stabilizing the voltage output. Also, if
the voltage is too high or low, it removes the
1. What is the purpose of an ammeter? What is the alternator from the electrical system. Refer to the
purpose of a loadmeter? Which is installed in POH. [FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23]
this helicopter?
8. How can an alternator or generator failure be
An ammeter shows the charge, or amperage, detected?
flowing to or from the battery. A loadmeter displays
the load placed on the alternator. The loadmeter Check the ammeter, warning light, and/or
usually indicates a percentage of the alternator’s loadmeter for abnormal indications as described
output versus a direct readout of the amperage. in the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21]
Refer to the POH to determine which is installed
on this helicopter. 9. Is the electrical system protected by circuit
breakers or fuses?
2. How will an alternator/generator failure be
indicated on an ammeter or on a loadmeter? What Most helicopters use both. Refer to the POH.
are other ways of detecting an alternator/generator [FAA-H-8083-21]
failure?
10. Where is the battery located in this helicopter and
A discharging (negative reading) ammeter could what is its voltage?
mean the alternator is malfunctioning. A loadmeter
will show zero if the alternator fails. Some Refer to the POH.
helicopters have an alternator/generator failure
warning light. Refer to the POH. FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

3. What is the correct procedure for resetting a 1. Describe what happens to the pitot/static
popped circuit breaker? instruments when the pitot tube and drain hole
become blocked.
Refer to the POH. If the equipment is essential,
attempt to reset it once. If it pops again, do not The only pitot/static instrument affected is the
reset it again. airspeed indicator. If the pitot system is blocked
completely, the airspeed indicator acts like the
4. What should be done in the case of an electrical altimeter. As altitude increases above the altitude
fire? where the blockage occurred, the airspeed
indication increases. A decrease in altitude
Refer to the POH. If the faulty equipment can be causes a corresponding decrease in the
isolated, turn it off. If not, the usual step is to turn airspeed indication.

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Ch 02.qxd 10/30/02 11:13 AM Page 2-14

2. Describe what happens to the pitot/static The fuel mixture may be too rich and should be
instruments when the static ports are blocked, but adjusted (leaned) until the engine runs smoothly.
the pitot tube and drain hole remain open? Refer to the POH for recommended
leaning procedures.
The airspeed continues to operate, but is
inaccurate. It indicates a slower airspeed than 5. What methods should be used to decrease or
actual when the aircraft is operated above the prevent engine overheating during climbs?
altitude where the static ports became blocked, and
Climb at a higher airspeed, enrich the mixture, or
indicates a faster than actual airspeed when at a
momentarily level off. [FAA-H-8083-25, formerly
lower altitude. The altimeter freezes at the altitude
AC 61-23]
where the blockage occurred and the VSI always
shows a zero indication. 6. Explain the proper procedures for leaning the
mixture for this helicopter during cruise flight.
3. Why is it recommended that the heading indicator
be checked and aligned with the magnetic compass Follow the procedure recommended in the POH.
at least every 15 minutes? Some manufacturers do not recommend
inflight leaning.
Due to internal friction within the gyroscope,
precession is common in a heading indicator. If the 7. Should carburetor heat normally be used during the
heading indicator does not have a north seeking takeoff? Explain.
capability, it should be checked and aligned every
No. Warm air from carburetor heat reduces engine
15 minutes. When performing an in-flight
performance. The engine r.p.m. should be in the
alignment, the helicopter should be flying straight
normal range during the runup before takeoff.
and level in unaccelerated flight, with the magnetic
However, if a carburetor air temperature gauge is
compass showing a steady flight.
installed, use carburetor heat to keep the indicator
out of the yellow. [FAA-H-8083-21]
EQUIPMENT OPERATION AND
PROCEDURES 8. When is carburetor heat used? What are the
indications of carburetor icing?
1. Explain starting procedures for this helicopter
when the engine is hot, as well as when it is cold. Procedures for checking carburetor heat during
the engine runup and using it during flight vary
Starting procedures are found in the POH. with different helicopters. POH recommendations
should be followed. In general, the carburetor heat
2. During a cold weather start, if the oil pressure should be turned on periodically to check for ice
gauge does not indicate any oil pressure for nearly build up when conditions favoring carburetor icing
30 seconds, what should be done? are present. In many helicopters, carburetor heat
should be used during hover or cruise flight above
In cold weather, it may take up to one minute for an 18 inches MP, as required to keep the CAT gauge
oil pressure indication on the gauge. If it does not out of the yellow arc and during autorotation or
show any pressure at that time, shut down the reduced power below 18 inches MP regardless of
engine and have it checked by a mechanic. Refer to CAT gauge temperature. An unexplainable drop in
the POH. engine r.p.m. or manifold pressure, followed by
engine roughness, indicates carburetor icing.
3. During the magneto check before takeoff, when the [FAA-H-8083-21]
switch is moved from BOTH to RIGHT, the r.p.m.
remains the same as it was in the BOTH position. 9. What is the first indication of carburetor icing on a
Does this mean the helicopter has an exceptionally helicopter?
good magneto? Explain.
A gradual loss of engine r.p.m. or a loss of
No. There may be improper magneto grounding or manifold pressure. [FAA-H-8083-21]
timing, and a mechanic should check it.
[FAA-H-8083-21] MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST

4. What might cause engine roughness during runup 1. What is a Minimum Equipment List (MEL)?
at a high elevation field (5,000 feet MSL) during
hot weather? What action is appropriate in A minimum equipment list is an FAA approved list
this situation? that specifies which instruments and equipment

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may be inoperable without affecting the instrument or equipment involves maintenance, it

airworthiness of a helicopter. In other words, the must be accomplished and recorded in the
helicopter can still be flown with those instruments aircraft logbook.
inoperable; however, the helicopter records
available to the pilot must indicate the inoperable A determination is made by a pilot, who is
instruments or equipment. [FAA-H-8083-21] certificated and appropriately rated, or by an
appropriately rated mechanic, that the inoperative
2. Who issues the letter authorizing the use of a instrument or equipment does not constitute a
minimum equipment list and where must this letter hazard to the aircraft. [91.213]
be stored?
AEROMEDICAL FACTORS
In order to use a MEL, the aircraft must have
within it a letter of authorization issued by the FAA 1. Discuss the similarities and differences between
Flight Standards district office (FSDO) having the conditions of hypoxia, hyperventilation, and
jurisdiction over the area in which the operator is carbon monoxide poisoning. What are the
located. symptoms and effects for each condition, and what
corrective actions should be taken in each case?
3. Do all aircraft have Minimum Equipment Lists?
Hypoxia occurs when insufficient oxygen reaches a
No, only those that have been approved by the FAA body’s cells. Symptoms include increased
can use a MEL. MELs are usually found on larger breathing rate, dizziness, sweating, tingling, blue
aircraft and those used for commercial purposes. extremities, reduced vision, and slowed
[FAA-H-8083-21] decision-making. The best corrective action is to
use supplemental oxygen.
4. What instruments and equipment cannot be
included in the Minimum Equipment Lists?
Hyperventilation is a breathing rate that is too
Instruments and equipment that are either rapid and too deep. Symptoms are similar to
specifically or otherwise required by the hypoxia, such as dizziness, tingling, drowsiness,
airworthiness requirements under which the and mental confusion. The corrective action is to
aircraft is type certificated and which are essential breathe normally; talking out loud or breathing
for safe operations under all operating conditions. into a paper bag may help.

Instruments and equipment required by an Carbon monoxide poisoning is a common cause of

airworthiness directive to be in operable condition anemic hypoxia. CO molecules attach themselves
unless the airworthiness directive provides other- to hemoglobin, and the blood is unable to carry
wise. enough oxygen to the cells. Symptoms are typical
of hypoxia. A headache and loss of muscle power
Instruments and equipment required for specific can also occur. Corrective actions in flight include
operations under the regulations. [91.213] turning off the heater, opening vents or windows,
and using oxygen. [AIM]
5. If this helicopter does not have a MEL and an
instrument or piece of equipment is inoperable, can 2. If a passenger exhibits symptoms that could be
the helicopter still be legally flown? attributed to more than one condition, what should
be done?
This depends on what instrument or equipment is
inoperable. If the inoperable instrument or
equipment is not required for airworthiness of the It is best to treat all possible causes. In each case,
aircraft as specified by the type certificate or the use of supplemental oxygen should help. [AIM]
regulations, then as long as the following condi-
tions are met, the helicopter is considered 3. What are the rules concerning the use of alcohol
airworthy. and the operation of an aircraft?

