See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/229839605

Land Cover Classification System (LCCS): Classification Concepts and User

Manual

Book · January 2000

CITATIONS READS

547 1,700

2 authors, including:

Louisa J M Jansen
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
39 PUBLICATIONS   1,100 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Global programme to support the implementation of the "Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries
and Forests in the Context of National Food Security" (VGGT) View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Louisa J M Jansen on 19 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Land Cover Classification System (LCCS):
Classification Concepts
and
User Manual
For software version 1.0

by

Antonio Di Gregorio

and

Louisa J.M. Jansen

Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN)

GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover – East Africa Project
Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service (AGLS)

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1998

The conclusions given in this report are considered appropriate at the time of its preparation. They
may be modified in the light of further knowledge gained at subsequent stages of the project.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory, city or sea area
or of its authorities, or concerning the delineation of its frontiers or boundaries.

© FAO 1998
 iii

Land Cover Classification System (LCCS): Classification Concepts and User Manual.
Di Gregorio, A., and Jansen, L.J.M. Environment and Natural Resources Service, GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover - East
Africa Project and Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service. 157pages, 28 figures and 3 tables.
FAO, Rome. 1998.

SUMMARY

The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) is a comprehensive, standardized a priori

classification system, designed to meet specific user requirements, and created for mapping
exercises, independent of the scale or means used to map. Any land cover identified
anywhere in the world can be readily accommodated. The classification uses a set of
independent diagnostic criteria that allow correlation with existing classifications and
legends.

Land cover classes are defined by a combination of a set of independent diagnostic criteria
– the so-called classifiers – which are hierarchically arranged to assure a high degree of
geographical accuracy. Because of the heterogeneity of land cover, the same set of
classifiers cannot be used to define all land cover types. The hierarchical structure of the
classifiers may differ from one land cover type to another. Therefore, the classification has
two main phases:

• an initial Dichotomous Phase, where eight major land cover types are distinguished;
and

• a subsequent Modular-Hierarchical Phase where the set of classifiers and their

hierarchical arrangement are tailored to the major land cover type.

This approach allows the use of the most appropriate classifiers and reduces the total
number of impractical combinations of classifiers. Because of the complexity of the
classification and the need for standardization, a software program has been developed to
assist the interpretation process. This will reduce heterogeneity between interpreters and
between interpretations over time. Because of the flexible manner in which the
classification is set up, with creation of classes at different levels of the system and the
optional use of modifiers, environmental attributes and specific technical attributes in
combination, coupled with the tremendous number of classes possible, this innovative
software program assists the user to select the appropriate class using a step-by-step
process, i.e., classifier by classifier. The software program will be available both as a stand-
alone product and integrated into a digital image interpretation software suite which will
allow interpretation of imagery followed by labelling of the mapping units with the land
cover classes.

The classification system leads to mutually exclusive land cover classes, which comprise:
(1) a unique Boolean formula (a coded string of classifiers used); (2) a standard name; and
(3) a unique numerical code. Both the numerical code and standard name can be used to
build an automatically generated Legend, with the classes created grouped according to the
main land cover categories and their domains according to the level of detail. The
nomenclature can be linked to a user-defined name in any language.

Further definition of the Land Cover Class can be achieved by adding attributes. Two types
of attributes, which form separate levels in the classification, are distinguished:
 • Environmental Attributes: these are attributes (e.g., climate, landform, altitude, soil,
lithology and erosion) which influence land cover but are not inherent features of it
and should not be mixed with “pure” land cover classifiers; and

• Specific Technical Attributes: these are associated with specific technical disciplines
(e.g., for (Semi-)Natural Vegetation, the Floristic Aspect can be added; for Cultivated
Areas, the Crop Type; and for Bare Soil, the Soil Type).

All Primarily Vegetated land cover classes are derived from a consistent physiognomic-
structural conceptual approach that combines the classifiers Life Form, Cover and Height
(in (Semi)Natural Vegetation) and Life Form (in Cultivated Areas) with Spatial
Distribution. The Primarily Non-Vegetated classes have a similar approach, using
classifiers which deal with surface aspects, distribution/density and height/depth.

The advantages of the classifier, or parametric, approach are manifold. The system created
is a highly flexible a priori land cover classification in which each land cover class is
clearly and systematically defined, thus providing internal consistency. The system is truly
hierarchical and applicable at a variety of scales. Re-arrangement of the classes based on re-
grouping of the classifiers used facilitates extensive use of the outputs by a wide variety of
end-users. Accuracy assessment of the end product can be generated by class or by the
individual classifiers forming the class. All land covers can be accommodated in this highly
flexible system; the classification could therefore serve as a universally applicable reference
base for land cover, thus contributing towards data harmonization and standardization.

Keywords:
land cover, classification, classification system, standardization, harmonization.
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) is the result of an initiative to take a first
step towards an internationally agreed reference base for land cover. The objectives of the
Africover Programme of the Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN), FAO,
are to develop an approach for concepualizing, defining and classifying land cover that
coincides with the UNEP/FAO initiative on harmonization of land cover and land use
classifications. The first full operational version of the classification and software program
has been developed for implementation by the first project to use this classification system,
the Government of Italy Trust Fund project GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover - East Africa
Project in collaboration with the Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN) and
the Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service (AGLS) of FAO.

These land cover classification concepts were discussed and endorsed at the meeting of the
international Working Group on Classification and Legend (Senegal, July 1996) supported
by Government of France Trust Fund GCP/RAF/311/FRA (FAO, 1997).

The following are thanked for their substantial contribution to the software application:
Luca Morandini , Antonio Martucci, and Wolfgang Prante, for the software programming;
Keya Choudhury, for preparing the Glossary; and Thorgeir Lawrence, for the technical
editing of the text. In general, the support of John Latham, Dominique Lantieri, Denis Sims
and Freddy Nachtergaele is appreciated.

