Chapter 9

Don’t Get Nervous About the Nervous System

One of the more difficult systems in anatomy courses is the nervous system. Usually students
know a few bones, muscles and even some ligaments, but when it comes to structures like the
corpora quadrigemina or pons they haven’t a clue where to find them. Here’s where you really
have to study from general to specific and get the big picture first.

Let’s begin by looking at the structures of the central nervous system.

The Big Picture: Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. That’s it—see, it’s not so
hard after all!

Let's begin with that fantastic complex structure between your ears; the brain.

The Big Picture: The Brain

The brain consists of four major structures. These include the cerebrum, diencephalon,
brainstem and cerebellum.

The Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the nervous system. The cerebrum consists of two
hemispheres (right and left) connected by a white matter bridge called the corpus callosum. On
the surface of the cerebrum are folds called gyri and grooves called sulci. Deep grooves are
known as fissures. Each hemisphere is divided into lobes. The lobes are the frontal, parietal,
temporal and occipital (Fig. 9.1).
Fig. 9.1. The cerebrum.

The frontal lobe processes information involving motor movements, concentration, planning
and problem solving as well as the sense of smell and emotions. The parietal lobes process
sensory information with the exception of hearing, smell and vision. The temporal lobes
process information related to hearing, smell and memory as well as abstract thought and
making judgments. The occipital lobe processes visual information.

Some lobes are divided by fissures. Along the superior aspect of the cerebrum lies the
longitudinal fissure that divides the parietal lobes. The lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure) is located
on the side and separates the temporal from parietal lobes. One sulcus called the central sulcus
is located midway on the side of the cerebrum and separates the frontal from parietal lobes.
Deep in the lateral fissure is the insula which is often referred to as a fifth lobe of the cerebrum.
Fig. 9.2 Cerebrum (superior view).

Big Picture: The Diencephalon

The diencephalon consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Some students struggle with the diencephalon. One way to think of it is that it lies between the
cerebrum and the brain stem. It consists of some great nitty gritty structures including the
thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus and epithalamus (how many thalami are there?). Most
courses will just focus on the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Big Picture: Thalamus

The thalamus is like a relay station.

The thalamus is the largest part of the diencephalon. It consists of two lateral portions
connected by a stalk called the interthalamic adhesion which is sometimes referred to as the
intermediate mass. The thalamus carries all sensory information to the cerebral cortex with the
exception of the sense of smell which is carried directly to the frontal lobe of the cerebral
cortex by the olfactory nerves. The thalamus is sometimes referred to as a relay station for
sensory information. The thalamus is also intimately involved in emotions due to its
connections to the limbic system.
Big Picture: Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is like a maintenance department.

The hypothalamus lies inferior and anterior to the thalamus. It contains the mamillary bodies
on its anterior surface. The mamillary bodies process information associated with the sense of
smell and emotions. A stalk-like projection called the infundibulum projects anterior and
inferior and connects to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is intimately connected with the
endocrine system and helps to regulate hormones. The hypothalamus also regulates body
temperature, thirst, hunger and sexual drive and is involved in processing emotions, mood, and
sleep along with the reticular activating system.

The epithalamus is located posterior and superior to the thalamus. It is a small area that works
to process the sense of smell and emotional responses. The pineal body (gland) is also located
in this area. It is a pine shaped structure that helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles by secreting
the hormone melatonin.

The subthalamus is located inferior to the thalamus. It contains nuclei that are involved in
controlling motor information.

Fig. 9.3. Thalamus and hypothalamus.

Big Picture: The Brainstem

The brainstem has 3 parts: the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.
The brainstem lies between the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain,
pons and medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the most inferior portion of the
brainstem and contains a number of centers for controlling heart rate, respiration, swallowing,
vomiting and blood vessel diameter. These centers consist of nuclei which are clusters of
neuron cell bodies. The spinal tracts also continue through the medulla connecting the spinal
cord with the brain. The medulla contains two rounded structures called olives (not the martini
kind) which consist of nuclei that help to control balance, coordination and sound information.
On the anterior surface of the medulla lie two enlargements called pyramids. The pyramids
consist of the descending spinal cord tracts.

The pons is the middle section of the brainstem. The pons also contains spinal cord tracts as
well as nuclei that help to control respiration and sleep.

The midbrain is the most superior portion of the brainstem. There is a roof (tectum) that
contains four bumps (nuclei) called the corpora quadrigemina. The two superior nuclei (bumps
on the top) are called the superior colliculli while the inferior are called the inferior colliculli
(bumps on the bottom).