The inoperable instrument or equipment must be No person may act or attempt to act as
removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control a crewmember of a civil aircraft within eight
placarded, and maintenance entry recorded in the hours after consumption of any alcoholic
aircraft logbook, or the inoperable instrument or beverage, while under the influence of
equipment must be deactivated and placarded alcohol, while using any drug that affects the
“Inoperative.” If deactivation of the inoperative person’s faculties in a way contrary to safety, or

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Ch 02.qxd 10/30/02 11:13 AM Page 2-16

while having .04 percent by weight or more IN FLIGHT [91.125]

alcohol in the blood. The regulations also include
conditions that limit the carriage of passengers Steady green—Cleared to land.
under the influence of alcohol or drugs. [91.17]
Flashing green—Return for landing.
4. Name several common medications that should not
be taken before or during a flight. Flashing red—Airport unsafe, do not land.

Tranquilizers, most decongestants and Steady red—Give way to other traffic and continue
antihistamines, amphetamines, many prescription circling.
pain killers, cough syrups, and some antibiotics.
When in doubt, consult an MD or pharmacist. Alternating red and green—Exercise extreme
caution.
5. What is spatial disorientation, when is it most
likely to occur, and what corrective action should ON THE GROUND [91.125]
be taken if it occurs?
Flashing red—Taxi clear of runway in use.
It is an incorrect mental image of a pilot’s position,
attitude, or movement in relation to what is Flashing green—Cleared to taxi.
actually happening. It is most likely to occur in
weather or darkness. If possible, refer to the flight Steady green—Cleared for takeoff.
instruments, believe them, and fly the helicopter
according to the indications. Steady red—Stop.

6. What are the effects of stress and fatigue on a pilot? Flashing white—return to starting point on the
airport.
It causes reduced coordination and alertness, as
well as impaired judgment, which results in Alternating red and green—Exercise extreme
unwarranted risks. [AIM] caution.

7. What are the effects of nitrogen on a SCUBA 3. What is the maximum authorized airspeed below
diver? What precautions need to be observed prior 10,000 feet MSL within a Class D airspace area
to flight after a dive? that is below the floor of an associated Class B
airspace segment?
Nitrogen in the body can cause decompression
sickness when ascending to a higher altitude. 200 knots. [91.117]
Divers should allow enough time to rid themselves
of excess nitrogen. The minimum recommended 4. What is the standard direction of turns in the traffic
time before flying up to 8,000 feet is 12 hours after pattern? Give an example of a visual display
a dive not requiring controlled ascent, and 24 indicating a nonstandard traffic pattern.
hours after a dive requiring controlled ascent.
Before flying above 8,000 feet, the recommended In a standard pattern, all turns are to the left. A
time is at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive. nonstandard pattern (right turns) may be indicated
[AIM] by an L-shaped extension on the segmented circle.
Nonstandard patterns are also noted in
AIRPORT AND HELIPORT OPERATION aeronautical publications, such as the Airport
Facility Directory. [AIM] [AC 90-66]
1. What should be done if a pilot receives ATC
instructions that he/she feels may compromise 5. At an uncontrolled airport, what is the proper
safety or will cause a violation of a regulation? procedure for determining the runway in use? How
is the traffic pattern entered?
A pilot should not compromise safety or violate a
regulation. It is the pilot’s responsibility to request Observe local traffic, or fly over the airport and
an amended clearance. [91.123] look for a segmented circle and/or wind direction
indicators. Normally, enter at 45° to the downwind
2. What is the meaning of each of the following ATC on a left-hand pattern unless the segmented circle
light signals? indicates otherwise. [91.127, AIM]

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Ch 02.qxd 10/30/02 11:13 AM Page 2-17

6. What radio calls are recommended in the traffic 13. What are some precautionary steps that should be
pattern at an uncontrolled airport? What radio calls taken during refueling?
are required at this type of airport?
The helicopter should be grounded to the fuel
For arrival, pilots should announce their position truck, which should be grounded to the airport
about 10 miles out, and then call downwind, base, surface. Pilots and passengers should be out of the
final, and when clear of the runway after landing. helicopter while refueling is in progress. Use the
For departure, pilots should make self-announce proper grade of fuel. In an emergency, use the next
calls. [AIM] [AC 90-42] higher grade if approved by the manufacturer. After
refueling is complete, check security of the fuel
7. At multiple-use airports, what procedure should caps. [FAA-H-8083-21]
helicopter pilots normally use when there are
several airplanes in the traffic pattern? COLLISION AVOIDANCE

Avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic. 1. Which aircraft has the right-of-way over all
other aircraft?
8. When is a go-around appropriate? Aircraft in distress. [91.113]

Anytime the pilot is not satisfied with the approach 2. Who has the right-of-way when two aircraft are on
or is unsure that a safe landing can be completed. final approach to land at the same time?

9. What is CTAF? While on final approach to land, the aircraft at the

lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not
A common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) is take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another
designated for the purpose of carrying out airport aircraft. [91.113]
advisory practices at uncontrolled airports. The
CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS, or a 3. One aircraft is on final approach and the second is
tower frequency, depending on the facilities and waiting to take off. Which aircraft has the right-of-
operation status at an airport. The usual CTAF way?
procedures include requesting airport advisory
information (when it is available) and An aircraft on final approach has right-of-way over
self-announce calls by pilots to advise their aircraft on the ground. [91.113]
position and intentions. All pilots should remain on
the CTAF, whenever practical, and listen for traffic 4. What action is needed if overtaking another
advisory information. [AIM] aircraft? Which aircraft has the right-of-way?

10. How can it be determined if a runway is closed? When overtaking, the pilot of the overtaking
aircraft shall alter the course to the right since the
A large “X” is painted on runways or taxiways aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way.
indicating they are closed and unsafe for normal [91.113]
use. [AIM]
5. What should be done if two aircraft are flying a
11. If an altimeter setting is not available at an airport head-on collision course with one another?
prior to departure and the helicopter is not radio
equipped, what setting should be used before The pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the
departing on a local flight? right. [91.113]

The altimeter should be set to the elevation of the 6. Two aircraft of the same category are converging at
departure airport or an appropriate altimeter the same approximate altitude. Which aircraft has
setting available before departure. [91.121] the right-of-way?

12. After landing, what procedures should be followed The aircraft to the other’s right. [91.113]
concerning the shutdown, parking, and securing of
the helicopter? 7. If a glider and a helicopter are approaching
head-on, or nearly so, who has the right-of-way?
Refer to the POH. What action should be taken?

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Ch 02.qxd 10/30/02 11:13 AM Page 2-18

The glider has the right-of-way, and the helicopter 6. What is the best autorotational glide speed for this
should give way to the right. [91.113] helicopter?

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Refer to the POH.

7. While in flight, it is noted that the oil pressure is

1. If an engine fire develops during flight, what steps low, but the oil temperature remains normal.
should be followed? Explain what action would be taken in
this situation.
Normally, shut down the engine and execute an
autorotation. Refer to the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21] It is possible that the gauge or relief valve is
malfunctioning. Continue to monitor oil
2. What procedure should be used in the event of an temperature, since it may take time for the
electrical fire? temperature rise indication. Land as soon as
possible and have the problem inspected. Refer to
In general, shut off electrical power (master switch the POH.
and battery). Open vents and windows to eliminate
smoke. Use a fire extinguisher if necessary. Then, if 8. During flight, the engine oil pressure suddenly
electrical power is needed, turn off all drops to zero and the oil temperature begins to rise.
non-essential equipment and turn on power. Explain what has happened and what action would
Attempt to isolate the malfunction and turn the be taken in this situation.
affected equipment off. Refer to the POH.
[FAA-H-8083-21] Probable loss of oil pressure, due to oil pump
failure or loss of oil is indicated. Engine failure
3. What general steps should be followed after an could be imminent. Execute a precautionary
engine failure in flight? landing using only minimum power required. Refer
to the POH for procedures that apply to this
helicopter.
In a helicopter, this is an emergency. The pilot
should know the recommended emergency 9. What factors should be considered when selecting
procedures contained in the POH and be able to a landing area?
recall them immediately. Generally, these
procedures include entering a normal autorotation. The key factors that should be considered are
Establish the best glide airspeed. Pick a suitable whether or not the area is within the helicopter’s
landing site and turn toward it. If altitude and time gliding distance, wind direction and speed, surface
permits, attempt to identify the problem and restart conditions, and obstructions around the landing
the engine if possible. [FAA-H-8083-21] site. It may be advantageous to land with a cross-
wind in an area that is flat and smooth, rather than
4. Discuss the procedures to be used in the event of trying to land into the wind on a rough or
partial engine failure. sloping surface.