For valuable feedback and review of the classification system, discussions with a wide
range of experts from all over the world were appreciated. Those who attended the
Africover Workshop on Classification and Legend, Sally Portudal, Senegal, July 1996, are
thanked, as well as those who responded to earlier versions of the system, especially the
U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee - Vegetation Subcommittee and Earth Cover
Working Group, Washington, October 1996 and Rome, January 1997 (with special thanks
to Gyde Lund of the USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C.); the LANES concerted
action funded under the 4th Framework Programme of Research on Environment and
Climate of the European Commission, which focused on the development of a harmonized
framework for multipurpose land cover and land use information (with special thanks to
Christophe Duhamel of CESD-Communautaire, Luxembourg, co-ordinating the LANES
concerted action). Furthermore, Prof. Dr. Salomon B. Kroonenberg of the Geology Section,
Subfaculty of Applied Earth Sciences, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, is
thanked for provision of the information on lithology. Finally, UNEP is gratefully
acknowledged for the financial contribution to this publication.

Antonio Di Gregorio and Louisa J.M. Jansen, August 1998

 CONTENTS

SUMMARY iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

PART A - LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM:

A DICHOTOMOUS, MODULAR-HIERARCHICAL APPROACH

CLASSIFICATION CONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter 1. DEFINITIONS 3
1.1 Land Cover 3
1.2 Classification and Legend 3
1.3 Hierarchical versus Non-Hierarchical Systems 5
1.4 A priori and A posteriori Systems 5
Chapter 2. THE CONCEPTUAL BASIS 7
2.1 Problems with Current Classification Systems 7
2.1.1 Purpose 7
2.1.2 Consistency 8
2.1.3 The Underlying Common Principle 8
2.1.4 A priori Classification Systems 9
2.2 The Basis for A New Approach 11
2.2.1 Adopted Definition of Land Cover 11
2.2.2 A New Approach To Classification 11
2.3 The Land Cover Classification System: Design Criteria 12
2.3.1 Dichotomous Phase 15
2.3.2 Modular-Hierarchical Phase 15
2.3.3 Concepts for the Primarily Vegetated Areas 19
2.3.3.1 Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation 20
2.3.3.2 Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas 28
2.3.4 Concepts for the Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas 32
2.3.4.1 Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas 32
2.3.4.2 Bare Areas 32
2.3.4.3 Artificial and Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice 33
 vii

2.3.5 Environmental and Specific Technical Attributes 35

2.3.5.1 Environmental Attributes 35
2.3.5.2 Specific Technical Attributes 36
2.4 The Advantages of the Adopted Method 38
2.4.1 Advantages From the Conceptual Point of View 38
2.4.2 Advantages From the Practical Point of View 39
2.5 From Classification to Legend 41
2.5.1 The Minimal Mapable Area Concept 41
2.5.2 The Occurrence of Mixed Mapping Units 42

PART B - LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: USER MANUAL

Chapter 3. INSTALLATION 45
Chapter 4. OPERATION 47
Chapter 5. THE PROGRAM MODULES 51
5.1 Classification 51
5.1.1 Purpose 51
5.1.2 Dichotomous Phase 52
5.1.3 Modular-Hierarchical Phase 57
5.2 Legend 57
5.2.1 Purpose 57
5.2.2 How to Create A Legend 57
5.2.3 Add User-Defined Attribute 59
5.2.4 Display 60
5.2.5 Edit 62
5.2.6 Standard Description 62
5.2.7 Classifiers Used 63
5.2.8 Print 63
5.2.9 Save/Retrieve 63
5.2.10 Export/Import 64
5.2.11 New Legend 65
5.2.11 Return 65
5.3 Field Data 66
5.3.1 Purpose 66
5.4 Translator 66
5.4.1 Purpose 66
5.4.2 How to Translate A Classification or Legend 67
5.4.3 Comparison of External Classes 70
5.4.3 Comparison of Two LCCS Classes 72

REFERENCES 75
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 79
APPENDICES 81
A. Glossary of Classifiers, Modifiers and Attributes 83
B. Presentation of Major Land Cover Categories 151
C. Overview of Classifiers, Modifiers and Attributes Coding 163
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Abstract presentation of a classification consisting of a continuum with two gradients:

circles and triangles in red and white (From Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).

2. Concrete situation in the field in a particular area (From Kuechler and Zonneveld,
1988).

3. Legend as application of a classification in a particular area.

4. Example of an a priori (above) and a posteriori (below) classification of a concrete

situation in the field (adapted from Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).

5. Example of description of land cover using a different underlying principle.

6. Problem of the current a priori classifications in relation to their flexibility.

7. Overview of the Land Cover Classification System, its two phases and the classifiers.

8. The Modular-Hierarchical Phase: example of tailoring of the classifiers and attributes

for the “Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Lands” (left) and “Natural and Semi-
Natural Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Vegetation” (to the right).

9. Main Structural Vegetation Domains (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 1996).

10. Example from the East Africa Project, with variable minimal mapable areas (not at
original scale).

11. The Actions Panel in the Classification Module.

12. The Dichotomous Phase with the classifier options Primarily Vegetated – Terrestrial –
Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation selected.

13. Example of the classifiers and attributes of two major land cover types: Cultivated and
Managed Terrestrial Areas (A11) and Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation
(A12).

14. Example of classifier options at different levels of detail (major land cover type A12 –
classifier Life Form with a first general level and a second more detailed level).

15. Example of modifier that further defines a classifier option (major land cover class A12
– classifier Leaf Phenology with modifier options Mixed and Semi-Deciduous).

16. Examples of Show Class windows with a land cover class defined in the Natural and
Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation major land cover type.

17. Example of Show Class window with a land cover class with additional environmental
attributes: Landform and Climate.

18. Example of use of the Specific Technical Attribute Floristic Aspect.

19. From the Classification Module to Legend: window in which the user has to select
whether or not the land cover class is part of a Mixed Unit.

20. Window with the options for definition of the Type of Clone in order to add a User-
Defined Attribute.

21. Example of Legend User-Defined Attribute.

22. Example of the Legend Display.

23. Example of Legend Standard Description.

24. Example of Legend Classifiers Used.

25. First screen of Import.

26. Retrieving individual land cover classes from the Legend Module into the Translator –
Import facility.

27. First screen of the Similarity Assessment in which the reference land cover class is
selected and second screen in which a number of options need to be selected.