The superior colliculli help to control the movement of the head toward stimuli including visual,
auditory, or touch. That means if you watching a tennis match your head follows the ball by
turning from side to side by virtue of the superior colliculi.

The inferior colliculli help to process hearing and also receive input from the skin and cerebrum.
So at the tennis match you might also hear a ball being called out by virtue of the inferior
colliculi.

The floor of the midbrain is called the tegmentum. It contains two reddish colored structures
called the red nuclei that process information for unconscious motor movements. The midbrain
also contains the cerebral peduncles (I like the term pee-duncle) that carry motor information
from the cerebrum to the spinal cord. The substantia nigra resides in the midbrain and
processes information relating to tone and coordination of muscles.

The reticular formation is located throughout the brainstem and is primarily concerned with
regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Big Picture: The Cerebellum

The cerebellum processes information for balance, coordination, fine motor movements, and
joint position.
The cerebellum is like a small version of the brain. It is located in the back of and below the
cerebrum. It is connected to the brainstem via three cerebellar peduncles (there’s that pee-
duncle word again) (superior, middle and inferior peduncles). The cerebellum contains both
gray and white matter. The white matter branches much like a tree and is called the arbor
vitae.

The cerebellum contains a number of different types of neurons but one in particular; the
Purkinjie cell is the largest cell in the brain. These cells can synapse with as many as 200,000
other fibers. Purkinjie cells are inhibitory cells and function in processing motor information.
The cerebellum can be divided into three parts. The flocculonodular lobe is the inferior portion.
The vermis constitutes the middle portion and the two lateral hemispheres make up the
remaining portion.
The cerebellum functions in processing information related to complex movements,
coordination and unconscious proprioception.

Fig. 9.4. The cerebellum is inferior and posterior to the cerebrum.

Big Picture: Limbic System

The Limbic system processes emotions.

Often called the seat of emotions, the limbic system consists of portions of both the cerebrum
and diencephalon. The limbic system is also involved in reproduction and memory (hey
emotions go with memory and reproduction). The limbic system contains the cingulate gyrus
located just superior to the corpus callosum and the parahippocampal gyrus located on the
medial aspect of the temporal lobe.
Fig. 9.5. The limbic system.

Big Picture: The Cerebral Spinal Fluid System

Fluid circulates inside and outside of your brain and spinal cord.

Here is a summary of the flow of CSF in the brain:

CSF is produced by the choroid plexi and flows between the two lateral ventricles (in the
cerebral hemispheres) through the interventricular foramen to the 3rd ventricle (near the
thalamus) through the cerebral aqueduct to the 4th ventricle (between the brainstem and
cerebellum) and on to the spinal cord (Figs. 9.6-9.8).

Did you know there are large hollow chambers inside of your brain? It’s true and these
chambers are called ventricles and contain a fluid known as cerebral spinal fluid or CSF.

Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) has to come from somewhere, and lo and behold it comes from the
good ole blood. It acts as a shock absorber and cushions the brain and spinal cord. CSF is
produced by small vascular structures called choroid plexi.

The blood vessels in a choroid plexus form a blood-brain barrier between the blood and CSF.
The capillaries inside of the brain also form a blood-brain barrier. Examples of substances that
can pass through the blood-brain barrier include lipid soluble drugs and alcohol (hmm that
explains why some people have a hard time studying after a few drinks). Water soluble
substances can also enter the brain via transport proteins.

CSF not only circulates in the subarachnoid space but also within the hollow ventricles. There
are four total ventricles in the nervous system. There are two lateral ventricles separated by a
fibrous membrane called the septum pellucidum, a third and fourth ventricle. The lateral
ventricles are located within the cerebral hemispheres. The third ventricle lies between the two
halves of the thalamus in the diencephalon. The fourth ventricle lies between the brainstem
and the cerebellum.

The ventricles are connected via foramen (holes) or tubular passages. The lateral ventricles
connect to the third ventricle via the interventricular foramen. The third ventricle connects to
the fourth via a tube passing through the midbrain called the cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of
Sylvius). The fourth ventricle connects with the central canal of the spinal cord. The fourth
ventricle also connects with the subarachnoid space via lateral and medial apertures (holes).
The median aperture is called the foramen of Magendie and the two lateral apertures are called
the foramen of Luschka.