A partial or complete engine failure can have 10. When performing an autorotation, what is used to
several causes, such as carburetor ice or fuel control airspeed?
starvation. Possible corrective actions may be the
use of carburetor heat or switching the fuel Throughout the descent, the cyclic is used to
selector. If this does not correct the problem, land control airspeed. [FAA-H-8083-21]
the helicopter immediately. Refer to the POH for
11. What does the cross-hatched or shaded area
specific procedures for this helicopter.
represent on the height velocity diagram?
5. What is the definition of the best or maximum glide Successful autorotations may be impossible, or
speed? What is the best glide speed for this nearly so, due to not having adequate rotor r.p.m.
helicopter? at touchdown or not having enough time to execute
an autorotation. [FAA-H-8083-21]
The best glide speed gives the maximum gliding
distance in a no-wind condition. Refer to the POH 12. What is the procedure for a complete tail rotor
for this helicopter. While wind effect may be failure in flight?
minimal, weight and configuration may be signifi-
cant in choosing the best glide speed. This emergency procedure usually requires an
[FAA-H-8083-21] autorotation. In some circumstances, it may be

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possible to maneuver the helicopter into a more happen. Dynamic rollover can also occur if the
favorable position, but this depends on the severity skid contacts an obstacle while hovering sideways
of the situation and the skill level of the pilot. or if the incorrect procedures are used when
[FAA-H-8083-21] performing slope operations. [FAA-H-8083-21]

13. What are the procedures for a stuck tail 18. What conditions might increase the chance of
rotor pedal? dynamic rollover?

Follow the procedures in the POH. Generally, a Certain conditions reduce the critical rollover
stuck left pedal (in helicopters with a counter angle such as translating tendency when landing
rotating main rotor) makes the helicopter yaw to on a slope, crosswinds, and incorrect pedal inputs.
the left when power is reduced. Closing power and These all differ by helicopter type depending on the
entering an autorotation only makes things worse. direction of rotation of the main rotors.
Make a normal approach to a hover or to the [FAA-H-8083-21]
ground depending on the control available. For a
stuck right pedal, the helicopter will yaw to the 19. What is ground resonance? In what type of
right when power is added. Make a steeper than helicopters can it occur?
normal approach with a flare at the bottom to slow
the helicopter. Use power as necessary to keep the Ground resonance is a self-excited vibration that
helicopter straight. [FAA-H-8083-21] occurs when the rotor blades of a fully articulated
rotor system move out of phase with each other and
14. What is Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)? cause the rotor disc to become unbalanced. This
Where is it most likely to occur? condition can cause a helicopter to self-destruct in
a matter of seconds, however, for this to occur, the
LTE is the result of the tail rotor not providing helicopter must be in contact with the ground.
adequate thrust to maintain directional control and [FAA-H-8083-21]
is not an equipment or maintenance malfunction.
LTE is usually caused by certain wind azimuths 20. What conditions must exist for ground resonance
(directions) while hovering, which disturb tail to occur?
rotor thrust, or by an insufficient tail rotor thrust
for a given power setting at higher altitudes. For ground resonance to occur, there must be some
Consult the POH for critical wind azimuths and abnormal lead/lag blade condition that would
hover ceiling charts. [FAA-H-8083-21] dynamically unbalance the rotor. This condition
may be present in the rotor head in the form of
15. If a pilot discovers he/she is lost, what should unbalanced blades, incorrect tracking or faulty
be done? lead-lag dampers, or may be the result of a hard
landing, which can cause a shock to be transmitted
Normally, climb to a higher altitude and try to find to the main rotor system, forcing the blades out of
significant landmarks. Attempt to tune in a navaid. phase. In either case, an unbalanced rotor system
If unable to get oriented, call for help on an ATC or causes an unusual vibration that is further
FSS frequency, or the emergency frequency of aggravated when ground contact, and especially
121.5. In a helicopter, landing and asking for light contact, is made. This can be during lift-off
directions is also a possibility. [FAA-H-8083-21] when the helicopter is light on its skids or during
landing. In order to reduce the chance of ground
16. What is dynamic rollover? resonance, helicopters with fully articulated rotor
systems usually have landing gear dampers or
Dynamic rollover is when a helicopter rolls or oleos to dampen vibrations when on the ground.
pivots around its landing gear to a point, called the However, oleos with uneven or low pressures may
critical rollover angle, where main rotor thrust contribute to ground resonance by not providing
continues the roll, and recovery is impossible. even dampening.
[FAA-H-8083-21]
21. What action should be taken to prevent ground
17. What are the factors that cause dynamic rollover? resonance?
For dynamic rollover to occur, some factor has to Corrective action should be an immediate takeoff if
first cause the helicopter to roll or pivot. Failure to r.p.m. is in proper range, or an immediate closing
remove a tiedown, or if the gear gets stuck in ice, of the throttle and placing the blades in low pitch if
soft asphalt or mud can certainly cause this to r.p.m. is low. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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22. What is settling with power? advancing side is higher due to the forward speed
of the helicopter, while the relative airflow on the
Settling with power, also called vortex ring state, retreating side is lower. This dissymmetry of lift
describes an aerodynamic condition in which a increases as forward speed increases. To generate
helicopter may be in a vertical descent with up to the same amount of lift across the rotor disc, the
maximum power applied, and little or no cyclic advancing blade flaps up while the retreating blade
authority. The term “settling with power” comes flaps down. This causes the angle of attack to
from pilot observations that the helicopter keeps decrease on the advancing blade, which reduces
settling even though full engine power is used. lift, and increase on the retreating blade, which
[FAA-H-8083-21] increases lift. As the forward speed increases, at
some point the low blade speed on the retreating
23. Where is settling with power most likely to occur? blade together with its high angle of attack causes
a loss of lift (stall). Retreating blade stall can be
Anytime the helicopter is at near zero airspeed and avoided in most cases by not exceeding the
descending at least 300 feet per minute with some manufacturers VNE for a particular altitude and
power applied. This is usually during an approach, weight. [FAA-H-8083-21]
especially a steep approach with a high decent rate
and little or no forward airspeed. It may also occur 28. What is the procedure for recovering from
during an out of ground effect hover if the retreating blade stall?
helicopter begins to descend into its own
downwash. [FAA-H-8083-21] Do not move the cyclic aft as it only worsens the
stall. Aft cyclic produces a flare effect, thus
24. What is the recovery procedure for settling increasing angles of attack. Pushing forward on
with power? the cyclic also deepens the stall, as the angle of
attack on the retreating blade will be increased.
Do not try to stop the descent by adding power. Correct recovery from retreating blade stall
This only worsens the condition. Instead, lower the requires the collective to be lowered first, which
collective to reduce power and the associated reduces blade angles and thus angle of attack. Aft
downwash, then apply cyclic (usually forward) to cyclic can then is used to slow the helicopter.
accelerate. [FAA-H-8083-21] [FAA-H-8083-21]

25. What is mast bumping and what conditions 29. What conditions can increase the chance of a low
cause it? RPM blade stall?

Mast bumping occurs in helicopters with semirigid Low RPM blade stall can occur by rolling the
rotor systems when the main rotor blades become throttle the wrong way, pulling more collective
unloaded due to low or negative G maneuvers. The pitch than power available, or when operating at a
main rotor trunnion teeters excessively to the point high density altitude. This danger is greatest in
where it strikes or bumps up against the mast, small helicopters with low blade inertia.
which could result in structural failure of the mast. [FAA-H-8083-21]
[FAA-H-8083-21]
30. What is the procedure for recovering from low
26. How can mast bumping be prevented? rotor RPM?

