THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE – 20MSS31

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES - I
 TOPICS COVERED:

• Rings
• Integral Domains
• Fields
• Properties of rings
• Construction of finite fields
• Irreducible polynomials
• Primitive Irreducible polynomials
RINGS
GROUP:
A group G is denoted by {G, •}, is a set under some operations (•) if it satisfies the CAIN
properties

● Closure
● Associative
● Identity
● Inverse

ABELIAN GROUP:
A group is said to be an Abelian if it already a group and Commutative property is also
satisfied i.e (a • b) = (b • a) for all a, b in G.
In other words, a group is said to be an Abelian group if the set satisfies the commutative
property also in addition to above mentioned properties.
GROUP:
A group G is denoted by {G, •}, is a set under some operations (•) if it satisfies the CAIN
properties

● Closure
● Associative
● Identity
● Inverse

ABELIAN GROUP:
A group is said to be an Abelian if it already a group and Commutative property is also
satisfied i.e (a • b) = (b • a) for all a, b in G.
In other words, a group is said to be an Abelian group if the set satisfies the commutative
property also in addition to above mentioned properties.
TABLE REPRESENTATION:

Property Explanation

Closure a, b ∈ G, then (a • b) ∈ G
Abelian Group

Associative a • (b • c) = (a • b) • c for all a, b, c ∈ G

Group

Identity Element (a • e) = (e • a) = a for all a, e ∈ G

Inverse Element (a • a’) = (a’ • a) = e for all a, a’ ∈ G

Commutative (a • b) = (b • a) for all a, b ∈ G

EXAMPLE:
NOTATIONS:

N -> Set of all natural numbers

W -> Set of all whole numbers
Z -> Set of all integers
C -> Set of all complex numbers
Q -> Set of all rational numbers
R -> Set of all real numbers
Z⁺ -> Set of all positive numbers
Z⁻ -> Set of all negative numbers
Z* -> Set of all integers except zero
CYCLIC GROUP:
A group G denoted by {G, •} is said to be a cyclic group, it if contains atleast one generator
element.

Eg.
RINGS:
In abstract algebra, "rings" are algebraic structures that combine two binary
operations: addition and multiplication. They are an important concept in algebra,
and they serve as a generalization of the familiar structure of the integers. Let's dive
into the definition and properties of rings.

Definition:
A set R, together with two binary operations, addition (+) and multiplication (⋅), is
called a "ring" (denoted by {R, +, *}) if it satisfies below properties.
AXIOMS/PROPERTIES:
For Addition,
● Closure under addition: For any a and b in R, a + b is also in R.
● Associativity of addition: For any a, b, and c in R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
● Commutativity of addition: For any a and b in R, a + b = b + a.
● Existence of an additive identity: There exists an element 0 in R such that,
for any a in R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a.
● Existence of additive inverses: For every a in R, there exists an element -a
in R such that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0.

For Multiplication,
● Closure under multiplication: For any a and b in R, a ⋅ b is also in R.
● Associativity of multiplication: For any a, b, and c in R, (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b
⋅ c).
EXAMPLES:
● Integers (Z):
○ The set of integers is a ring.
○ Addition and multiplication are the usual integer addition and
multiplication operations.
○ It satisfies all the ring properties mentioned earlier.

● Rational Numbers (Q):

○ The set of rational numbers is a ring.
○ Addition and multiplication are the usual rational number addition
and
○ multiplication operations.
○ It satisfies all the ring properties.
REFERENCES:
● Ring Definition (expanded) - Abstract Algebra
● Group and Abelian Group
● Rings, Fields and Finite Fields
● https://www.nesoacademy.org/cs/11-cryptography-and-network-
security/ppts/02-abstract-algebra-&-number-theory
INTEGRAL
DOMAINS
 An integral domain is a special type of ring in
which multiplication is commutative and has no
zero divisors. Formally, an integral domain
D is a ring with the following additional
property
A non -trivial ring(ring containing
at least two elements) with unity is
said to be an integral domain if it is
commutative and contains no
divisor of zero ..
Zero Divisor Absence: If a,b are
non-zero elements in D, then
their product a⋅b is also
non-zero.
 In other words, an integral domain is a
commutative ring without zero divisors,
where "zero divisor" refers to a non-zero
element a such that there exists a
non-zero element b with a⋅b=0.
•Ring but not an Integral Domain: The
set of integers Z with the usual addition
and multiplication forms a ring, but it is
not an integral domain because it
contains zero divisors (e.g., 2⋅3=62⋅3=6
in Z).
•Integral Domain: The set of integers Z
excluding zero, equipped with the usual
addition and multiplication, forms an
integral domain.
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
FIELDS
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE

• AN ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE IS A SET WITH ONE OR MORE

FINITARY OPERATIONS DEFINED ON IT THAT SATISFIES A LIST OF
LAWS/ AXIOMS.