CSF is produced by the choroid plexi that make about 500 ml/day. However some of the CSF is
absorbed so there is only about 140 ml in the system at any one time. This is due to the CSF
being absorbed by arachnoid granulations. Arachnoid granulations are masses of arachnoid
tissue located in the dural venous sinuses. CSF can move into the blood at these locations.

Fig. 9.6. Lateral ventricles and choroid plexus.

Fig. 9.7. Third and fourth ventricles.

Fig. 9.8. First though fourth ventricles of the brain.

Meninges
Cerebral spinal fluid also circulates around the outside of the brain. This is where the arachnoid
granulations that absorb cerebral spinal fluid are located.
The tissue surrounding the brain is collectively known as the meninges. The meninges consist of
three layers. These are the dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.

Dura mater—tough durable outer covering.

Arachnoid mater—middle covering. This one looks like a spider web.

Pia mater—thin, inner covering. The word “pia” is the smallest word of the three and is the
thinnest and innermost layer.

You can also think of the meninges as a nice PAD covering the brain. PAD of course stands for
pia, arachnoid and dura maters.

Between the arachnoid and pia mater layers is a space called the subarachnoid space. This is
where the cerebral spinal fluid is located.

The arachnoid granulations are located in the arachnoid mater. The connect with the venous
circulation via the venous sinuses surrounding the brain (Fig. 9.9).
Fig. 9.9. Arachnoid granulations absorb cerebral spinal fluid.

The Spinal Cord

The other large central nervous system structure is the spinal cord.

The Big Picture: Spinal Cord Structure

The spinal cord consists of a core of grey matter surrounded by white matter surrounded by
the meninges.

Let’s take a very basic look at the structure of the spinal cord. The cord begins at the foramen
magnum of the occipital bone and ends at about the second lumbar vertebra in a cone shaped
process called the conus medullaris. The remaining nerves come off the end of the cord as the
cauda equina (aka horse’s tail).

The basic structure is a core of grey matter surrounded by white matter surrounded by
meninges. There are also two nerve “roots” exiting the cord on each side. One root comes out
of the front and is called the ventral root while the other exits the back and is called the dorsal
root.

You might also notice that the spinal cord is symmetrical (like the body). The right and left sides
are connected by a bridge of grey matter called the grey commissure. Each grey matter area is
further divided into what are called horns (they kind of look like horns). There are anterior,
posterior and lateral horns.

The white matter is also divided into areas called funiculi. There are anterior, posterior and
lateral funiculi.

What’s the difference between grey and white matter? White matter looks lighter in color than
grey matter because it contains a fatty substance called myelin. We’ll talk more about myelin
later.

There are two spaces that are important as well. These are the subarachnoid space which as we
stated before is between the arachnoid and pia mater and the epidural space which is between
the dura mater and the bony walls of the spine.

Fig. 9.10. Spinal cord anatomy.

Spinal Cord Tracts

The Big Picture: Spinal Cord Tracts

Sensory information goes up. It follows ascending spinal tracts.

Motor information goes down. It follows descending spinal tracts.
One major function of the spinal cord is to carry information to and from the brain. This
information is carried by areas in the white matter called spinal tracts. Tracts are like pathways
that carry various types of information. Sensory information is carried to the brain by ascending
tracts and motor information is carried from the brain by descending spinal tracts. Some tracts
cross over (decussate) to the other side. The right side of the brain processes sensory
information and sends motor information to the left side of the body and vice versa.

Important Ascending Tracts

Some important ascending tracts include the fasciculus gracilis, fasciculus cunneatus,
spinothalamic and spinocerebellar. There are generally three neurons that carry information
from the stimulus to the brain. The first-order neuron (first neuron in the series) carries
information from a sensory receptor to the spinal cord. The second-order neuron carries the
information to an area in the brain called the thalamus and the third-order neuron carries the
information to the cortex of the brain.

The fasciculus gracilis is located in the posterior funiculus (that sounds catchy). This tract
carries information related to discriminative touch (can you tell that I touched you in two places
at the same time?), visceral pain (example = organ pain from a heart attack), vibration, and
proprioception (position of joints in space). The tract carries this information from the middle
thoracic and lower areas of the body.

The fasciculus gracilis is part of the posterior spinal cord called the dorsal column. At the middle
thoracic region (about T6) it combines with the fasciculus cunneatus. It contains first order
neurons that travel up the same side of the cord and cross over at the brainstem in an area
known as the medulla oblongata (specifically in the gracile nucleus).