Avoid any conditions that produce low or negative Lower the collective and simultaneously add
Gs. Also avoid abrupt cyclic and collective control throttle to bring the r.p.m. back in the green arc. A
movements. Avoid turbulence as much as possible. gentle aft cyclic control movement will help the
If turbulence is encountered, slow the forward recovery, but the primary recovery controls are the
airspeed as much as possible; if it becomes exces- collective and throttle. [FAA-H-8083-21]
sive, consider a precautionary landing.
[FAA-H-8083-21] NIGHT OPERATIONS
27. What is retreating blade stall? How can it 1. What are the differences between scanning for
be avoided? aircraft at night and during the day?

In forward flight, the relative airflow through the At night, use off-center viewing and move the eyes
main rotor disc is different on the advancing and more slowly. Do not focus on one spot very long.
retreating side. The relative airflow over the [FAA-H-8083-21]

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2. Why is it important to carry a flashlight at night? Night myopia is caused by having nothing to focus
on and as a result, the eyes focus on a point just
Besides the importance of a flashlight for preflight, slightly ahead of the aircraft. This prevents seeing
it provides a back-up light source if the interior any object or aircraft that may be in the distance.
lights fail. [FAA-H-8083-21] To prevent this, search out and focus on distant
light sources, no matter how dim.
3. How is a night takeoff different from one [FAA-H-8083-21]
performed during the day? Explain.
A false horizon can occur if the natural horizon is
After liftoff, transition to the flight instruments obscured or not visible. It can be generated by
occurs more rapidly. Use of both visual and confusing bright stars and city lights. It can also
instrument references is recommended. occur while flying toward the shore of an ocean or
[FAA-H-8083-21] large lake in which the relative darkness of the
water and the lights along the shoreline can be
4. Is a night approach flown differently than one mistaken for stars in the sky. [FAA-H-8083-21]
flown during the day? Explain any differences.
Landing illusions can occur in different ways.
Fly a standard approach. Use the runway lights for Above featureless terrain, there is a natural
a peripheral cue for landing. When landing lights tendency to fly lower-than-normal approaches.
are used, avoid focusing near the helicopter. The Bright lights give the illusion of being too low,
main difference is that the ability to judge height, resulting in a tendency to fly a higher than normal
speed, and sink rate is impaired. [FAA-H-8083-21] approach. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. What is night vision and how long does it take to REGULATIONS, THE AERONAUTICAL
acquire?
INFORMATION MANUAL, AND NTSB 830
Night vision is when the rods in the eyes have
adapted to the dark light, which takes about 30 1. Discuss what preflight action concerning the
minutes. Once this has occurred, vision is airport and aircraft performance is specified in the
significantly better. [FAA-H-8083-21] regulations for a local flight.

6. Once the eyes have adapted to the dark, what can Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a
be done to keep them that way? flight, become familiar with all available
information concerning that flight. [91.103]
Bright light can completely destroy night vision
and restrict visibility. Avoid bright lights before 2. During engine run up, a pilot causes rocks, debris,
and during the flight. If bright lights are and rotor blast to be directed toward another
encountered, close one eye to keep it light aircraft or person. Could this be considered
sensitive. Use dim white lights in the cockpit and careless or reckless operations of an aircraft?
keep the instrument panel lights turned up no
higher than necessary. [FAA-H-8083-21] Yes. Any operation that endangers the life or
property of another may be considered careless or
7. How should scanning be done at night? reckless. [91.13]

Use off-center viewing in a series of short 10° 3. What are the general requirements pertaining to the
sectors. Off-center viewing allows the rods, which use of safety belts and shoulder harnesses?
are located on the outside of the fovea of the eye,
and which are more sensitive to the dark light, to During takeoff and landing, and while enroute,
absorb the light. [FAA-H-8083-21] each required flight crewmember shall keep the
seat belt fastened. If installed, each required
8. What are some night illusions? crewmember also must keep his or her shoulder
harness fastened during takeoffs and landings. In
Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point of addition, each person on board a U.S. civil aircraft
light against a dark background. After a few must occupy a seat with a safety belt and, if
moments the light appears to move on its own. To installed, a shoulder harness properly fastened. A
prevent this, do not fixate on one object, and child less than two years old may be held by an
maintain a normal scan pattern. [FAA-H-8083-21] adult. [91.105] [91.107]

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4. What is the minimum fuel reserve for day VFR 8. What type of information is found in the
flight, and on what cruise speed is the fuel reserve Aeronautical Information Manual?
based?
It describes airspace and the procedures for con-
During VFR conditions, the fuel reserve must be ducting flight operations within the U. S. National
sufficient to fly to the first point of intended landing Airspace System. [AIM]
and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after
that for at least 20 minutes (considering the wind 9. During what time period must the helicopter posi-
and forecast weather conditions). [91.151] tion lights be turned on?

Between sunset and sunrise. [91.209]

5. Except when necessary for takeoffs and landings,
what are the minimum safe altitudes when flying
10. When is an electric landing light required?
over congested and uncongested areas?
When operating for hire at night. [91.205]
Helicopters must be operated at an altitude so that
if a power unit fails, an emergency landing can be 11. Under what circumstances is it legal to drop an
accomplished without undue hazard to persons or object from a helicopter while in flight?
property on the surface. Additionally, a helicopter
may be operated over a sparsely populated area if When reasonable precautions are taken to avoid
the operation is conducted without hazard to creating a hazard to persons or property. [91.15]
persons or property on the surface. The minimum
altitude is selected by the pilot in command in 12. Must all aircraft be equipped with an ELT?
order to meet the above requirements. [91.119]
No. Section 91.207 lists exceptions when an ELT is
6. What altitudes should be used when operating not required. Helicopters do not require an ELT.
under VFR in level cruising flight at more than [91.207]
3,000 feet AGL?
13. According to NTSB 830, what is an aircraft acci-
When operating below 18,000 feet MSL on a mag- dent and when must it be reported? What is the dif-
netic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, a ference between an accident and an incident?
pilot operating under VFR should maintain any
odd thousand foot MSL altitude plus 500 feet An aircraft accident involves death or serious
(3,500, 5,500, etc.). When operating below 18,000 injury to persons, or substantial damage to the air-
feet MSL on a magnetic course of 180 degrees craft, anytime persons are on board with the inten-
through 359 degrees, a pilot should maintain any tion of flight. As indicated in NTSB Part 830.5,
even thousand foot MSL altitude plus 500 feet accidents must be reported immediately. Certain
(4,500, 6,500, etc.). [91.159] incidents, such as a flight control failure, in-flight
fire, or in-flight aircraft collision also must be
reported immediately. An incident is an event other
7. Under what conditions must a VFR flight plan
than an accident, associated with aircraft opera-
be filed?
tion, which could affect safety. [NTSB 830]

It must be filed when flying VFR between Canada 14. If an aircraft is overdue and believed to have been
and the U.S. or between Mexico and the U.S. Also, involved in an accident, when must the operator
to operate in an air defense identification zone notify the NTSB?
(ADIZ), a defense VFR flight plan (DVFR) must be
filed. [99.11] [AIM] Immediately. [NTSB 830.5]

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SECTION B—STUDENT PILOT BRIEFINGS