28. Comparison of two external classes using LCCS as reference classification system.

LIST OF TABLES

1. Distinction at the main Dichotomous level and the second level.

2. Distinction at the third level of the Dichotomous Phase into eight major land cover
types.

3. Example of the formation of land cover classes.

– PART A –

Land Cover Classification System:

A Dichotomous,
Modular-Hierarchical Approach

Classification Concepts
Land Cover Classification System 1

INTRODUCTION

Classification is easy:
it is something you just do.
F.C. Bawden

A fool sees not the same tree

that a wise man sees.
W. Blake, Marriage of Heaven and Hell

The main resource controlling primary productivity for terrestrial ecosystems can be
defined in terms of land: the area of land available, land quality and the soil moisture
characteristics. Despite successful substitution of land-based resources with fossil fuels and
mineral resources, land remains of prime importance (Darwin et al., 1996). Land cover and
land use represent the integrating elements of the resource base. Changes in land cover and
land use affect the global systems (e.g., atmosphere, climate and sea level) or they occur in
a localized fashion in enough places to add up to a significant total (Meyer and Turner,
1992). Land cover is the expression of human activities and as such changes with
alterations in these. Hence, land cover is a geographical feature which may form a reference
base for applications ranging from forest and rangeland monitoring, production of statistics,
planning, investment, biodiversity, climate change, to desertification control.

People have reshaped the earth continually but the present magnitude and rate are
unprecedented. Nowadays it is realized that it is very important to know how land cover has
changed over time, in order to make assessments of the changes one could expect in the
(near) future and the impact these changes will have on peoples’ lives. As people are the
main users of the land, it is important for any system to be oriented towards them.

Due to the lack of appropriate land cover data, many assessments have used models to
delimit potential land cover (e.g., Alexandratos, 1995). Although the use of potential land
cover is important in modelling simulated future scenarios, there are major limitations.
Information describing current land cover is an important input for planning and modelling,
but the quality of such data defines the reliability of the simulation outputs (Townshend,
1992; Belward, 1996).

In addition to a high demand for improved land cover data sets because of an increasing
need to be able to precisely describe and classify land cover in order to develop sustainable
land use systems, there is also a growing need for standardization and compatibility
between data sets and for the possibility to map, evaluate and monitor wide areas (Di
Gregorio, 1991, Reichert and Di Gregorio, 1995; Thompson, 1996; FAO, 1995 and 1997).
Technical advances, such as the vast amount of remote sensing data that has become
available from earth observation satellites, makes this increasingly possible (Di Gregorio,
1995).

In 1993, UNEP and FAO organized a meeting to catalyse co-ordinated action towards
harmonization of data collection and management and to take a first step towards an
internationally agreed reference base for land cover and land use (UNEP/FAO, 1994). The
Africover Programme of the Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN), which
intends to map land cover for the whole of Africa, needed a land cover reference system for
operational use.
2 Part A: Classification Concepts – Introduction

The objectives of the Africover Programme are to:

• respond to the need for land cover data of a variety of end-users;

• apply the methodology in mapping exercises, independent of the means used, which
may range from high resolution satellite imagery to aerial photography;

• link with existing classifications and legends, allowing comparison and correlation;
and

• support, to the extent possible, international ongoing initiatives on classification and

definition of land cover.

The main objective of the initiative for definition of a reference classification is to respond
to the need for standardization (or harmonized collection of data, as mentioned in
UNCED’s Agenda 21 Chapter 10, for which FAO is Task Manager within the UN system)
and to develop a common integrated approach to all aspects of land cover. This implies a
methodology that is applicable at any scale, and which is comprehensive in the sense that
any land cover identified anywhere in the world can be readily accommodated.

Existing published classifications and legends, as well as nomenclatures, were analysed

(Danserau, 1961; Fosberg, 1961; Eiten, 1968; UNESCO, 1973; Mueller-Dombois and
Ellenberg, 1974; Anderson et al., 1976; Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988; CEC, 1993;
UNEP/FAO, 1994; Duhamel, 1995; Beek, De Bie and Driessen, 1997), together with
relevant FAO documents (Nègre, 1995; Barisano, 1996; Wyatt et al., unpubl.).

The initial concepts of the classification were discussed by the international Africover
Working Group on Classification and Legend (Senegal, July 1996) (Di Gregorio and
Jansen, 1996c; FAO, 1997). While fully developing the system, links with other
international ongoing activities on classification of land cover were developed, such as the
U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) - Vegetation Subcommittee and Earth
Cover Working Group (ECWG); the South African National Land Cover Database Project
(Thompson, 1996); and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) - Data
and Information System (DIS) Land Cover Working Group and Land Use and Land Cover
Change (LUCC) Core Project. The first full operational version of the classification and
software program has been developed by project GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover - East
Africa in co-operation with the Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service
(AGLS), FAO.

The approach developed for land cover could serve as the basis for a reference classification
system with links to specific expertise, because it describes and allows correlation of land
cover with a set of independent diagnostic criteria, the so-called classifiers, rather than
being nomenclature based. Also, existing classifications and legends can be “translated”
into the reference system, thus facilitating the use of existing historical materials. Re-
arrangement of the classes, based on re-grouping of the used classifiers, facilitates the
extensive use of the outputs by a wide variety of end-users.
Land Cover Classification System 3

1. DEFINITIONS

1.1 LAND COVER

The definition of land cover is fundamental, because in many existing classifications and
legends it is confused with land use. It is defined as:

Land cover is the observed (bio)physical cover on the earth's surface.

When considering land cover in a very pure and strict sense it should be confined to
describe vegetation and man-made features. Consequently, areas where the surface consists
of bare rock or bare soil are describing land itself rather than land cover. Also, it is
disputable whether water surfaces are real land cover. However, in practise, the scientific
community usually describes those aspects under the term land cover.

Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a
certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it. Definition of land use in this way
establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their environment.