The fasciculus cunneatus is also located in the posterior funiculus (still sounds catchy). It carries
the same type of information as the fasciculus gracilis from the middle to upper areas of the
body (T6 and above). It is also part of the dorsal column and its fibers cross over in the medulla
(cunneate nucleus) as well.

The second order fibers of the fasciculus gracilis and cunneatus combine to form an area known
as the medial lemniscus from the medulla oblongata to the thalamus.

The spinothalamic tract consists of two portions. The anterior and lateral spinothalamics are
located in the anterior and lateral funiculi. The spinothalamics are sometimes referred to as the
anterolateral system.

The anterior spinothalamic tract carries information related to light touch and pain. Light touch
is clinically defined as perceived sensation from stroking an area of the skin without hair. The
fibers from the anterior spinothalamic tract cross at one to two segments above their entry
point in the spine.

The lateral spinothalamic tract is an important clinical tract because it carries information
related to pain and temperature. Its fibers also cross in a way similar to the anterior
spinothalamic tract. Lesions of the lateral spinothalamic tract will result in loss of pain and
temperature. For example in a Brown-Sequard lesion (sometimes called a hemisection of the
spinal cord) there is a contralateral loss of pain and temperature below the level of the lesion as
well as a bilateral loss of pain and temperature at the segmental level of the lesion.

The spinocerebellar tract also consists of two portions. The anterior and posterior
spinocerebellar tracts are both located in the lateral funiculus. The fibers in the posterior tracts
do not cross while the anterior fibers cross at the medulla oblongata. The spinocerebellar tracts
carry information related to coordination of muscles from the lower limbs and trunk to the
cerebellum.

Important Descending Tracts

Motor tracts carry information from the brain to the effectors. These consist of the
corticospinal, rubrospinal and reticulospinal.

The corticospinal tract consists of anterior and lateral portions located in the anterior and
lateral funiculi. These tracts are sometimes referred to as the pyramidal tracts. Fibers in the
lateral tract cross over at the medulla oblongata. Fibers in the anterior portion cross at various
levels in the spinal cord. Both tracts convey motor information to skeletal muscles.

The rubrospinal tracts are located in the lateral funiculi. The fibers from these tracts cross over
in the brain and descend through the lateral funiculi. The rubrospinal tracts also carry motor
information to skeletal muscles. They also carry information about posture and coordination.

The reticulospinal tracts consist of anterior and lateral tracts. They are located in the anterior
and lateral funiculi. Some of the fibers cross while others do not. These tracts carry information
related to muscular tone and activity of sweat glands.

Here is a summary of the tracts:

Fasciculus gracilis/cunneatus—carry touch and pressure information and cross in the medulla
oblongata.

Lateral spinothalamic—carries pain and temperature information and crosses 1-2 segments
above where the information enters the cord.

Anterior spinothalamic—carries light touch and pain information and crosses 1-2 segments
above where the information enters.

Spinocerebellar—has two parts: anterior and posterior. Carries information for coordination
and the fibers do not cross.

Corticospinal—carries motor information to muscles.

Rubrospinal—carries motor information to muscles.

Reticulospinal—caries motor information for muscle tone and sweat glands.

Figure 9.11. Spinal Tracts

1a. Lateral Corticospinal 1b. Anterior Corticospinal 2a. Rubrospinal 2b. Reticulospinal 3a. Fasciculus
Gracilis 3b. Fasciculus Cunneatus 4a. Posterior Spinocerebellar 4b. Anterior Spinocerebellar 5a. Lateral
Spinothalamic 5b. Anterior Spinothalamic

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of all of the nervous system structures located outside
of the brain and spinal cord. Some of the peripheral nervous system structures we will cover
include the spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system.

Spinal Nerves
Remember those dorsal and ventral roots coming off of the spinal cord? Well they will combine
to form spinal nerves. There are 31 pair of spinal nerves. They are named after their
attachment point in the spine. For example cervical nerves are named C1-C8, thoracic T1-T12,
lumbar L1-5, and sacral S1-S5. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves and carry both sensory and
motor information. Once they exit the cord the spinal nerves branch. There are three branches:

Anterior. The ventral branch (ramus) innervates the sides and anterior trunk

Posterior. The posterior branch (sometimes called a ramus) innervates the back. It carries
sensory information from the central region of the back as well as motor information to the
muscles of the spine.
Visceral. The visceral branch becomes part of the autonomic nervous system.
There is also a meningeal branch that courses back into the spinal canal and innervates the
vertebrae, meninges, and spinal ligaments.
Spinal nerves carry sensory information from the surface of the body and motor information to
the muscles. Each nerve carries sensation from a specific area of the body called a dermatome.