Section 61.87 outlines the requirements for student and responsibility for the flight. Included in this
pilot solo flights. As specified in this regulation, the responsibility is the requirement to determine if the
student must demonstrate satisfactory knowledge of helicopter is in an airworthy condition for safe
the required subject areas by completing a written flight. [91.3] [91.7]
knowledge exam. This exam is to be administered and
graded by the instructor who endorses the student pilot 5. What are the pilot and equipment requirements to
certificate for solo flight. As indicated in AC 61-101, operate within terminal areas designated as Class B
Presolo Knowledge Test, flight instructors must include airspace?
questions on applicable portions of parts 61 and 91. In
addition, instructors should modify the knowledge Except at the primary airport in certain Class B
exam as necessary to make it appropriate for the areas, student pilots may operate in Class B
helicopter to be flown and the local flying airspace as long as they have the proper training
environment. Instructors can choose from the and have a logbook endorsement. However, unless
following questions as a guide to preparing the presolo in a VFR corridor, ATC authorization must be
written exam. received and the helicopter must have a two-way
radio and a transponder with Mode C. [61.95]
[91.131] [AIM]
1. A student pilot is required to have what personal
documents and endorsements before flying solo? 6. In addition to equipment requirements and a
student pilot certificate, what other requirement(s),
No student pilot may operate a helicopter in solo if any, must be met before a student pilot is
flight unless that student’s pilot certificate and authorized to fly solo within Class B airspace?
logbook have been endorsed by an authorized
flight instructor for the make and model of The student must receive both ground and flight
helicopter to be flown. The logbook endorsement instruction on operations within that particular
must be dated within 90 days prior to the student’s Class B airspace, and the instructor who provided
solo flight. [61.87] the instruction must endorse the student’s logbook
within the preceding 90 days prior to solo flight
2. What are the student pilot limitations regarding within that airspace. [61.95]
carriage of passengers or cargo and flying for
compensation or hire? 7. Can a student or recreational pilot request a special
VFR clearance in Class D airspace when visibility
A student pilot may not act as pilot in command of is less than three miles? Explain.
a helicopter carrying passengers or cargo. A
student pilot also may not act as pilot in command No, since the minimum visibility for student and
of a helicopter for compensation/hire or the recreational pilots is three statute miles, they
furtherance of a business. Additional limitations, cannot request a special VFR clearance. [61.89]
which apply to student pilots, are listed in the [61.101] [91.157]
regulations. [61.89]

3. Explain student pilot limitations concerning SOLO CROSS-COUNTRY BRIEFING

visibility and flight above clouds. Although the student has flown solo before the solo
cross-country, regulations require the student receive
A student pilot may not act as pilot in command of additional ground and flight instruction prior to
an aircraft when flight or surface visibility is less conducting a solo cross-country flight. The following
than three statute miles during daylight hours or briefing is designed to assist you in determining if the
five statute miles at night. A student pilot may not student has an acceptable level of knowledge to
act as pilot in command when flight cannot be conduct these operations safely.
made with visual references to the surface. [61.89]
1. By looking at a chart, how can it be determined if
4. Who has the final authority and responsibility for there is fuel at the destination?
the operation of the helicopter when a student is
flying solo? Sectional charts indicate services available by tick
marks around the airport diagram. A/FD entries
When a student is flying solo, the student pilot is include airport hours of operation and specific
the pilot in command and has the final authority types of fuel available.

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2. Where can additional information about the aware of their locations. Also keep note of fields
destination airport be found? and open areas for use in the event of a forced
landing.
Airport/Facility Directory, sectional chart, flight
service station (FSS), and NOTAMs. 8. Explain how to obtain current weather reports and
forecasts while enroute. What can be done if the
3. Once airborne, how will the flight plan be opened? weather along the route of flight deteriorates?

Contact the nearest flight service station. Navaid communication boxes on the sectional
charts indicate whether a TWEB or HIWAS is
4. If it is determined that the ETA is changing, what available on the navaid frequency. Enroute flight
action should be taken? advisory service (EFAS) is available on 122.0.
Automated weather information, such as AWOS or
If the ETA is 15 or more minutes later than ATIS, may be obtained from nearby airports. If
planned, inform flight service. weather deteriorates enroute, remain VFR and
proceed to an alternate airport or return to the
5. Upon arrival at the destination, how should the departure airport. [AIM]
flight plan be closed?
9. If lost, what can be done?
Contact an FSS or request any ATC facility to relay First, try to become oriented by reference to
the cancellation to flight service. [AIM] prominent landmarks and navigation instruments.
Climb as necessary for better visibility and navaid
6. If the flight plan is not closed, how long after the reception. Communicate with an ATC facility or
ETA will a search begin? FSS. If unable to establish radio communications,
transmit on 121.5. A DF steer from an FSS or
30 minutes after the ETA, the controlling FSS will radar vectors from ATC can also be requested.
begin a telephone search. If unable to find the [AIM]
helicopter, flight service will initiate search and
rescue procedures. [AIM] 10. What are the minimum VFR fuel reserves
required by the regulations for day and night
7. If a problem develops with the helicopter enroute, flight.
where can a landing be made?
Enough fuel to fly to the intended destination plus
As part of the flight planning, note available twenty minutes additional fuel at normal cruising
airports along the route of flight. Once in flight, be speed. [91.151]

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Section C—PRIVATE PILOT BRIEFINGS

1. What are the private pilot certificate privileges and 2. What are the private pilot medical certificate
limitations? requirements and duration?

Private pilots can act as pilot in command for any A private pilot requires at least a third class
helicopter they are rated to fly. They cannot medical certificate, which is valid for 36 month for
operate for compensation or hire, however, there are persons under the age of 40 and 24 month for
some specific exceptions outlined in section 61.113. persons 40 or above. [61.23]

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Section D—COMMERCIAL PILOT BRIEFINGS

1. What are the commercial pilot certificate privileges raised platform helipads are also considered
and limitations? pinnacles. [FAA-H-8083-21]

Commercial pilots can act as pilot in command of

a helicopter for compensation or hire provided they 2. When planning a pinnacle approach, what factors
and the helicopter are appropriately rated. A should be considered?
common misconception for new commercial pilots
is that they can simply carry passengers or The approach should be planned to fly over the
property for compensation or hire once they most favorable areas, as nearly upwind as
receive their certificate. In order to do this, both possible, and as near the normal approach angle
the pilot and the helicopter have to meet additional as conditions will allow. [FAA-H-8083-21]
criteria usually in either part 121–Airline
Operations or part 135–Charter Operation. This
means that most newly certificated commercial 3. What are some of the things to look for during the
pilots who are not operating under parts 121 or reconnaissance over the area in which the landing
135 cannot carry paying passengers or any cargo / is to be made?
property for hire. They are usually limited to any
commercial operation under part 91 that include
flying as a professional corporate pilot, ferrying Wind direction and speed, a point for touchdown,
aircraft for a fee, glider towing, etc. [See 61.133] the suitability of the landing area, the approach
and departure axes, any obstacles, and the most
2. Can the holder of a commercial pilot certificate suitable flight paths into and out of the area.
rent a helicopter (with a recent 100-hour [FAA-H-8083-21]
inspection) from a fixed-base operator and use it to
carry passengers for hire? 4. Discuss the factors that dictate the steepness of the
approach angle to a pinnacle.
Yes, in certain cases. Examples include sightseeing
flights, aerial work operations, etc. Carriage of
passengers for hire from one point to another Wind conditions and terrain features are the most
requires a 135 certificate. [Parts 119 & 135] common factors dictating approach angle. As a
rule, the greater the winds, the steeper the
3. During a flight in which a pilot is exercising approach needs to be to avoid turbulent air and
commercial privileges, what minimum class of downdrafts. [FAA-H-8083-21]
medical certificate must he/she hold? How long is
the appropriate medical certificate valid
for operations that require a commercial 5. On departure from a pinnacle with no obstacles in
pilot certificate? the departure path, should the first objective be to
gain altitude or airspeed?
Second-class medical certificate
12 calendar months. [61.23]
Airspeed is gained first. Height above the ground
4. Define the term “commercial operator.” is gained automatically as the helicopter flies away
from the pinnacle, as the surrounding terrain is
A commercial operator is a person, other than an usually lower. Never dive down the slope after
air carrier, who carries persons or property for clearing the pinnacle. [FAA-H-8083-21]
compensation or hire. [1.1]
6. What must be avoided as the helicopter departs the
ADVANCED MANEUVERS pinnacle?
PINNACLE / PLATFORM OPERATIONS
Ground effect is lost almost immediately, therefore
1. Define a pinnacle. the tendency is to increase collective beyond the
capability of the engine to maintain r.p.m. This is
A pinnacle is an area from which the surface drops especially critical at high density altitudes.
away steeply on all sides. Rooftop helipads and [FAA-H-8083-21]