• SETS WITH ONE OR MORE OPERATIONS THAT OBEY SPECIFIC

LAWS ARE CALLED ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
FIELDS
• A field is a set with the two binary operations of addition and
multiplication, both of which operations are commutative, associative,
contain identity elements, and contain inverse elements.
• The identity element for addition is 0, and the identity element for
multiplication is 1.
• Given x, the inverse element for addition is -x, and the multiplicative
inverse element for multiplication is 1/x (x ≠ 0).
• multiplication distributes over addition.
EXAMPLE
• One example is the field of rational numbers Q, that is all
numbers q such that for integers a and b, q=ab where b ≠ 0. The
definition of a field applies to this number set.
• the set of real numbers R is also a field. Since Q⊂R (the rational
numbers are a subset of the real numbers), we can say that Q is a
subfield of R. Alternatively we can say that R is an extension of Q.
why R is a field ?

• Suppose that a,b,c,d ∈ R. We know that R has addition and multiplication

as binary operations since (a+b)=c for some c, and ab=d for some d.
Furthermore, we know that addition and multiplication defined on real
numbers is both commutative and associative.

• Additionally, the identity element for addition is 0, since ∀ x ∈ R, x+0=x,

and the identity element for multiplication is 1, since 1x=x.

• Lastly, the inverse element for addition is -x, since x+(−x)=0 (0 being the
identity for addition), and the inverse element for multiplication 1/x since
x⋅1x=1 when x ≠ 0.
why Z is NOT a field ?

• We note that for x ∈ Z, our multiplicative inverse 1/x. Note

that if x≠±1, then our inverse 1/X ∉ Z. For example, if x = 3,
then our multiplicative inverse would be 1/3, but 1/3 is not
an integer. Therefore, Z is not a field
EXAMPLE

• Given that S is a set such that S={x ∈ R : x>0}, explain why S is

NOT a field.

• Suppose that x ∈ S. The identity element for addition would be

0, and the inverse for addition −x. We note that all elements in S
are positive, hence all inverses for addition must be negative.
However once again, x^−1 ∉ S, therefore S is not a field.
PROPERTIES OF RINGS
 CLOSURE PROPERTY

● Closure property for addition and multiplication is

satisfied in a ring

● That is , for any elements a and b in a ring, a+b and

a*b must also be in the ring
 ABELIAN GROUP
● An abelian group -> commutative group
Where applying the group operation to does not depend on the
order .

● [R; +] (addition operation on rings) is an Abelian group

● A ring in which multiplication is a commutative operation is called a

commutative ring.
 ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

● Addition and multiplication operations are associative

in R

● That is a+b and a*b on any element will belong to R

 IDENTITY
Additive identity : -
− Condition : a+0 = 0+a = a

Multiplicative identity :-
− Condition : a1 = 1a = a
 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY OF
MULTIPLICATION
● Multiplication is distributive over addition

− a*(b+c) = (a*b) + (a*c)

− (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
 INVERSE
● Additive inverse :
− Condititon : a + (-a) = 0

● Multiplicative inverse :
− Condition : a0 = 0a = 0
 ISOMORPHIC RINGS

● Let [R;+,⋅] and [R′;+′,⋅′] be rings. Then R is isomorphic to R′ if

and only if there exists a function, f:R→R′, called a ring
isomorphism, such that
− f is a bijection (it is both one-one and onto )

− f(a+b) = f(a)+′f(b), for all a,b∈R

− f(a⋅b)=f(a)⋅′f(b), for all a,b ∈R.