Some spinal nerves combine to form complex networks called plexi. There are four major plexi
in the human body. The cervical plexus (C1-C4) innervates the posterior head and skin of the
neck. The brachial plexus (C5-T1) consists of the ventral rami (branches) from spinal nerves C5-
T1. The rami form three trunks and the trunks become six divisions which again join to form
three cords (yes, I know it’s complicated). Five branches emerge from the three cords which
constitute the major nerves of the upper extremity. These include the axillary, radial,
musculocutaneous, ulnar and median nerves.

The lumbar plexus consists of the ventral rami from spinal nerves L1-L4. The sacral plexus
consists of the ventral rami from spinal nerves L4-S4. Sometimes both plexi are referred to as
the lumbosacral plexus. The major nerves exiting the lumbosacral plexus include the obturator,
femoral, and sciatic.

Fig. 9.12. Spinal nerve.

Fig. 9.13. Dermatomes.

Cranial Nerves

Big Picture: The Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves carry sensory and motor information mostly from the head.
There are twelve pair of cranial nerves. Eleven of these originate in the diencephalon or
brainstem while one pair originates in the frontal lobe of the brain. The cranial nerves can carry
sensory information, motor information or both. The sensory information consists of touch,
pain, taste, hearing and vision. Motor information controls skeletal muscles, organs and glands.
Some cranial nerves also carry information for the parasympathetic nervous system. The cranial
nerves are usually designated as Roman numerals (I—XII).

Anatomy students really need to get the name, Roman numeral and at least some functions
down cold. Here are a couple of mnemonics to help you remember the cranial nerves:
Cranial Nerves
This was the mnemonic I used to memorize the cranial nerves. It's an oldie but goodie.

I On (Olfactory)
II Old (Optic)
III Olympus’ (Oculomotor)
IV Towering (Trochlear)
V Tops, (Trigeminal)
VI A (Abducens)
VII Finn (Facial)
VIII And (Auditory)
IX German (Glossopharyngeal)
X Viewed (Vagus)
XI Some Astounding (Accessory)
XII Hops (Hypoglossal)

Here is another old mnemonic that has to do with the type of cranial nerve.

I Some (Sensory)
II Say (Sensory)
III Marry (primarily Motor)
IV Money, (primarily Motor)
V But (Both)
VI My (primarily Motor)
VII Brother (Both)
VIII Says (Sensory)
IX Big (Both)
X Brains (Both)
XI Matter (primarily Motor)
XII More (primarily Motor)

Here is an overview of the function of the cranial nerves to help you get a handle on functions:

I. Olfactory: Carries information for sense of smell to frontal lobe.

II. Optic: Carries information for sense of sight to occipital lobe.
III. Oculomotor: Innervates eye muscles.
IV. Trochlear: Innervates superior oblique muscles of eye.
V. Trigeminal: Carries sensory information from face. Motor to masseter and temporalis
muscles (chewing muscles).
VI. Abducens: Innervates lateral rectus muscles of eye.
VII. Facial: Carries sensory information from anterior 2/3 of tongue. Motor to muscles of facial
expression.
VIII. Auditory (Vestibulocochlear): Carries information for sound, static and dynamic
equilibrium from inner ear.
IX. Glossopharyngeal: Carries sensory information for taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue.
Motor to swallowing muscles.
X. Vagus: Sensory information from esophagus, respiratory and abdominal viscera. Motor to
heart, stomach, intestines and gallbladder. Also helps to coordinate swallowing.
XI. Spinal Accessory: Motor to trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles.
XII. Hypoglossal: Motor to tongue.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The Big Picture: Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system has two parts. The sympathetic division pumps you up (fight
or flight) while the parasympathetic division calms you down.

The autonomic nervous system can be thought of as an “automatic” system because it works to
maintain homeostasis in the body even when it is in an unconscious state. The autonomic
nervous system (ANS) can control respiratory, cardiovascular, urinary, digestive and
reproductive functions. It works to maintain balance of fluids, electrolytes, blood pressure,
nutrients, and blood gasses. The ANS does this by sending motor impulses to viscera, cardiac
and smooth muscle. Since it sends motor impulses to viscera, the ANS is also known as a
visceral motor system.