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SLOPE OPERATIONS 7. Before initiating a takeoff from a slope, what

reference should be used to properly position
1. How many degrees of slope should be considered the cyclic?
the maximum for most helicopters?
Hold the cyclic toward the slope so the main rotor
A slope of 5° is considered maximum for normal disc is parallel to the horizon. If no horizon is
operations for most helicopters. Refer to the POH available, hold some cyclic toward the slope so
to determine slope limits. [FAA-H-8083-21] when the collective is raised, the downslope skid
rises first. [FAA-H-8083-21]
2. How can a pilot recognize the limit of the
helicopter’s capability on too steep a slope? 8. After lifting off into a hover, what precautions
should be taken while moving away from the
Mast bumping or abnormal vibrations caused by slope?
the main rotor system hitting the flapping stops
signals maximum cyclic deflection. If the slope Take care to avoid hitting the ground with the tail
landing is continued, dynamic rollover could rotor. If an upslope wind exists, execute a
result. [FAA-H-8083-21] crosswind takeoff and then make a turn into the
wind after clearing the ground with the tail rotor.
[FAA-H-8083-21]
3. Which side of the helicopter should be uphill for
maximum slope landing capability? Why?
CONFINED AREA OPERATIONS
Helicopters with counterclockwise rotor systems
can usually land on steeper slopes with the right 1. During the reconnaissance before a landing in a
skid uphill because the force created by translating confined area, how can the presence of wires be
tendency is upslope and does not require additional detected?
cyclic deflection in the opposite direction.
[FAA-H-8083-21] Wires are sometimes difficult to see, however, their
supporting devices, such as poles or towers, serve
4. Is a wind from the upslope side or the downslope as an indication of their presence and approximate
side more conducive to a slope landing? height. [FAA-H-8083-21]

A wind from the upslope side requires more cyclic 2. Name the factors to be considered during the
deflection toward the slope, so the maximum cyclic planning of a confined area approach.
limit is reached earlier. Therefore, a wind from
the downslope side is more conducive. Obstacles and hazards are the first consideration.
[FAA-H-8083-21] During the high reconnaissance, look for obstacles
and hazards for both the approach and departure
5. Should the helicopter be landed uphill or downhill paths. Wind is another consideration. Generally,
from a person or persons waiting to be picked up? takeoffs and landings should be made into the wind
Explain. to obtain maximum performance with minimum
groundspeed. Always consider the availability of a
Land upslope from persons waiting to be picked up forced landing area during the planned approach
unless obstacles dictate otherwise because there is and departure. [FAA-H-8083-21]
more rotor clearance on the downslope side of the
helicopter where persons are most likely to 3. Should the approach be steeper or shallower than
approach from. Rotor clearance on the upslope normal in a strong headwind? Why?
side of the helicopter may be dangerously low.
As a rule, the greater the winds, the steeper the
6. If a landing must be made, but inadequate room
approach needs to be to avoid turbulent air and
exists to land across the slope, would it be
downdrafts. [FAA-H-8083-21]
preferable to have the nose or the tail
pointing upslope?
4. What are the adverse effects of a strong wind
In this situation, land with the nose pointing upslope. during the approach?
If the landing occurs with the helicopter pointing
down the slope, there is a chance of striking the tail Stronger winds create more turbulence around the
rotor on the surface. [FAA-H-8083-21] confined area. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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5. Should a touchdown point be selected toward or 5. What kind of approach is used when making a
away from the approach end of the landing area? running/rolling landing? Why?

The touchdown point should be well away from the A shallow approach is used when making a
approach end of the landing area so the tail rotor running/rolling landing because there may be
is clear of all obstructions. [FAA-H-8083-21] insufficient power available to arrest the
helicopter from a normal or steep approach. In the
6. What are the factors to be considered before case of a tail rotor control problem, the pilot may
making a takeoff from a confined area? not want to add the additional power required to
hover after a normal or steep approach.
Wind direction and speed, obstructions, forced [FAA-H-8083-21]
landing areas and helicopter performance should
all be considered before making a takeoff from a 6. While performing a running/rolling landing in a
confined area. These factors determine the takeoff skid type helicopter, at what speed and attitude
path and procedure from the confined area. should touchdown be made?
[FAA-H-8083-21]
Touch down at the slowest possible speed and in a
RUNNING OR ROLLING TAKEOFF AND level attitude. Less power is required if the
LANDING helicopter maintains translational lift, however, do
not exceed the manufacturer’s recommended
1. Under what conditions are running/rolling takeoffs maximum touchdown speed. [FAA-H-8083-21]
and landings usually performed?
7. After touchdown, what techniques are used to slow
Running or rolling takeoffs and landings are the helicopter?
usually performed when insufficient power
prevents a sustained hover at normal hovering Use the collective as necessary to slow the
altitude. This can occur under high gross weight helicopter. By lowering the collective, more weight
conditions, high density altitude, or some is transferred to the skids and the helicopter slows.
combination thereof. A running/rolling landing Take caution not to lower the collective too much
may also be used as an emergency procedure or too quickly, as too much deceleration could
following certain tail rotor control failures. cause the helicopter to rock back and forth,
[FAA-H-8083-21] resulting in a main rotor blade strike. Do not use
aft cyclic to slow the helicopter after touchdown as
2. How can it be determined if the helicopter is this too could result in a main or tail rotor strike.
producing sufficient power before attempting a [FAA-H-8083-21]
running/rolling takeoff?
8. What are some of the hazards associated with a
A running/rolling takeoff should not be performed running/rolling landing?
if there is insufficient power to hover at least
In a skid type helicopter, care must be taken to keep
momentarily. If the helicopter cannot be
the skids parallel to the landing path and clear of
hovered, its performance is unpredictable.
any obstructions. Dynamic rollover could result if
[FAA-H-8083-21]
the skids become snagged. [FAA-H-8083-21]
3. At what point should a transition to a normal climb RAPID DECELERATION (QUICK STOP)
be made following a running/rolling takeoff?
1. What is the purpose of a rapid deceleration?
After effective translational lift is gained, the
helicopter becomes airborne. Remain in ground A rapid deceleration is used to slow the helicopter
effect, allowing the airspeed to accelerate toward rabidly and bring it to a stationary hover. This may
normal climb speed, then follow a normal climb be required during airport operations to avoid col-
profile. [FAA-H-8083-21] lision. For flight training purposes, the rapid
deceleration is used to improve student
4. What are some of the hazards associated with a coordination of all controls. [FAA-H-8083-21]
running/rolling takeoff?
2. At what speed and altitude should a rapid
In a skid type helicopter, care must be taken to keep deceleration be performed?
the skids parallel to the takeoff path and clear of
any obstructions. Dynamic rollover could result if A rapid deceleration should be performed at an
the skids become snagged. [FAA-H-8083-21] altitude that permits a safe clearance between the

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tail rotor and the surface, and at an airspeed of 40 desired descent speed, increase collective for a
to 60 knots, depending on the helicopter. slow rate of descent and apply forward cyclic to
[FAA-H-8083-21] level the helicopter and prevent any more
deceleration. If too much collective is applied, the
helicopter stops descending and may remain in an
3. How can it be determined if the correct amount of
out-of-ground effect hover; if too little collective is
cyclic and collective was used while performing a
used, the helicopter descends rapidly. If not enough
rapid deceleration?
forward cyclic is applied, the helicopter may
decelerate to zero airspeed and then descend as
The correct technique results in the helicopter translational lift is lost. If too much forward cyclic
maintaining altitude while decelerating to the is applied, the helicopter may dive toward the
desired speed before descending to a hover. This ground. [FAA-H-8083-21]
speed is usually around effective translational lift.
During the entry, if the collective is lowered too 4. How should this maneuver terminate?
much without enough aft cyclic, the helicopter
descends; if too much aft cyclic is used without A rapid deceleration should terminate in a
lowering the collective enough, the helicopter stationary hover at the appropriate height above
climbs. Once the helicopter has slowed to the the surface. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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Section E—FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR BRIEFINGS

