History of Periodic Table

A. LAVOISIER
•Classified elements into 4 groups
•Unsuccessful - light, heat & compounds are included

J. W. Dobereiner
•Classified elements into triads
•Each has 3 elements with similar chem properties
•Unsuccessful - limited to some elements

J. Newlands
•Arranged elements horizontally in ascending atomic masses
•Law of octaves - properties repeated at 8th element
•Unsuccessful - not all elements obey the Law of octaves

L. Meyer
•Graph of atomic volume vs atomic mass
•Successful - properties of elements were in a pattern with their atomic masses

D. Mendeleev
•Altered L. Meyer's work
•Put elements with similar chem properties in the same vertical column (group)
•Left gaps for undiscovered elements
•Arranged the transition elements together

H.J.G Moseley
•Arranged elements according to proton numbers
Arrangement of Periodic Table

Elements arranged horizontally in ascending proton number

Group

• Vertical column
• Same number of valence electron = same group
• 18 vertical columns
• G1: alkali metals, G2: alkaline earth metals, G3-12: transition
metals, G17: halogens, G18: noble gases
• Group number tells you the valence electrons
• Thus, elements with same valence electrons have similar chem
properties

Period

• Horizontal rows
• 7 horizontal rows
• Period number tells you the number of shells occupied by electrons

Metallic & non-metallic

• G1-3: metals
• G3-12: transition metals
• G15-18: non-metals
Group 18

 Known as noble gases

 Why noble?
o They are inert (unreactive) & very stable
o The atoms have complete outermost shell (duplet/octet)
o They do not release, accept or share electrons
 Exist as monoatomic molecules because they do not react (chemically inert).
Monoatomic: molecule that consists of one atom only
 Helium is the only element in Group 18 with duplet electron arrangement (2 valence
electrons)
 Other noble gases have octet arrangement (8 valence electrons)

Elements Atomic Melting & Density Solubility Electrical Heat

radius (size) boiling points conductivity conductivity
-Low

Low densities, increases down

-Weak van der

Cannot conduct electricity

Waals forces

Poor conductor of heat

He

Insoluble in water
becomes stronger
Increases, atomic
number of shells

Ne
Van der Waals
size increases,
with electrons

Ar
Increases as

the group
increases

Kr
Xe
Ra

Elements Uses
Helium  Fill up weather balloons/airships:
non-flammable, lightest gas
 Artificial atmosphere for divers:
less soluble than nitrogen in
blood
Neon  Fill advertising light bulbs:
reddish-orange
Argon  Fill electric bulbs: chemically
inert, does not react with
tungsten filament, prevent
tungsten from oxidised
Krypton  Fill high speed photographic flash
lamps
 Used in lasers to repair retina
(eye)
Xenon  Used in bubble chambers/ electron
tubes
Radon  Treat cancer: radioactive
 Group 1

 Known as alkali metals: react with water to produce alkaline solution

 General properties:
o Grey solids, shiny silver surface when freshly cut
o Turn dull immediately if exposed to air because they react with oxygen (very
reactive!)
o Soft solids (can be cut with knife)
o Good conductors of heat and electricity

 All salts of alkali metals (nitrates, carbonates, chlorides, sulphates, bromide &
iodides) are white solids and soluble in water. These salts dissolve in water to form
colourless solutions.

Elements Atomic radius Melting & Density Reactivity

(size) boiling points ----
Electropositivity
(Tendency to donate 1 valence electron)

Li
Reactivity increases down the group
Increases. K, Li, Na float on water,

Na  Atomic size increases

Increases, atomic size increases,
Increases as number of shells with

 Valence electron is further from nucleus

metallic bond between atoms

K (screened by inner shells)

 Effective nuclear charge felt by valence
Rb electron decreases
electrons increases

 Attractive force between nucleus & valence

become weaker

Cs
electron decreases
the rest sink

Fr  The single valence is released more easily

Electropositivity increases down the group

Element Reaction with water Flame test Reaction with halogens
(with oxygen)

Li Moves  Float on Red  Liberate Burns slowly  Liberate white

slowly surface of white Red flame fume then
Hiss sound water fume become white
Na Becomes  Litmus Yellow then Burns rapidly solid upon cooling
sphere red to become and brightly  Decolourise
Move blue white Yellow flame bromine/chlorine
rapidly solid vapour
and upon
randomly cooling
Hiss sound  Produce
K Becomes Lilac colourless Burns very
sphere solution rapidly & very
Burns with  Litmus randomly
lilac flame red to Lilac flame
Move very blue
rapidly &
very
randomly
Pop sound

Precautions:

1. Alkali metals are very reactive. Li, Na & K are stored in paraffin oil but Cs & Rb are
stored in sealed glass tube to prevent them from reacting with oxygen and water
vapour.
2. Do not hold these metals with bare hands. Wear safety goggles and gloves.
3. Chlorine and bromine vapours are poisonous. Wear safety goggles, gloves & do the
experiment in a fume cupboard.
 Group 17

 Halogens
 Exist as diatomic covalent molecules (di=two)
 Low melting & boiling points: weak van der Waals forces
 Low densities
 Cannot conduct electricity and heat
 Good oxidizing agent (electron acceptor)

Elements Colour
F2 Pale yellow gas

darker
Cl2 Greenish yellow gas

Br2 Reddish-brown liquid

I2 Purplish black solid

Elements Atomic radius Melting & boiling Density Reactivity

(size) points ----
Electronegativity
(Tendency to pull 1 electron)

F2
stronger, more heat energy required

Increases, bigger molecular size

Reactivity decreases down the group

Increases as number of shells with

 Number of shells occupied with electrons

Increase, bigger molecular size,
intermolecular forces becomes

Cl2 increases
 Outermost shell becomes further from
nucleues, screened by inner shells
electrons increases

 Effective nuclear charge decreases

Br2
 Attractive force decreases

Electronegativity decreases down the group

I2
 Elemen Rxn with water Rxn with iron
ts
Cl2  Potassium manganate &  Iron wool ignites rapidly  Greenish yellow gas
conc HCl  Bright flame dissolves rapidly
 Greenish yellow gas  Brown solid formed  Produces colourless
dissolves rapidly solution
 Yellow solution
 Litmus blue > red > white

Br2  Liquid bromine & distilled  Iron wool glows bright,  Reddish brown liquid
water moderately fast, less dissolves moderately
 Reddish brown liquid vigorous  Produces colourless
dissolves slowly  Brown solid formed solution
 Yellowish-brown solution
 Litmus blue > red > white
I2  Solid iodine & distilled  Iron wool glows dimly and  Purplish-black solid
water slowly dissolves slowly
 Some purplish black crystal  Brown solid formed  Produces colourless
dissolves very slowly solution
 Pale yellow solution
 No effect on blue litmus
INFO Remember! Soda lime: Absorb excess Rxn produces:
Produce Cl2 from rxn poisonous Cl2 gas, Br2 and 1. Water
between KMnO4 and I2 vapour 2. Salt of sodium
concentrated HCl. halide
Rxn produces brown solid 3. Sodium halate
known as iron (III) halide

Precautions:

Chlorine gas, bromine vapour and iodine vapour are poisonous. The use of fume cupboard is
necessary.
Elements in a Period

Period 2

Li Ne

Proton number increases

Number of valence electron increases by one

Period 3

Na Ar

Atomic radius decreases

 All atoms have 3 occupied shells
 Proton number increases
 Positive charge increases
 Pulling force by increase positive charge
increases
 Shells are pulled closer to nucleus

Electronegativity increases
 Positive charge increases
 Atomic radius decreases
 Strength of nucles to attract electrons
increases
Physical states

Solid > Liquid > Gas

Metallic properties

Metallic > Semi-metallic > Non-metallic

Electrical conductivity

Good > Semiconductors > Poor

Oxides

Basic > Amphoteric > Acidic

Transition Elements

 G3-G12
 10 elements arranged in series horizontally

Properties:

1. Electronegativity
Increases across the series

2. Physical properties:
 Atomic size = same
 Exhibit physical properties of metals:
o Shiny
o Malleable
o Ductile
o High tensile strength
o High MPT & BPT
o High densities
o Good conductors of heat & electricity

3. Special characteristics:
 Form coloured ions/ compounds
Aqueous solutions of the compounds are also coloured.

Ions/ compounds Colour

Copper (II)
Iron (II)
Iron (III)
Cobalt (II)
Nickel (II)
Manganate (VII)
Cobalt chloride
Copper (II) sulphate
Iron (II) sulphate
Iron (III) sulphate

 Rxn with NaOH or ammonia solution produces coloured precipitate of

metal hydroxides (may be soluble or insoluble in excess NaOH/ ammonia

 Exhibit different oxidation numbers (charge carried by element in a

compound) eg: +1, +2, +3
 Form complex ions

 Act as catalyst

Catalyst

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Process Catalyst Conditions

Hydrogenation (alkene) Nickel 200 C
Haber (ammonia) Iron 450-550C, 200-300atm
Contact (sulphuric acid) Vanadium (V) oxide 500C, 1 atm
Ostwald (nitric acid) Platinum 850 C, 2-5 atm
Hydrogenation (vege oil) Nickel 200 C