The ANS is divided into two subdivisions. The sympathetic is often referred to as the
“fight or flight” system. The sympathetic division emerges from the thoracic spine. The
parasympathetic division begins in the cervical and lower thoracic spine and sends fibers to the
same organs as the sympathetic. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically have
the opposite effect on organs and thus work to maintain balance based on the body’s needs.
For example the sympathetic system can increase heart rate while the parasympathetic system
decreases it.

Cells of the Nervous System

We've been looking at the large structures of the nervous system up until now. However the
real fun is in learning how the bits and pieces work. We will now take a look at the small
structures of the nervous system, namely the neurons.
The cells of the nervous system are called neurons.

Big Picture: Neurons

Neurons are nervous system cells that talk to each other.
The neuron is the carrier of information in the nervous system. The neuron has a number of
parts but there are three basic parts you should learn:

Cell body –sometimes called the perikaryon contains many of the cell organelles we described
in chapter two. These include mitochondria, microtubules, Golgi apparatus, and a granular
cytoplasm. The cell body also contains Nissl Bodies which are membranous packets of
chromatophilic substance consisting of rough endoplasmic reticulum (remember, this makes
proteins).

Dendrites—extensions of the cell body that typically receive information from other neurons.

Axon—a long process that transmits information to other neurons. Some axons contain a
wrapping called the myelin sheath. The axon connects to the cell body via a structure called the
axon hillock. The axon ends in a structure called the axon terminal. The axon terminal releases
chemicals called neurotransmitters that carry messages to other neurons.

There are a number of different types of neurons but the one we will be learning about is called
the multipolar neuron.

Neuroglia
The nervous system also contains cells that support neurons called neuroglia. There are a few
different types of neuroglia that have a number of important functions.

Astrocytes--provide structural support and may also help in regulating electrolytes. They are
star shaped and can be found between neurons and blood vessels. Astrocytes help to maintain
the blood-brain barrier and help to repair damaged areas in the central nervous system by
forming scar tissue.

Oligodendrocytes-- produce the myelin that surrounds white matter axons in the brain and
spinal cord.

Empendymal cells-- form the lining of the central canal and ventricles in the spinal cord and
brain. They are also found in the choroid plexi of the brain. They help to produce CSF by
providing a porous membrane for blood plasma to pass through.

Microglia-- are very small cells that are located throughout the central nervous system. They
provide support and help to clean up debris through phagocytosis.

Connecting Neurons
There are literally billions and billions of connections in your nervous system. One neuron can
have up to 10,000 connections with other neurons. The axon of one neuron can connect with
the dendrites of another neuron. The connection is called a synapse.
The first neuron in a 2-neuron system is called the pre-synaptic neuron and will secrete a
neurotransmitter that floats across what is called the synaptic cleft to the second neuron called
the post-synaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter is then picked up by the dendrites of the post-
synaptic neuron.

It is important to know that neurons can only send one of two different messages:
Either a neuron can send a message to move the message forward or to hold the message back.
More about this later…

Fig. 9.14. Neuron

Fig. 9.15. A pre-synaptic neuron connects with a post-synaptic neuron.

Big Picture: How Neurons Work

Neurons talk to each other by generating electrical messages called action potentials that
result in sending messages called neurotransmitters to one another.

The Resting Membrane Potential

This can be a difficult concept to learn completely so I will attempt to simplify it. Remember in
the big picture approach it is necessary to see the big picture first before seeing all of the
details.

Let’s begin by saying that neurons don’t like to exist in an electrically balanced state. They get
unbalanced because their membranes are permeable to some substances but not to others. It
just so happens that some of those substances can move out of the cell while others are
trapped in. Since these substances have charges the cell is left with a negative charge on the
inside of its membrane.

The substances we are talking about are mostly sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). This brings us
to two important rules in human physiology:

There is always more sodium outside the cell than inside.

There is always more potassium inside the cell than outside.

Now let’s say there are some negative ions trapped inside the cell. And let’s say that potassium
can move out of the cell (remember there’s more potassium inside than out). Both of these
conditions work to provide more positive charges outside the cell than inside.

Fig. 9.16. The resting membrane potential exists because the cell membrane is negatively charged as
compared to the fluid surrounding it. There are more positive charges outside the cell than inside.
What happens next is that something stimulates the cell so that sodium gates open. Following
our rule that there is more sodium outside the cell than inside; sodium rushes into the cell as it
moves down its concentration gradient. This produces the condition in our next diagram.
Fig. 9.17. Positively charged sodium ions move into the cell causing the cell to become less
negative.

