1 Algebra

1.1 Groups
A group is a set G with binary operation

µ : G × G → G,

(notation µ(a, b) := a · b), satisfying the conditions:

1. Associativity: a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c;
2. Identity (unit, neutral) element: ∃e ∈ G, e · a = a · e = a for ∀a ∈ G.
3. Inverse elements: ∀a ∃a∗ s.t. a · a∗ = a∗ · a = e.

A group (G, µ) is called commutative (or abelian) if additionally it satisfies

4. Commutativity a · b = b · a.

For an abelian group we use additive notation µ(a, b) = a + b. Neutral

element is denoted as 0 and the opposite as −a.

Examples

1. (N, +) is not a group, but (Z, +), as well as (Q, +), (R, +), is.

2. (Z, ·) is not a group, (Q, ·) is not too, but (Q − 0, ·) and (R+ =

(0, +∞), ·) are.

3. The set
Zn = {0, 1, 2, ... , n − 1}
with following ”summation” operation
(
a+b if a + b < n
a+b=
a + b − n if a + b ≥ n

is an abelian group.
4. The set of nonsingular n × n matrices with respect to matrix multipli-
cation is a nonabelian group. It is denoted by GL(n).

Theorem 1 (a) e is unique. (b) For each a its inverse a∗ is unique.

Hint for (a). Suppose there are two units e and e0 , consider e · e0 .

Hint for (b). Suppose for an a ∈ G there are two inverses a∗ and a¯∗ ,
consider a∗ · a · a¯∗ .

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1.1.1 Homomorphisms

A homomorphism of groups f : G → G0 is a map which satisfies

f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b).

In additive notation this condition looks as

f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b).

The set of all homomorphisms G → G0 is denoted by Hom(G, G0 ). By

the way, Hom(G, G0 ) itself is a group with operation f · g(x) = f (x) · g(x)
(check!).

Identity mapping id : G → G is of course a homomorphism.

The constant map f : G → G0 , f (x) = e0 is a homomorphism (check!).

The map f : Z → Zn , f (x) = x mod n is a homomorphism (check!).

The map f : GL(n) → (R − 0, ·), f (A) = det(A) is a homomorphism

(check!).

Theorem 2 If f : G → G0 is a homomorphism then (a) f (e) = e0 ; (b) For

each a ∈ G one has f (a−1 ) = (f (a))−1 .

Hint for (a). Act with f on a ·e = e and then multiply both sides by f (a−1 )
from the left.
Hint for (b). Act with f on a · a−1 = e and use the uniqueness of inverse.
Examples

1. f : (Z, +) → (Z, +) given by f (x) = 3x is a homomorphism, but

f (x) = 3x is not (why?).
2. f : (R, +) → (R+ , ·) given by f (x) = ex is a homomorphism from
additive group (R, +) to the multiplicative group (R+ , ·). Prove this!
3. Construct a homomorphism f : (R+ , ·) → (R, +).
4. Describe homomorphisms Hom(Z, Z2 ).
5. Describe homomorphisms Hom(Z2 , Z).
6. Describe homomorphisms Hom(Z4 , Z2 ).
7. Describe homomorphisms Hom(Z2 , Z4 ).

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1.1.2 Subgroups
A subgroup H ⊂ G is a subset, which itself is a group with respect to same
operation.
In other words H is closed with respect to µ, contains e and a−1 for each
a ∈ H:
a, b ∈ H ⇒ a · b ∈ H, e ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H.
In additive setting
a, b ∈ H ⇒ a + b ∈ H, 0 ∈ H, −a ∈ H.

Is (N, +) ⊂ (Z, +) a subgroup?

S
Is (N 0, +) ⊂ (Z, +) a subgroup?

Is {odd integers} ⊂ (Z, +) a subgroup?

Is {even integers} ⊂ (Z, +) a subgroup?

Theorem 3 (a) The set nZ = {all integres divisible by n} is a subgroup

of (Z, +).
(b) Moreover, any subgroup G ⊂ Z is of this form.

Hint for (a). Just check the conditions

a, b ∈ nZ ⇒ a + b ∈ nZ, 0 ∈ nZ, −a ∈ nZ.