 SUBRING
● A nonempty subset S of a ring [R;+,⋅] is a subring of R
if and only if
− [S;+] is a subgroup of the group [R;+];
- S is closed under multiplication
− if a,b∈S, then a⋅b∈S.
 Zero divisors

● Let [R;+,⋅] be a ring. If a and b are two nonzero

elements of R such that a⋅b=0, then a and b are called
zero divisors.
 MULTIPLICATIVE CANCELLATION LAW

● The multiplicative cancellation laws are satisfied in a

ring [R;+,⋅] if and only if R has no zero divisors.

INTEGRAL DOMAIN : A commutative ring with unity

containing no zero divisors is called an integral domain.
CONSTRUCTION OF FINITE
FIELDS
 FINITE FIELDS
• Finite fields or Galois field (named in honor of Evariste
Galois).
• It is a field that contains a finite number of elements.
• With any other field, a finite field is a set on which the
operations of multiplication, addition, subtraction and
division are satisfy certain basic rules.
• The most common e.g. (mod p) where, p is a prime number.
 APPLICATIONS
It is widely used in Mathematics and Computer Science
• Number theory
• Algebraic geometry
• Galois theory
• Finite Geometry
• Cryptography
• Coding theory.
 PROPERTIES OF FINITE FEILDS
• It can be shown that finite fields have order pn, where p is a prime.
• It can be shown that for each prime p and each positive integer n, there is up
to isomorphism, a unique finite field of order pn
• Let GF(pn) represent a finite field of order pn.
• It can be shown that for each positive integer n there exists an irreducible
polynomial of degree n over GF(p) for any p.
• It can be shown that for each divisor m of n, GF(pn) has a unique subfield of
order pm. Moreover, these are the only subfields of GF(pn).
 CONSTRUCATION OF FINITE FIELDS

To construct GF(pn), first find an irreducible polynomial I of

degree n, with coefficient in Zp.
n n-1 n-2
Let GF(p ) = {an-1x + an-2x + … + a1x + a0 | ai є Zp}
(Note that here addition is done modulo Zp while
multiplication is done modulo I)
 EXAMPLE
F(x) = x3 + x + 1 here, m = 3, 23 = 8
Put x = ∝
F(∝) = ∝ 3 + ∝ + 1
∝3+∝+1=0
∝3 =-∝-1 (there is no - ve in finite field
construction)
∴ ∝3 = ∝+1
Put x = ∝4
F(∝4) = ∝ . ∝ 3
= ∝ ( 1+ ∝) = ∝+∝2

Put x = ∝5
F(∝5) = ∝ . ∝ 4
= ∝ (∝ + ∝ 2) = ∝2 + ∝ 3 = ∝ 2 + 1+ ∝
Put x = ∝6

F(∝6) = ∝ . ∝ 5

= ∝ (∝ 2 + 1+ ∝)

= ∝3 + ∝ + ∝ 2

= ∝ + 1 + ∝ + ∝2

= ∝ + 1 + ∝ + ∝ 2 (Same values get canceled)

= 1 + ∝2
Put x = ∝7
F(∝7) = ∝ . ∝ 6
= ∝ (1 + ∝ 2)
= ∝ + ∝3
= ∝ + 1 + ∝ (same values get cancelled)
= 1
Irreducible
Polynomial
• An irreducible polynomial is a polynomial that cannot be expressed as the
product of two or more polynomials with coefficients in a given field or ring.

For example, in the field of real numbers, the polynomial x^2 + 1 is

irreducible, because it cannot be written as the product of two polynomials
with real coefficients. On the other hand, the polynomial x^2 - 2 is reducible,
because it can be written as the product (x-sqrt(2))(x+sqrt(2)).

Definition
 1) The degree of an irreducible polynomial must be greater than 1.

2) An irreducible polynomial cannot have any repeated roots, because if it did, it could
be written as the product of two polynomials with lower degree.

3) The product of two irreducible polynomials is not necessarily irreducible.

4) Every polynomial of degree 1 (a linear polynomial) is irreducible.

5) The polynomial x is irreducible over any field.