The following examples are a further illustration of the above definitions:

• “grassland” is a cover term, while “rangeland” or “tennis court” refer to the use of a
grass cover; and

• “recreation area” is a land use term that may be applicable to different land cover
types: for instance sandy surfaces like a beach; a built-up area like a pleasure park; or
woodlands; etc.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND LEGEND

Classification is an abstract representation of the situation in the field using well-defined
diagnostic criteria: the classifiers (Figures 1 and 2). Sokal (1974) defined it as: “the
ordering or arrangement of objects into groups or sets on the basis of their relationships.” A
classification describes the systematic framework with the names of the classes and the
criteria used to distinguish them, and the relation between classes. Classification thus
necessarily involves definition of class boundaries that should be clear, precise, possibly
quantitative, and based upon objective criteria.

A classification should therefore be:

• Scale independent, meaning that the classes at all levels of the system should be
applicable at any scale or level of detail; and

• Source independent, implying that it is independent of the means used to collect

information, whether satellite imagery, aerial photography, field survey or some
combination of them is used.

A legend is the application of a classification in a specific area using a defined mapping

scale and specific data set (Figure 3). Therefore a legend may contain only a proportion, or
sub-set, of all possible classes of the classification. Thus, a legend is:
4 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

• Scale and cartographic representation dependent (e.g., occurrence of mixed mapping

units if the elements composing this unit are too small to be delineated
independently); and

• Data and mapping methodology dependent (e.g., an aerial photograph shows different
features compared to a satellite false colour composite image).

FIGURE 1.
Abstract presentation of a classification consisting of a continuum with two gradients: circles and
triangles in red and white representing the actual situation in Figure 2. (From Kuechler and
Zonneveld, 1988).

FIGURE 2. Concrete situation in the filed in a particular area (From Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).
Land Cover Classification System 5

FIGURE 3.
Legend as application of a classification in a particular area.

R e fe re n c e C la s s ific a tio n S y s te m
>50m 30m >5m
100% 1 2 3 4 ...
D E F IN E D
33 G E O G R A P H IC
47
50%
AREA
78
83 g iv e n s c a le a n d d a ta ty p e
10% 97 9899100

d e riv e d m a p p in g
le g e n d u n its

1.3 HIERARCHICAL VERSUS NON-HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS

Classification systems come in two basic formats, hierarchical and non-hierarchical. Most
systems are hierarchically structured because such a classification offers more consistency
owing to its ability to accommodate different levels of information, starting with structured
broad-level classes, which allow further systematic subdivision into more detailed sub-
classes. At each level the defined classes are mutually exclusive. At the higher levels of the
classification system few diagnostic criteria are used, whereas at the lower levels the
number of diagnostic criteria increases. Criteria used at one level of the classification
should not be repeated at another, i.e., lower, level.

1.4 A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI SYSTEMS

Classification can be done in two ways, that is either a priori or a posteriori (Figure 4). In
an a priori classification system the classes are abstractions of the types actually occurring.
The approach is based upon definition of classes before any data collection actually takes
place. This means that all possible combinations of diagnostic criteria must be dealt with
beforehand in the classification. Basically, in the field, each sample plot is identified and
labelled according to the classification adopted. This method is used extensively in plant
taxonomy and soil science (e.g., The Revised Legend of the Soil Map of the World (FAO,
1988) and the USDA Soil Taxonomy (United States Soil Conservation Service, 1975)). The
main advantage is that classes are standardized independent of the area and the means used.
The disadvantage, however, is that this method is rigid, as some of the field samples may
not be easily assignable to one of the pre-defined classes.

A posteriori classification differs fundamentally by its direct approach and its freedom from
preconceived notions. The approach is based upon definition of classes after clustering
similarity or dissimilarity of the field samples collected. The Braun-Blanquet method, used
in vegetation science (this is a floristic classification approach using the total species
combination to cluster samples in sociological groups (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988)), is
an example of such an approach. The advantage of this type of classification is its flexibility
and adaptability compared to the implicit rigidity of the a priori classification. The a
posteriori approach implies a minimum of generalization. This type of classification better
6 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

fits the collected field observations in a specific area. At the same time, however, because
an a posteriori classification depends on the specific area described and is adapted to local
conditions, it is unable to define standardized classes. Clustering of samples to define the
classes can only be done after data collection, and the relevance of certain criteria in a
certain area may be limited when used elsewhere or in ecologically quite different regions.
FIGURE 4.
Example of an a priori (above) and a posteriori (below) classification of a concrete situation in the
field (adapted from Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).

Example of a very general a-priori classification based

on four classes (triangle in black and white and
circle in black and w hite) representing the field
situation below .
Due to the generalization of the classes, the user is
obliged to make the best fit of one of the hundred
possibilities in the field into one of the four classes,
w hich may result in selecting a class
that does not represent well the actual situation.

CONCRETE FIELD SITUATION

Example of a-posteriori classification.

classification
The classes fit better the actual field situation
but the area described is a portion of the total.
Land Cover Classification System 7

2. THE CONCEPTUAL BASIS

2.1 PROBLEMS WITH CURRENT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Despite the necessity for a standard classification system, none of the current classifications
has been internationally accepted (Danserau, 1961; Fosberg, 1961; Eiten, 1968; UNESCO,
1973; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988; CEC, 1993;
Duhamel, 1995). Often, the land cover classes are inappropriate for particular purposes
(e.g., statistical or rural development needs), the scale is related to a specific purpose and
the information is mostly obsolete. Furthermore, factors are often used in the classification
system which result in a undesirable mixture of potential and actual land cover (e.g.,
including climate as a parameter). The reasons why none of the current classifications could
serve as a reference system are manifold, as will be explained below.

2.1.1 Purpose
A proportion of the existing classifications are either vegetation classifications (e.g.,
Danserau, 1961; Fosberg, 1961; Eiten, 1968; UNESCO 1973; Mueller-Dombois and
Ellenberg, 1974; Anderson et al., 1976; Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988), broad land cover
classifications, or systems related to the description of a specific feature (e.g., agricultural
areas). Thus, they are limited in their capacity to define the whole range of possible land
cover classes. An illustration is the UNESCO Vegetation Classification (designed to serve
primarily for vegetation maps at a scale of 1:1 000 000), which considers only natural
vegetation, while all other vegetated areas, such as cultivated areas and urban vegetated
areas, are ignored. Other vegetation classifications, even if they consider agricultural areas,
do not describe these classes with the same level of detail as used for the natural vegetation
ones. In contrast, systems used to describe agricultural areas give very few details in their
description of natural vegetation.