This process is called depolarization. It is best to associate sodium with depolarization.

Okay so say it with me three times:

Sodium = Depolarization--- Sodium = Depolarization--- Sodium = Depolarization

Why is it called depolarization? Well when the cell exists in its unbalanced state it is said to be
polarized. Perhaps you have a relative that takes an opposite stance on an issue than you.

You could say that with regard to that issue you and your relative are at polar opposites or
polarized. The movement of sodium into the cell tends to reduce this difference in charge from
outside to inside. This would be like you and your relative agreeing or finding some middle
ground on the issue. We say the cell is becoming less polar or depolarizing.

The cell will continue to depolarize all the way to + 30 millivolts.

Next, the sodium gates close and potassium gates take over causing potassium to move out of
the cell (actually the potassium gates were open all of the time but the net effect of potassium
moving out was negligible as compared to sodium moving in).

We say the cell is repolarizing.

The cell repolarizes all the way back to -70mV.

So where is the action potential?

As the cell depolarizes from -70mV it becomes less negative. At some point it will reach -55mV.
This is an important number because something special happens at -55mV.

-55mV is called the Threshold.

The something special that happens at the threshold is that a large number of sodium gates
open causing the cell to rapidly depolarize all the way to +30 mV. Once the cell depolarizes to -
55mV it can’t be stopped.

The action potential is the rapid change in voltage from -55mV to +30 mV.

What happens if the cell depolarizes but doesn’t reach the threshold?
Nothing. The cell just repolarizes back to -70mV.

Where are all these sodium gates that open when the threshold is reached?
They are located in the axon hillock—where the axon connects to the cell body.
What happens if potassium gates are opened when the cell is at resting membrane potential?

The cell goes into what is called hyperpolarization and no action potential is produced.
What causes the cell to depolarize or hyperpolarize in the first place?

Neurons respond to substances known as neurotransmitters. Keep in mind our physiology rule:

Neurotransmitters can do one of two things. They either move the message forward or hold
the message back.

In other words there are excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Excitatory

neurotransmitters move the message forward by depolarizing the neuron and producing and
action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters hold the message back by hyperpolarizing the
neuron and keeping it from producing an action potential. Remember that depolarization has
to do with opening sodium gates and hyperpolarization has to do with opening potassium
gates.

How the Action Potential Moves Down the Axon

There are two different types of axons. Some consist of grey matter while others have a fatty
substance called myelin surrounding them (white matter). You could think of the difference as
being similar to bare wires as compared to insulated wires.
In the grey matter axons (bare wire) the action potential moves down in a wave-like motion.
Sections of the axon depolarize causing subsequent sections to depolarize. We say the action
potential propagates down the axon.

In the white matter axons (insulated wire) action potentials move in a different way but before
we can discuss this we need to look at some other differences of white matter axons. The
myelin substance in white matter axons is produced by special cells called Schwann cells. Since
there are a number of Schwann cells that make up the myelin sheath there are gaps in the
myelin. These gaps are very special and even have a special name. They are called “Nodes of
Ranvier (Rhan-vee-ay).”

Not only do these nodes have a special name, they also have a special structure. There are large
numbers of sodium gates located at these nodes and they open in response to an action
potential. When the action potential reaches a node, the sodium gates open causing sodium to
rush into the axon. The end result is the impulse appears to jump from node to node. This also
has a special name. This type of movement of an action potential along a myelinated axon is
called saltatory conduction. One way to help remember this is to think of the salt in saltatory
which has to do with sodium gates.

What is the purpose of myelinated axons?

It turns out that saltatory conduction in myelinated axons is much faster than unmyelinated
axons. Nerve impulses have to travel a long distance in some neurons. Think of an impulse
going from the spinal cord to your big toe. That’s a lot of distance to cover. Myelinated axons
are more numerous in areas that require this fast conduction.

We can illustrate the difference in conduction speed of myelinated versus unmyelinated axons
with an analogy. We have two rows of students with twelve students in each row. The student
at the end of each row has a ball and has to get it to the student to the other end of the row as
quickly as possible. The first row is given instructions to pass the ball from one student to the
next until reaching the last student. The second row is told to throw the ball to the fourth
student who then throws it to the eighth student and so on until reaching the twelfth student
at the end of the row. The instructor tells the students to begin at the same time. Which row
will win the race? Obviously the second row wins because time is lost with the handling of the
ball by every single student in the row versus every fourth student. The first row then
represents an unmyelinated axon while the second row represents a myelinated axon.