Hint for (b). Assume that H ⊂ Z is a subgroup. Show that H = nZ where

n is the smallest nonnegative integer in H.

For a homomorphism of groups f : G → G0 its kernel is defined as

Ker f = {x ∈ G s.t. f (x) = e0 }
and its image is defined as
Im f = {y ∈ G0 s.t. y = f (x)}.
Theorem 4 (a) Ker f is a subgroup of G.
(b) Im f is a subgroup of G0 .

Hint. Just check above three conditions.

Example
For the group Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} only the following subsets are sub-
groups:
{0}, {0, 2, 4}, {0, 3}, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

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Theorem 5 A group homomorphism f : A → B is injective iff Ker f = 0.

Proof. Suppose f (x) = f (y). Then f (x − y) = f (x) − f (y) = 0 thus

x − y ∈ Ker f and since Ker f = 0 we obtain x − y = 0 ⇒ x = y.

1.1.3 Factorgroup
Let A be an abelian group and B ⊂ A be its subgroup. Consider the following
relation a ∼ a0 if a − a0 ∈ B.

Theorem 6 This is an equivalence relation.

Proof. Let us check the needed conditions.

1. Reflectivity. a ∼ a since a − a = 0 ∈ B.
2. Symmetricity. a ∼ a0 ⇒ a0 ∼ a, indeed,

a ∼ a0 ⇒ a − a0 ∈ B ⇒ a0 − a = −(a − a0 ) ∈ B ⇒ a0 ∼ a.

3. Transitivity. Suppose a ∼ a0 and a0 ∼ a00 , then a ∼ a00 , indeed,

a − a00 = a − a0 + a0 − a00 = (a − a0 ) + (a0 − a00 ) ∈ B.

Define A/B as the set of equivalence classes.

Theorem 7 A/B is an abelian group with respect to the following operation

for α, β ∈ A/B let define α + β = cl(a + b), where a ∈ α, b ∈ β and cl(a + b)
denotes the equivalence class of a + b.

Hint. Prove that the operation α + β is correctly defined, that is if one

chooses different representatives a0 ∈ α, b0 ∈ β then cl(a + b) = cl(a0 + b0 ).
Next, determine what is the neutral element and what is the inverse in A/B.
The group A/B is called factorgroup of A by B.

Example

The set of even numbers 2Z is a subgroup of Z. The factorgroup Z/2Z

is Z2 = {0, 1}. (prove this!)

Generally Z/nZ = Zn = {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1}. (prove this!)

The map p : Z → Zn defined by p(k) = cl(k) is a homomorphism (prove

this!). What is Ker p?

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1.2 Rings and Fields
A ring (R, +, ·) is a set R with two operations: ”summation” and ”multipli-
cation” which satisfy the following axioms

1. (R, +) is an abelian group.

2. Associativity of multiplication (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
3. Distributivity a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.

A ring is called commutative if additionally

4. Commutativity of multiplication a · b = b · a.

A ring with unit satisfies one more axiom

5. Existence of neutral element for multiplication

∃1 ∈ R, 1 · a = a · 1 = a

for ∀a ∈ R.

A field is a commutative ring with unit (R, +, ·) which additionally sat-

isfies

6. Existence of inverse elements ∀a 6= 0 ∃a−1 s.t. a · a−1 = 1.

An element of a ring a ∈ R is called a zero divisor, if a 6= 0 and ∃b 6= 0

such that a · b = 0.

Theorem 8 A field can not have a zero divisor.

Hint. Assume it has and a · b = 0, a 6= 0, b 6= 0. Multiply both sides by

b−1 .
So, if a ring has a zero divisor, then it can not be a field.

Examples

1. (Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·) all are rings but Q and R are fields.

2. The abelian group Zn = {0, 1, 2, ... , n − 1} is a ring with respect to

”multiplication” (
a·b if a · b < n
a·b=
r if a · b ≥ n
where a · b = kn + r, 0 ≤ r < n.

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 3. Let X be an arbitrary set, R be a ring and

M ap(X, R) = {f : X → R}

be the set of all maps from X to R. Then M ap(X, R) is a ring with respect
to the following operations

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x).