Many systems have been developed for a certain purpose, at a certain scale, and using a
certain data type (e.g., the IGBP-DISCover global 1 km data set based on the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(NOAA-AVHRR)). Hence the derived classes are strictly dependent on the means used
(e.g., in the previous example the classes will be only those that can be detected using
NOAA).

Many current classification systems are not suitable for mapping, and subsequent
monitoring purposes. The use of the type of diagnostic criteria and their hierarchical
arrangement to form a class is very often in conflict with the ability to define a clear
boundary between two classes. For monitoring, land cover changes take two forms:
conversion from one category to another (e.g., from forest to grassland), and modification
of condition within one category (e.g., from cultivated area to intensively cultivated area).
The broader and fewer the categories used to describe land cover, the fewer the instances of
conversion from one to another. If land cover classes are as broad as “forest and woodland”,
“arable land” and “permanent meadows and pastures” (from the FAO Production
Yearbook) then forest fragmentation, a shift from rainfed to irrigated cultivated areas and
less dense grass cover due to overgrazing will not register as conversion nor as
modification. A multi-user-oriented classification system should capture both.
8 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

2.1.2 Consistency
In most current classifications, the criteria used to derive classes are not systematically
applied. Often, the use of different ranges of values depends on the importance given by the
user to a particular feature (e.g., in many systems the cover ranges to distinguish tree-
dominated areas are many, whereas only one single cover range is used to define shrub- or
grass- dominated areas).

In some classifications the class definition is imprecise, ambiguous or absent. This means
that these systems fail to provide internal consistency (e.g., the frequency with which
classes in the CORINE (Co-ordination of Information on the Environment) Land Cover
system overlap with other classes elsewhere in the same classification)(CEC, 1993).

In most systems, the full combination of diagnostic elements describing a class is not
considered (e.g., a system which describes vegetation with the diagnostic criteria of three
ranges of cover matched with three ranges of height must consistently apply these ranges
for all life forms considered). The reason why most systems fail in application of this basic
classification rule is that the entire set of permutations of the possible classifiers would lead
to a vast number of classes which cannot be handled with the current methods of class
description (e.g., in the example above, if there were 10 classes of each, the result would be
100 combinations). Therefore, the current systems often leave gaps in the systematic
application of the used diagnostic criteria.

Very often the systems contain a number of classes, which due to their interrelation and
hierarchical structure, appear to be a proportion of a broader set of classes. Thus, these
types of systems are mere legends. The characteristic of legends is that only a proportion or
subset of the entire range of possible classes is described. Such legends have the
disadvantage that the user cannot refer back to a classification system, which precludes
comparisons with other systems.

Threshold values are very often derived from knowledge of a specific geographic area, so
that elsewhere the class boundary definition between two classes may become unclear, that
is with overlaps or gaps. In these cases any comparisons will be impossible or inaccurate.

2.1.3 The Underlying Common Principle

An underlying common principle has often not been defined in land cover classification. A
mixture of different features is used to define a class, especially features such as climate,
geology, soil type and landform (thus, in "tropical rain forest" the term "tropical", which is
usually climate related, is used to describe a certain floristic composition). Features such as
climate, geology and landform influence land cover but are not inherent features of it. This
type of combination is frequently found and is often applied in an irregular way without any
hierarchy. This may lead to confusion in the definition of the class.

Classification of vegetation using the diagnostic criteria of “height” and “cover” will lead to
a different perspective of the same feature in comparison with the use of “leaf phenology”
and “leaf type” (Figure 5). It is therefore important to come to a basic understanding of the
criteria to be used as underlying principles for land cover description.
 Land Cover Classification System 9

FIGURE 5.

Example of description of a land cover using a different underlying principle.

height leaf phenology

>50m 30m >5m evergreen mixed deciduous

100% 1 2 3 4 ...
natural vegetation
1 2 3 4 ... aphyllous

needle
leaved

broadleaved
50% (very small)

specific
geographic broadleaved
10% area 25 (very large)
97 98 99 100
cover leaf type

2.1.4 A priori classification systems

Often an a priori classification system is used in which classes are arranged. However, the
use of such a classification assumes that all possible classes any user may derive,
independent of scale and tools used, are included in the system. Having all classes pre-
defined in the system is the intrinsic rigidity of an a priori classification system. The
advantage of such a system is mainly that it is the most effective way to produce
standardization of classification results between user-communities. The disadvantage is that
to be able to describe consistently any land cover occurring anywhere in the world, one
needs an enormous amount of pre-defined classes. Such a system should be flexible in the
sense that any occurring land cover can be accommodated. How can one introduce this type
of flexibility while using the “classical” approach of class names and descriptions?

By increasing the number of classes in an a priori system, the problem arises of how the
users will find their way through a "jungle" of class names (Figure 6). Furthermore, this
situation aggravates standardization, namely that every user may have a slightly different
opinion on how to interpret some classes because the class boundary definitions between
classes will be based on very slight differences. The wrong, or different, designation of the
same land cover feature to different classes will affect this standardization process that is
one of the chief objectives of the classification system. Ultimately, the attempt to harmonize
will fail. The a priori classification approach appears to be a vicious circle: the attempt to
create this type of classification as a tool for standardization obliges one to fit the enormous
variety of occurring land cover in a limited number of more generic classes, while the
endeavour to create more classes increases the danger of having a lack of standardization,
the very basic principle used as starting point.
10 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

FIGURE 6.
Problem of the current a priori classifications in relation to their flexibility.

high level of low

standardization flexibility

increasing number of classes understandable list of limited

limited number
number of
of
class names generic
generic classes
classes

enormous list of
class names with adequate number
unclear or too narrow of detailed classes
class boundary

low level of high

standardization flexibility

The above illustrates that there is not as much compatibility between classification systems,
or between classification and legend, as may be desired. There are numerous
inconsistencies in definition of classes, class boundaries, in the use of threshold values, etc.
However useful the current classifications may be, these factors limit the possibility of the
use of such classification results by a large audience for a broad range of applications.