In addition to the questions below, a flight instructor 3. Give an example of each type of reinforcement that
should be know the answers to all the other questions can be used with students. Identify which type is
in this document. normally the most effective in helping
students learn.
1. What are the helicopter flight instructor certificate
privileges and limitations? Positive ReinforcementIn this case, a reward is
given for correct behavior, and the behavior is
A helicopter flight instructor is authorized to give strengthened. For example, in a postflight debrief-
training and provide endorsements required for ing, Steve praises Ann’s hovering performance.
student, private, and instructor certificates. He/she
may not provide training in a helicopter unless PunishmentHere a penalty is given for
he/she has at least five flight hours of PIC time in incorrect behavior. The behavior is weakened or
that specific make and model helicopter. The goes away. An example would be when Cheryl
instructor may not endorse a pilot’s certificate or shouts at Brian after he forgets to clear the area
logbook for flight unless he/she has provided the prior to taking off.
required flight training and determined that the
Negative ReinforcementThis time a penalty is
pilot is prepared for such flight according the
removed for correct behavior, and the behavior is
specific regulations set forth. [61.193] [61.195]
strengthened. For example, Eric is constantly
criticized for making mistakes during slope
2. What are the helicopter flight instructor medical
landings. He is relieved when he finally performs a
certificate requirements and duration?
landing correctly and Bob does not point out
any errors.
A helicopter flight instructor requires at least a
third class medical certificate when acting as PIC, ExtinctionIn this case, a reward is removed for
which is valid for 36 month for persons under the incorrect behavior. The behavior slowly goes away.
age of 40 and 24 month for persons 40 or above. A An example would be during ground school
medical certificate is not required when a flight sessions, Michelle consistently compliments Tanya
instructor is not acting as PIC. [61.23] on her knowledge of the subject areas covered.
Tanya knows she did not prepare well enough for
FUNDAMENTALS OF INSTRUCTION the aerodynamics discussion when she receives no
More definitive answers to these questions praise.
can be found in FAA-H-8083-9, Avia-
tion Instructor’s Handbook. The use of positive reinforcement to help students
learn is normally the most successful approach.
1. Define learning.
4. Provide an example of a situation in which a
Learning is defined as a change in behavior student is performing at the level of automaticity.
resulting from experience with the environment, A student is performing with automaticity when
which cannot be attributed to natural growth. rolling into a hovering turn without consciously
thinking about antitorque pedal pressure or cyclic
2. Describe the basic characteristics associated pressure needed to maintain the turn.
with learning.
5. What learning theory is based upon the idea that
Effective learning shares several common learners build knowledge through the process of
characteristics. Learning is purposeful, it is the discovery as they experience events and actively
result of experience, it’s multifaceted, and it’s an seek to understand their environment?
active process. Each student has a unique set of
motivators for wanting to learn something. While Constructivism. You create experiences so the
difficult to identify, these motivations are key student can construct their knowledge through
components to the learning process. You cannot discovery and understanding based on these
learn for your students, they have to experiences experiences.
something to effectively learn. Remember that 6. Why is the concept of perception important?
learning is classified into several types: verbal,
conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving, Perceptions are the basis for all learning.
and emotional. Perception occurs when meaning is given to

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sensations, therefore it is crucial to guide your stu- 10. List and define the three learning domains.
dents into making correct perceptions.
The cognitive domain is concerned with knowledge
7. List and describe the elements that can affect a stu- and thought processes. The psychomotor domain
dent’s perceptions encompasses the development of fine and exact
physical skills. The affective domain focuses on
feelings, attitudes, personal beliefs, and values.
• Physical organisma person who has limited a
bilities with one or more senses perceives
11. What type of transfer of learning occurs when
differently than someone who doesn’t.
previous learning interferes with the understanding
of a new task?
• Basic needa person’s fundamental need is to
maintain and enhance the organized self. Negative transfer of knowledge.

• Goals and valuespoor performance during an 12. Name the three basic elements that make up the
important lesson can be devastating to a student communication process.
who has dreamed of becoming a helicopter pilot,
therefore it is important to understand the goals a The three basic elements that comprise the
student holds. communication process are the source, the symbols
used to communicate the message, and the receiver.
• Self-concepta student’s self image greatly
influences his/her perceptions. 13. List barriers to effective communication.

Some of the barriers are lack of common

• Time and opportunitythe time to practice and
experience, confusion between the symbol and the
relate new sensations associated with new
symbolized object, overuse of abstractions,
procedures is essential.
interference.

14. Why is it important to monitor student feedback?

• The element of threatfear can narrow the
perceptual field by causing his/her attention to be
Monitoring student feedback provides a way to
focused on the threat instead of focusing on the
gauge whether your students are receiving the
material in the specific lesson.
correct message.
8. Describe why students may forget material.
15. Provide a specific example of a student who may
be exhibiting the defense mechanism of flight.
Material that was never successfully processed into
long-term memory by working memory, cannot be
Some examples might be:
remembered. The breakdown of neural pathways
between the various cells where memories are Laurie phones you to cancel yet another lesson due
stored is another reason that things are forgotten. to illness.
This usually occurs due to disuse of the
information over time. Interference occurs when Jim stopped scheduling flights while he “finishes
something is forgotten because a certain up an important project at work.” He promised to
experience has overshadowed it or when the return to his training in two weeks, yet it has been
learning of similar things has intervened. over a month and you have not heard from him.
Interference can arise from competing material
learned either before or after the information that Karen does not show up for scheduled lessons or is
the student wishes to remember. Repression can so late that often there is not enough time left
cause forgetting when experiences that are during the lesson period to fly.
unpleasant or produce anxiety are buried into the
subconscious part of the minds. 16. Name a way you can counteract student anxiety
about flying.
9. Give some examples of learning styles.
Choosing a calm, clear day to take a new student
Some examples are: right brain/left brain, on a short introductory flight is one way of
reflective/impulsive, holist/serialist, and audi- minimizing any anxieties that exist about learning
tory/visual/kinesthetic. to fly. Student anxieties can also be minimized

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throughout training by emphasizing the benefits 20. What is the first step in any organized training
and pleasurable experiences that can be derived activity?
from flying, rather than by continuously citing any
serious consequences. You can explain to your stu- To determine the objectives and standards of a
dents that safe flying practices are not only used to particular task.
help prevent accidents, but are conducive to a
satisfying and efficient operation. 21. Describe the difference between a critique and an
evaluation.
17. Explain how the telling-and-doing technique
differs from the demonstration-performance A critique is a step in the learning process, and an
method. evaluation is part of the overall grading process.
Critiques should be used to summarize and
The telling-and-doing technique follows the four complete a lesson, as well as to prepare your
steps of the demonstration-performance method, student for the next lesson. Evaluations measure
excluding the explanation phase. demonstrated performance against a criteria or
standard.
18. Describe how a student’s impatience can be an
obstacle to learning. 22. Name two advantages that a written critique has
over oral methods.
Impatient students don’t understand the need for
thorough preliminary training and are more You can devote more time to the critique. You can
focused on the outcome than on the path to achiev- organize your thoughts more clearly. Your students
ing it. can keep the critique and use it as a reference.

23. What should you do if you cannot answer your

19. What is the desired level of learning for student’s question?
pilot training?
Admit that you don’t know, but you’ll find the
The application level. answer and provide it later.