Note that if R is a filed, generally M ap(x, R) is just a ring (why?).

4. Let Mn be the set of all n × n matrices with usual matrix summation

and multiplication. These operations turn Mn into a noncommutative ring.
But not a field: first of all this ring is not commutative, besides it has zero
divisors (Really? Which?). The subset of Gl(n) ⊂ Mn which consists of
all nondegenerate matrixes is a nonabelian group with respect to matrix
multiplication.

Theorem 9 (a) If n is composite, that is n = p · q, then Zn has zero divisors

(so Zn can not be a field in this case).
(b) If n is a prime number, then Zn has no zero divizors. Moreover, Zn
is a field in this case.

1.2.1 Ring Homomorphism

A ring homomorphism is a map f : (R, +, ·) → (R0 , +, ·) which is compatible
with both structures, i.e. f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b), f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b).

1.2.2 Subrings and Ideals

A subring of a ring (R, +, ·) is a subgroup H ⊂ (R, +) which contains the
mutiplicative unit element and is closed under multiplication.
For example, the ring Z of integers is a subring of the field of real numbers
R.
An ideal of a ring (R, +, ·) is defined as a subring H ⊂ R with additional
property: for an arbitrary r ∈ R and h ∈ H one has r · h ∈ H and h · r ∈ H.
For example the even integers 2Z form not only a subring of Z but it is
an ideal also.

Theorem 10 The kernel of a ring homomorphism is an ideal.

If H ∈ R is just a subring then the factorgroup R/H does not inherit the
product from R, i.e. this factorgroup is not generally a ring. But

Theorem 11 If H ∈ R is an ideal, then R/H is a ring and the natural map

p : R → R/H is a ring homomorphism whose kernel is H.

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1.3 The Field of Complex Numbers

C = {a + ib, a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}.
Summation (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d).
Multiplication (a + ib) · (c + id) = (a · c − b · d) + i(a · d + b · c).
Inverse element (c + id)−1 and the formula for division (a + ib) : (c + id)
find yourself.

Exercises

1. In Z5 2 + 4 equals to
(a) 6 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 3.

2. In Z6 the opposite to 4 with respect to summation is

(a) 6 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 2.

3. Which subset of (Z, +) is a subgroup

(a) N atural numbers (b) Odd numbers (c) M ultiples of 3 (d) Squaires.

4. Which subset of (Z, +) is a subgroup

(a) P ositive integers (b) N egative inteders (c) 0 (d) Intigers < 100.

5. Which subset of (Z4 , +) is a subgroup

(a) {1, 2, 3} (b) {0, 1, 2} (c) {2, 4} (d) {0, 2}.

6. Which of the following maps f : (R, +) → (R, +) is a homomorphism

(a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = 5x (c) f (x) = ex (d) f (x) = x + 1.

7. The product of complex numbers (2, 4) and (1, 3) is

(a) (2, 12) (b) (−10, 10) (c) (10, −10) (d) (14, 10).

8. The square of the complex number (0, 1) is

(a) (0, −1) (b) (−1, 0) (c) (1, −1) (d) (0, 1).

9. The inverse of the complex number (0, 1) is

(a) (0, −1) (b) (−1, 0) (c) (1, −1) (d) (0, 1).

10. Which from these rings is not a field

(a) Q (b) Z (c) R (d) C.

11. Which from these rings is a field

(a) Z4 (b) Z6 (c) Z3 (d) Z.

12. Which from these rings has no zero divisors

(a) Z4 (b) Z6 (c) Z (d) Mn .

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13. Which from these rings has zero divisors
(a) Z4 (b) Z6 (c) Z (d) Z2 .

14. 3 · 4 in Z5 equals to
(a) 12 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 3.

15. 4−1 in Z5 equals to

(a) 0.25 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 3.

16. In Z6 a zero divisor is

(a) 5 (b) 1 (c) 4 (d) 3.

17. In Z7 the opposite to 2 with respect to summation is

(a) 5 (b) − 2 (c) 4 (d) 5.

18. In Z7 the inverse to 2 with respect to multiplication is

(a) 0.5 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 5.

19. In Z7 3 − 5 is
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 5.

20. In Z7 3 : 2 is
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 5.