In the context of developing a new system, it is fundamental to identify the criteria to which
any reference classification, to the extent possible, should adhere (Box 1).

Box 1. General criteria for a reference classification.

The reference classification should be:
• comprehensive, scientifically sound and practically oriented;
• meet the needs of a variety of users (neither single-project oriented nor taking a sectoral
approach); users can use just a sub-set of the classification and develop from there according to
their own specific needs;
• potentially applicable as a common reference system, and facilitate comparisons between classes
derived from different classifications;
• be a flexible system, which can be used at different scales and at different levels of detail allowing
cross-reference of local and regional with continental and global maps without loss of information;
• able to describe the complete range of land cover features (e.g., forest and cultivated areas as well
as ice and bare land, etc.), with clear class boundary definition that are unambiguous and unique;
• adapted to fully describe the whole variety of land cover types with the minimal set of classifiers
necessary (the less classifiers used in the definition, the less the error expected and the less time
and resources necessary for field validation); and
• based on a clear and systematic description of the class, where the diagnostic criteria used to
define a class must be clearly defined, with pure land cover criteria distinct from environmental
criteria (e.g., climate, floristic and altitude), as the latter influence land cover but are not inherent
features.
Land Cover Classification System 11

2.2 THE BASIS FOR A NEW APPROACH

2.2.1 The Definition Adopted for Land Cover

The common integrated approach adopted here defines land cover as the observed
(bio)physical cover on the earth’s surface (see Section 1.1, above), but, in addition, it is
emphasized that land cover must be considered a geographically explicit feature which
other disciplines may use as a geographical reference (e.g., for land use, climatic and
ecological studies).

Land is a basic source of mass and energy throughput in all terrestrial ecosystems, and land
cover and land use represent the integrating elements of the resource base. Land cover,
being the expression of human activities, changes with modifications in these activities.
Therefore, land cover as a geographically explicit feature can form a reference basis for
other disciplines.

2.2.2 A New Approach to Classification

Increasing flexibility while maintaining mapability
To create a standardized, hierarchical, consistent, a priori classification system containing
systematic and strict class boundary definitions implies the basic requirement of having to
build flexibility into the classification system. In this context, flexibility has different
meanings. First of all, flexibility should address the potential for the classification system to
describe enough classes to cope with the real world. At the same time, however, flexibility
should adhere to strict class boundary definitions that should be unambiguous and clear. In
addition, the classes in such a system should be as neutral as possible in the description of a
land cover feature in order to answer to the needs of a wide variety of end-users and
disciplines.

Many current classification systems are not generally suitable for mapping, and subsequent
monitoring, purposes. The integrated approach requires clear distinction of class
boundaries. Furthermore, the use of diagnostic criteria and their hierarchical arrangement to
form a class should be a function of the mapability, that is the ability to define a clear
boundary between two classes. Hence, diagnostic criteria should be hierarchically arranged
in order to assure at the highest levels of the classification a high degree of geographical
accuracy.

How does one increase the classification system’s flexibility while maintaining the
principle of mapability and aiming at standardization? These prerequisites can only be
accomplished if the classification has the possibility of generating a high number of classes
with clear boundary definitions. In other words, it should be possible to delineate a large
number of classes in order to suit the enormous variation of land cover features, while
maintaining the clear distinction of class boundaries. In current classification systems this
possibility is hampered by the manner in which these classifications are set up. Differences
between classes can only be derived from class descriptions. Therefore, it would be very
difficult for the user to distinguish between such classes just based upon class names or
unsystematic descriptions, as is the case with most of the current classification systems.

Basic principle
One of the basic principles adopted in the new approach is that a given land cover class is
defined by the combination of a set of independent diagnostic attributes, the so-called
classifiers. The increase of detail in the description of a land cover feature is linked to the
increase in the number of classifiers used. In other words, the more classifiers added, the
12 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

more detailed the class. The class boundary is then defined either by the different amount of
classifiers, or by the presence of one or more different types of classifiers. Thus, emphasis
is no longer on the class name, but on the set of classifiers used to define this class.

Issues impeding application of the new approach

The straightforward application of this condition is hampered by two main factors. First,
land cover should describe the whole observable (bio)physical environment and therefore
deals with a heterogeneous set of classes. Obviously, a forest is best defined using a set of
classifiers which differ from those to describe snow-covered areas. Instead of using the
same set of classifiers to describe such heterogeneous features, in the new approach the
classifiers are tailored to each land cover feature. According to the general concept of an a
priori classification, it is fundamental to the system that all the combinations of the
classifiers must be created in the system. By tailoring the set of classifiers to the land cover
feature, all combinations can be made without having a tremendous number of theoretical
but redundant combinations of classifiers. Secondly, two distinct land cover features,
having the same set of classifiers to describe them, may differ in the hierarchical
arrangement of these classifiers in order to ensure a high mapability.

2.3 LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA

Land cover classes are defined by a string of classifiers, but due to the heterogeneity of land
cover, and with the aim of achieving a logical and functional hierarchical arrangement of
the classifiers, certain design criteria have been applied.

The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) has been designed with two main phases
(Figure 7):

An initial Dichotomous Phase, in which eight major land cover types are defined:

• Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas

• Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation
• Cultivated Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas
• Natural and Semi-Natural Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Vegetation
• Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas
• Bare Areas
• Artificial Waterbodies, Snow and Ice, and
• Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice.
This is followed by a subsequent so-called Modular-Hierarchical Phase, in which land
cover classes are created by the combination of sets of pre-defined classifiers. These
classifiers are tailored to each of the eight major land cover types.

The tailoring of classifiers in the second Phase allows the use of most appropriate classifiers
to define land cover classes derived from the major land cover types and at the same time
reduces the likelihood of impractical combinations of classifiers. This results in a land cover
class defined by:

• a Boolean formula showing each classifier used (all classifiers are coded);

• a unique number for use in Geographical Information Systems (GIS); and

Land Cover Classification System 13

• a name which can be the standard name as supplied or a user-defined name.