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This chapter covers the requirements for the flight 91 and a review of those maneuvers and procedures
review and is designed to give the instructor who is that, at the discretion of the instructor giving the
conducting the review a general guide as to what review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the
should be covered during the review process. The flight safe exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificate
review is not a test or check ride, but an instructional held. Instructors should tailor the review of general
service designed to assess a pilot’s knowledge, skills, operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot being
and proficiency. For a more in depth discussion of reviewed to ensure the pilot can comply with all
flight reviews, refer to AC 91-98, Currency and regulatory requirements and operate safely.
Additional Qualification Requirements for Certificated
Pilots. PREREVIEW CONSIDERATIONS
The flight review gives pilots the opportunity to ride
WHO NEEDS A FLIGHT REVIEW? with a flight instructor of their own choosing for an
All pilots require a flight review every 24 months with appraisal of their flying skills and proficiency, and to
the following exceptions: get further assistance and guidance in any areas in
which they are deficient. Accident rates, however,
1. A person who has a pilot proficiency check suggest that, among other things, some instructors
conducted by an examiner, an approved pilot administering flight reviews may not sufficiently
check airman, or a U.S. Armed Force, for a pilot recognize and correct poor pilot technique or decision
certificate, rating, or operating privilege. making capabilities. Since the maneuvers and
procedures performed are at the discretion of the
2. A person who has satisfactorily accomplished instructor giving the review, it’s important that
one or more phases of an FAA-sponsored pilot instructors adequately prepare for the review. An
proficiency award program. instructor can make the most of a flight review by
beginning with an interview of the pilot to determine
3. A student pilot need not accomplish the flight the nature of his or her flying and operating
review required by this section provided the requirements. AC 61-98 suggests some of the elements
student pilot is undergoing training for a to consider during this interview.
certificate and has a current solo flight
endorsement as required under section 61.87. MAKE, MODEL, OR TYPE OF HELICOPTER
FLOWN
4. A person who has passed a required pilot-in- While the regulations do not require an instructor to
command proficiency check under section 61.58, have any minimum amount of time in a particular make
or under parts 121, 135, or 141. and model of helicopter for the purposes of giving a
flight review, it is a good idea for the instructor to be
5. A person who holds a current flight instructor familiar with the helicopter so the review can be
certificate, and who has satisfactorily completed conducted safely within the operating limitations of the
the renewal of a flight instructor certificate under helicopter to be used. Instructors conducting a flight
the provisions in Title 14 of the Code of Federal review must hold a category, class, and, if appropriate,
Regulations (14 CFR) section 61.197 need not the type rating on their pilot certificate, as well as a
accomplish the 1 hour of ground training listed category and class rating on their flight instructor
under the requirements of the flight review. certificate appropriate to the aircraft in which the
review is to be conducted.
WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF
THE FLIGHT REVIEW? SFAR 73 has additional requirements for pilots to act
Section 61.56 stipulates that a flight review must as pilot in command in Robinson R-22 or R-44
contain at least one hour of ground instruction and one helicopters. In order to act as pilot in command in
hour of flight instruction. The instruction must include either of these helicopters, the flight review has to be
a review of the general operating and flight rules of part conducted in an R-22 or R-44 respectively.

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NATURE OF FLIGHT OPERATIONS to be recognized as useful in reducing accidents and

Instructors giving a flight review should consider the improving efficiency in general aviation.
type of flying usually done by the pilot before deciding
how to conduct the review. Most pilots may want to It is up to the instructor to make the ground portion of
review only emergency procedures, but other pilots the review an interesting endeavor. One method is to
might want to concentrate on areas of operation in use scenarios that provoke meaningful discussions and
which they lack experience or feel deficient. learning experiences.

IN-FLIGHT CONSIDERATIONS
RECENCY OF FLIGHT EXPERIENCE During the flight portion, instructors should adjust the
The instructor should review the pilot’s logbook to amount of time spent on each maneuver as the pilot’s
determine total flight time and recency of experience. level of proficiency becomes apparent. Additional
This allows the instructor to evaluate the need for instruction may be provided in weak areas, or new
particular maneuvers and procedures in the flight concepts may be introduced. The flight review
review. Pilots who have not flown in several years may provides an excellent opportunity to help pilots correct
require an extensive review of the basic maneuvers and bad habits that they may have developed since their last
a more extensive review of part 91, as well as recent evaluation. After identifying the problem, point out the
changes in airspace and other operating requirements. potential safety implications associated with the
More experienced and current pilots may want to problem and provide instruction to help the pilot
review advanced maneuvers. Regardless of flight correct the situation. It should not be surprising to
experience, the flight review should include all areas in detect weak areas in a pilot’s performance that were not
which the instructor determines that the pilot should anticipated by the pilot himself and/or brought out
receive training in order to operate safely. during the preflight interview.

POSTREVIEW ACTIONS
AGREEMENT ON CONDUCT OF One the most important phases of the flight review
REVIEW occurs as the instructor provides the pilot with an
Once the areas of emphasis have been determined, you objective analysis of his or her performance. The
and the pilot should agree on how the review will be postflight discussion should provide an assessment of
conducted. In this way, both will know what to expect, the pilot’s performance on each task as well as overall
and the pilot receiving the assessment will know what capabilities. Suggestions for improving weak areas
material to study. Ensure that you discuss acceptable should also be provided. If the instructor feels
standards with the pilot. You may want to give additional instruction is required in essential
examples of unsafe performance to clarify the procedures, the review should simply be logged as a
guidelines. From this information, you can prepare a training flight. No logbook entry reflecting
plan for completing the review. The plan should unsatisfactory performance should be made. The pilot
include a list of regulatory subjects to be covered, the may continue to exercise certificate privileges as long
flight maneuvers to be accomplished, and the sequence as 24 calendar months have not elapsed since the pilot’s
of events. (See Sample Flight Review Plan and last flight review or proficiency check. After additional
Checklist on page 3-3.) instruction is obtained, the pilot should schedule
another flight review session. Following successful
GROUND TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS completion of the flight review, the instructor giving
The ground portion of the flight review should focus the review should endorse the pilot’s logbook
on practical knowledge and regulations. Any new regu- accordingly. The endorsement should follow the
lations, or regulations that have changed since a pilot’s format contained in AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and
last flight review, should be discussed. Also, topics Flight Instructors and Ground Instructors:
related to seasonal considerations should be touched Mr./Mrs. holder of pilot certificate
upon. For example, in early fall it’s a good idea to dis- # has satisfactorily completed the
cuss winter flying considerations, while early spring flight review required by §61.56 on
may require a more thorough review of the effects of [date]
density altitude. Another subject that has received
increased attention in general aviation is cockpit Signed
resource management (CRM). Although a hot topic in [date]
airline circles for several years, CRM is just beginning CFI # Expiration

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SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW PLAN AND CHECKLIST

Name___________________ Date__________________

Grade of Certificate____________ Certificate No. ________________

Ratings and Limitations ___________________________________

Class of Medical __________________ Date of Medical______________

Total Flight Time________________ Time in Type (if applicable)_____________

Aircraft to be used: Make and Model __________________ N# _______________

Location of Review __________________________________

I. Review of 14 CFR Part 91

Ground Instruction Hours: ____________

Remarks: ____________________________________________________

II. Review of Maneuvers and Procedures from appropriate PTS (list in order of anticipated performance)

A. _________________________
B. _________________________
C. _________________________
D. _________________________
E. _________________________
F. _________________________
G. _________________________
H. _________________________
I. __________________________
J. __________________________

Flight Instruction Hours: ____________

Remarks: __________________________________________________________

III. Overall Completion of Review

Remarks: __________________________________________________________

Signature of CFI __________________ Date ____________________

Certificate No. ____________________ Expiration Date ___________

I have received a flight review, which consisted of the ground instruction and flight maneuvers and
procedures noted above.

Signature of Pilot ____________________ Date _____________________

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SAMPLE LIST OF FLIGHT REVIEW • Navigation by pilotage

KNOWLEDGE, MANEUVERS, AND
PROCEDURES • Lost procedures
Before beginning the flight review, it is a good idea to
review the latest Practical Test Standard (PTS) to deter- • Diversion
mine if there are new or changed standards, which you
feel the pilot should know or understand. HELICOPTERS

ALL CATEGORIES AND CLASSES OF • Normal takeoffs and landings to a hover and to
AIRCRAFT the ground

• Pilot certificates and other part 61 requirements • Confined area operations

• Maximum performance takeoffs

• Aircraft performance and limitations
• Steep approach
• Aircraft loading, weight, and balance
• Pinnacle/platform operations
• Aircraft systems and operating procedures
• Slope operations
• Abnormal and emergency procedures
• Rapid deceleration (quick stop)
• Flight planning and obtaining weather
information • Running/roll-on landings

• Aircraft documents and records • Autorotations from altitude

• Avoidance of hazardous weather • Hovering autorotations

• Air traffic control and airspace • Discussion of dynamic rollover and ground
resonance
• Preflight inspection
• Settling with power (demonstration)
• Use of checklists
• Loss of tail rotor effectiveness
• Radio communication and navigation (if aircraft
is equipped) • Low rotor r.p.m. recovery

• Collision avoidance, traffic pattern operations, • System failures (ex. hydraulics, electrical, tail
ground operations rotor, etc.)

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