Properties
i) Given a polynomial f(x) over a finite field F, check if f(x) has a linear factor of the form
(x-a) for some a in F. If it does, then f(x) is reducible. Otherwise, proceed to the next
step.

ii) Compute the discriminant of f(x). The discriminant of a polynomial is a quantity that is
related to the roots of the polynomial, and can be used to determine whether the
polynomial is irreducible. In particular, if the discriminant of f(x) is a non-square element
in F, then f(x) is irreducible. If the discriminant is a square element in F, then f(x) may be
reducible, and further testing may be necessary.

iii) If the discriminant of f(x) is a non-square element in F, then f(x) is irreducible.

Otherwise, f(x) may be reducible, and further testing may be necessary. Use a
polynomial factorization algorithm such as the quadratic sieve or the general number
field sieve to factor f(x) into a product of irreducible polynomials .

Finding irreducible polynomial

 Example sum

Prove that x^4 + x^3 + x^2 +x + 1 is irreducible in Z2 [ x ].

Solution:

Lets take x^4 + x^3 + x^2+ x + 1 as reducible.

Then degree of f(x) and g(x) can be (3,1) , (2,2) , (1,3).

f(x) = x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + 1

f(0) = 1 in Z2.
f(1) = 1+1+1+1+1 = 1 in Z2.

Using factor theorem , we could say that x – 0 and x – 1 are not factors.
 Since there is no linear factor in Z2[x] , case 1 and 3 are not possible.

f(x) = x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + 1 = g(x).h(x)

where g(x) and h(x) are degree 2 polynomial since f(x) is a monic polynomial.

So lets assume
x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + 1 = ( x^2 + ax + b) ( x^2 + cx + d )
By multiplying,
= x^4 + ( a+c )x^3 + ( b+ ac + d )x^2 + ( ad + bc )x + bd

From these , we take

a + c = 1 ------------- 1
b + ac + d =1---------2
ad + bc =1 ------------3
bd = 1 ------------------4

Example sum
 Example sum

From 4
b=1 and d=1 in Z2
From 2
ac=1 in Z2
a = 1 and c = 1
a + c =0 in Z2 which is a contradiction to 1
Case 2 is not possible
Since 3 cases are not possible ,
f(x) = x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + 1 is irreducible.
Primitive Irreducible
Polynomial
Introduction

Irreducible Polynomial: An irreducible polynomial is a polynomial that

cannot be factored into non-constant polynomials over the same field.
In other words, it cannot be broken down into simpler components.

Primitive Polynomial: A primitive polynomial is a polynomial with

coefficients in a finite field that generates all non-zero elements of that
field when taken to successive powers. In other words, it has no
repeated roots and is a generator for the field.

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Irreducible Polynomial

let R be an Integral domain a polynomial f(x) ∈ R[x] of positive

degree is irreducible over R if it can’t be expressed as a product
of two polynomial of positive degree.
Or
if f(x) = g(x).h(x)
either g(x) or h(x) is a unit

57
 2
1) f(x) = x +1 over z and c
f(x) = x2+1

f(x)=(x-i)(x+i) where i ∉ Z

f(x) is irreducible over Z (integer)

but f(x) is reducible over C(complex number)

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 2
2) f(x) = x -3 over Z and R
f(x) = x2 - (√3) 2

f(x)= (x-√3)(x+√3) where √3 ∉ Z

f(x) is irreducible over Z (integer)

but f(x) is reducible over R(Real number, √3 ∈ R)

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Primitive Polynomial
o

60
 2
1) f(x) =x -2x-3 is a primitive over Z
If C(f) = gcd(1,-2,-3) = 1

Therefore f(x) is primitive but,

x(x-3)+ 1(x-3) = (x+1)(x-3) = g(x).h(x)

Therefore we can conclude that it is primitive and reducible over Z

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Few examples of primitive irreducible polynomials over the finite field GF(2),

which has elements {0, 1}:

i) x^3 + x + 1:

f(0) = 1 ≅ 1

f(1) = 1+1+1 ≅ 1

therefore it is irreducible ,

c(f) = gcd(1,1,1) = 1

therefore it is primitive irreducible polynomial

62
Few examples of primitive irreducible polynomials over the finite field GF(2),

which has elements {0, 1 }:

i) x^4 + x^3 + 1

f(0) = 1 ≅ 1

f(1) = 1+1+1 ≅ 1

f(2) = 16+8+1 ≅ 1

therefore it is irreducible ,

c(f) = gcd(1,1,1) = 1

therefore it is primitive irreducible polynomial

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