TABLE 1.
Distinction at the main Dichotomous level and the second level.

Classifiers used Land Cover Class Name and Description

DICHOTOMOUS PHASE: INITIAL-LEVEL DISTINCTION

Presence of Vegetation: A. Primarily Vegetated Areas:
This class applies to areas that have a vegetative cover of at least 4% for at
Primarily vegetated least two months of the year. This cover may consist of the life forms Woody
(Trees, Shrubs), Herbaceous (Forbs, Graminoids) or a combination of them,
or consist of Lichens/Mosses (only when other life forms are absent). A
separate cover condition exists for Lichens/Mosses that can be only applied
if this life form contributes at least 25% to the total vegetative cover (see
Glossary).
Presence of Vegetation: B. Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas:
This class includes areas that have a total vegetative cover of less than 4%
Primarily non- for at least 10 months of the year, or an absence of Woody or Herbaceous
vegetated life forms and with less than 25% cover of Lichens/Mosses

DICHOTOMOUS PHASE: SECOND-LEVEL DISTINCTION

Primarily vegetated A1. Terrestrial Primarily Vegetated Areas:
The vegetation is influenced by the edaphic substratum.
Edaphic Condition:
Terrestrial

Primarily non-vegetated B1. Terrestrial Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas:

The cover is influenced by the edaphic substratum.
Edaphic Condition:
Terrestrial

Primarily vegetated A2. Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Primarily Vegetated Areas:

The environment is significantly influenced by the presence of water over
Edaphic Condition: extensive periods of time. The water is the dominant factor determining
Aquatic or regularly natural soil development and the type of plant communities living on its
flooded surface. Includes marshes, swamps, bogs and all areas where water is
present for a substantial period regularly every year. This class includes
floating vegetation.
Primarily non-vegetated B2. Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas:
The environment is significantly influenced by the presence of water over an
Edaphic Condition: extensive period of time each year.
Aquatic or regularly
flooded
14 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

TABLE 2.
Distinction at the third level of the Dichotomous Phase into eight major land cover types.

DICHOTOMOUS PHASE: TERTIARY-LEVEL DISTINCTION

Primarily vegetated A11. Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas:
Terrestrial This class refers to areas where the natural vegetation has been removed or
modified and replaced by other types of vegetative cover of anthropogenic
Artificiality of Cover: origin. This vegetation is artificial and requires human activities to maintain it
Artificial/managed in the long term. In between the human activities, or before starting crop
cultivation, the surface can be temporarily without vegetative cover. Its
seasonal phenological appearance can be regularly modified by humans
(e.g., tillage, harvest, and irrigation). All vegetation that is planted or
cultivated with an intent to harvest is included in this class (e.g., wheat fields,
orchards, rubber and teak plantations).
Primarily vegetated A12. Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation:
Terrestrial Natural vegetated areas are defined as areas where the vegetative cover is
in balance with the abiotic and biotic forces of its biotope. Semi-natural
Artificiality of Cover: vegetation is defined as vegetation not planted by humans but influenced by
(Semi-)natural human actions. These may result from grazing, possibly overgrazing the
natural phytocenoses, or else from practices such as selective logging in a
natural forest whereby the floristic composition has been changed.
Previously cultivated areas which have been abandoned and where
vegetation is regenerating are also included. The secondary vegetation
developing during the fallow period of shifting cultivation is a further example.
The human disturbance may be deliberate or inadvertent. Hence semi-
natural vegetation includes vegetation due to human influences but which
has recovered to such an extent that species composition and environmental
and ecological processes are indistinguishable from, or in a process of
achieving, its undisturbed state. The vegetative cover is not artificial, in
contrast to classes A11 and A24, and it does not require human activities to
be maintained in the long term.
Primarily vegetated A23 Cultivated Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas:
Aquatic or Regularly This class includes areas where an aquatic crop is purposely planted,
Flooded cultivated and harvested, and which is standing in water over extensive
periods during its cultivation period (e.g., paddy rice, tidal rice and deepwater
Artificiality of Cover: rice). In general, it is the emerging part of the plant that is fully or partly
Artificial/managed harvested. Other plants (e.g., for purification of water) are free-floating. They
are not harvested but they are maintained. This class excludes irrigated
cultivated areas.
Primarily vegetated A24. Natural and Semi-Natural Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Vegetation:
Aquatic or Regularly This class describes areas which are transitional between pure terrestrial
Flooded and aquatic systems and where the water table is usually at or near the
surface, or the land is covered by shallow water. The predominant
Artificiality of Cover: vegetation, at least periodically, comprises hydrophytes. Marshes, swamps,
(Semi-)natural bogs or flats where drastic fluctuations in water level or high concentration of
salts may prevent the growth of hydrophytes are all part of this class. The
vegetative cover is significantly influenced by water and dependent on
flooding (e.g., mangroves, marshes, swamps and aquatic beds).
Occasionally-flooded vegetation within a terrestrial environment is not
included in this class. Natural Vegetated Aquatic habitats are defined as
biotopes where the vegetative cover is in balance with the influence of biotic
and abiotic forces. Semi-Natural Aquatic vegetation is defined as vegetation
that is not planted by humans but which is influenced directly by human
activities that are undertaken for other, unrelated purposes. Human activities
(e.g., urbanization, mining and agriculture) may influence abiotic factors
(e.g., water quality), affecting species composition. Furthermore, this class
includes vegetation that developed due to human activities but which has
recovered to such an extent that it is indistinguishable from its former state,
or which has built up a new biotope which is in balance with the present
environmental conditions. A distinction between Natural and Semi-Natural
Aquatic Vegetation is not always possible because human activities distant
to the habitat may create chain reactions which ultimately disturb the aquatic
vegetative cover. Human activities may also take place deliberately to
compensate for effects as noted above with the aim of keeping a “natural”
state.
Land Cover Classification System 15