Likewise when the myelin becomes damaged (demyelination) the impulse does not conduct as
rapidly. This can result in numbness, tingling, pain and even loss of muscle function. One
example of this problem is seen with carpal tunnel syndrome.

Release of the Neurotransmitter

Once the impulse reaches the end of the axon it enters a structure called the axon terminal.
This is where the neurotransmitter is located that will carry the message to the next neuron.
Upon reaching the axon terminal the action potential causes another ion gate to open. This
time the ion is calcium. Since these calcium gates respond to the action potential they are often
referred to as voltage gated calcium channels.

Once these calcium channels open calcium rushes into the axon terminal causing the release of
the neurotransmitter from a package called a synaptic vesicle. The neurotransmitter then
moves across the synaptic cleft to the next neurotransmitter.
Examples of Neurotransmitters
Here are a few examples of neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine: Decreases heart rate, increases secretions of sweat and saliva and facilitates
muscle contractions.

Norepinephrine: Increases heart rate, decreases circulation of blood.

Dopamine: Increases happiness and alertness.

GABA: Decreases anxiety, alertness, muscle tension and memory.

Serotonin: Increases well being and happiness, decreases pain.

Reflexes

Big Picture: Reflexes

Reflexes are involuntary responses to sensory stimuli.
One of the simplest communication structures in the nervous system is the 2-neuron reflex arc.
Think of going to the doctor and having her tap your leg just below your knee. Your usual
response is to briefly straighten your leg in a jerking motion. Sometimes this is referred to as a
monosynaptic (one synapse) reflex.

In this reflex we have only two neurons. There is a sensory neuron that carries the message that
the muscle length has changed to the spinal cord. There is also a motor neuron that carries the
message from the cord back to the muscle.

When you strike the tendon of a muscle (say the patellar tendon just below the knee) it causes
a brief lengthening of the muscle. This is sensed by a special receptor in the muscle called a
muscle spindle. The receptor takes the information about stretch to the spinal cord where it
relays it to another neuron. This neuron is a motor neuron that carries the message to contract
the muscle (to take up the slack) back to the muscle. The result is the familiar knee jerk.
Fig. 9.18. Reflex arc.

Memory

Big Picture: Memory

There are basically two types of memory. Short-term memory allows you to remember small
bits of information for brief periods. Long-term memory allows for storing lots of information
for long periods of time.

The brain is capable of storing vast amounts of information in its memory. There are two basic
types of memory. Short-term memory stores 6-8 pieces of information for brief periods. For
example a telephone number is 7 pieces of information long and can be stored for a short
amount of time until the person is asked to remember something else. Long-term memory as
its name implies allows for storage of information for much longer periods of time (as long as a
lifetime). Types of long-term memory include declarative and procedural. Declarative is
sometimes referred to as explicit and procedural is referred to as implicit.

Declarative memory occurs in part of the temporal lobes and the hippocampus and amygdala.
The hippocampus is involved in retrieving stored memories whereby the amygdala stores
emotions associated with memories. Declarative memory is also stored in various parts of the
cerebrum. Memories are grouped together as well. For example, faces may be stored in a
different location than names. Retrieving a memory involves accessing various components and
assembling them. Over time memories decay and can lead to false memories.

Procedural memory involves storing skills such as playing an instrument or driving a car.
Procedural memories are stored in the premotor area of the cerebrum and cerebellum.
Information to be remembered moves from short-term to long-term memory. Neurons in long-
term memory actually change in response to storing information. The phenomenon of long-
term potentiation occurs when memories are stored. This involves changes in neurotransmitter
storage and release as well as protein synthesis. New connections are made and maintained
between neurons. This flexible and adaptive characteristic of the brain is known as neural
plasticity.
Image Credits
Chapter 9

9.1 From: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brain_diagram_without_text.svg

Labeled by author
9.2 From: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Cerebral_lobes.png
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9.3 Modified by author from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mozok.gif
9.4 From http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Cerebellum_NIH.png
9.5 From http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Brain_limbicsystem.jpg
9.6 Modified by author from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Gray750.png
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9.8 Modified by author from:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lateral_ventricle.png
9.9 From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray769-en.svg
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9.13 From: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Dermatoms.svg
9.14 From: : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Complete_neuron
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9.18 Modified by author from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Spinal_nerve.svg
Orignial authors: Mysid (original by Tristanb)