Classifiers used Land Cover Class Name and Description

Primarily non-vegetated B15. Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas:
Terrestrial This class describes areas that have an artificial cover as a result of human
activities such as construction (cities, towns, transportation), extraction (open
Artificiality of Cover: mines and quarries) or waste disposal.
Artificial/managed
Primarily non-vegetated B16. Bare Areas:
Terrestrial This class describes areas that do not have an artificial cover as a result of
human activities. These areas include areas with less than 4% vegetative
Artificiality of Cover: cover. Included are bare rock areas, sands and deserts.
(Semi-)natural
Primarily non-vegetated B27. Artificial Waterbodies, Snow and Ice:
Aquatic or Regularly This class applies to areas that are covered by water due to the construction
Flooded of artefacts such as reservoirs, canals, artificial lakes, etc. Without these the
area would not be covered by water, snow or ice.
Artificiality of Cover:
Artificial/managed
Primarily non-vegetated B28. Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice:
Aquatic or Regularly This class refers to areas that are naturally covered by water, such as lakes,
Flooded rivers, snow or ice. In the case of rivers, the lack of vegetation cover is often
due to high flow rates and/or steep banks. In the case of lakes, their
Artificiality of Cover: geological origin affects the life conditions for aquatic vegetation. The
(Semi-)natural following circumstances might cause water surfaces to be without vegetation
cover: depth, rocky basins, rocky and/or steep shorelines, infertile washed-in
material, hard and coarse substrates.

2.3.1 Dichotomous Phase

As stated above, a dichotomous key is used at the main level of classification to define the
major land cover classes (Figure 7). Each major land cover type is defined as shown in
Tables 1 and 2.

Three classifiers are used in the Dichotomous Phase, namely Presence of Vegetation,
Edaphic Condition and Artificiality of Cover. These three classifiers have been
hierarchically arranged, although independent of this arrangement the same eight major
land cover types would be keyed out. The hierarchical arrangement is thus not important in
this Phase, but is a guiding principle in the subsequent Modular-Hierarchical Phase.

2.3.2 Modular-Hierarchical Phase

In this phase the creation of the land cover class is given by the combination of a set of pre-
defined pure land cover classifiers. This set of classifiers is different for each of the eight
main land cover types. This difference is due to the tailoring of the classifiers to their
respective type (Figure 8).
16 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

PRIMARILY VEGETATED PRIMARILY NON-VEGETATED

DICHOTOMOUS PHASE
AQUATIC OR AQUATIC OR
TERRESTRIAL TERRESTRIAL
REGULARLY FLOODED REGULARLY FLOODED

CULTIVATED & (SEMI) NATURAL ARTIFICIAL NATURAL

(SEMI) NATURAL CULTIVATED ARTIFICIAL
MANAGED AQUATIC BARE AREAS WATERBODIES, WATERBODIES,
VEGETATION AQUATIC AREAS SURFACES
AREAS VEGETATION SNOW & ICE SNOW & ICE

SPATIAL SPATIAL PHYSICAL

LIFE FORM LIFE FORM SURFACE ASPECT PERSISTENCE
ASPECTS ASPECTS STATUS
LAND

MODULAR-HIERARCHICAL PHASE
CROP COMBINATION WATER SEASONALITY FORM
CLIMATE ALTITUDE
SEDIMENT
DEPTH
COVER RELATED COVER RELATED LOAD
BUILT UP OBJECT
CULTURAL PRACTICES CULTURAL PRACTICES
VEGE
LAND LITHOLOGY LAND LITHOLOGY CLIMATE ALTITUDE
CLIMATE CLIMATE TATION
FORM /SOILS FORM /SOILS

SALINITY
ALTITUDE EROSION COVER ALTITUDE EROSION COVER

CROP TYPE CROP TYPE

LIFE FORM
HEIGHT
& COVER
LIFE FORM MACRO PHYSICAL
HEIGHT WATER SEASONALITY SURFACE ASPECT PERSISTENCE
& COVER PATTERN STATUS
LEAF LEAF
LEAF TYPE LEAF TYPE MACROPATTERN SEDIMENT
PHENOLOGY PHENOLOGY DEPTH
LOAD
STRATIFICATION STRATIFICATION LANDFORM CLIMATE
VEGE
CLIMATE ALTITUDE
LAND LITHOLOGY LAND LITHOLOGY VEGE TATION
CLIMATE ALTITUDE EROSION
FORM /SOILS FORM /SOILS TATION

WATER SOIL TYPE/LITHOLOGY SALINITY

CLIMATE ALTITUDE EROSION ALTITUDE EROSION
QUALITY

FLORISTIC ASPECT FLORISTIC ASPECT

FIGURE 7. Overview of the Land Cover Classification System, its two phases and the classifiers.
Land Cover Classification System 17

These pure land cover classifiers can be combined with so-called attributes for further
definition. Two types of attributes, which form separate levels in the classification, are
distinguished (Figure 8 for two examples):

• Environmental Attributes: these attributes (e.g., climate, landform, altitude, soils,

lithology and erosion) influence land cover but are not inherent features of it and
should not be confused with “pure” land cover classifiers. These attributes can be
combined in any user-defined order; and

• Specific Technical Attributes: these attributes refer to the technical discipline. For
(Semi-)Natural Vegetation, the Floristic Aspect can be added (the method how this
information was collected as well as a list of species); for Cultivated Areas, the Crop
Type can be added either according to broad categories commonly used in statistics or
by crop species; and for Bare Soil, the Soil Type according to the FAO/UNESCO
Revised Soil Legend can be added). These attributes can be added freely to the pure
land cover class without any conditions.

FIGURE 8.
The Modular-Hierarchical Phase: example of tailoring of the classifiers and attributes for the
”Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Lands” (left) and “Natural and Semi-Natural Aquatic or
Regularly Flooded Vegetation” (to the right).

A B
I PHYSIOGNOMY HEIGHT
MAIN LAYER MAIN LAYER
A B
I
C
PHYSIOGNOMY SPATIAL ASPECTS II
WATER SEASONALITY
C
D E
II CROP COMBINATION “pure” land cover III
LEAF TYPE LEAF PHENOLOGY
classifiers
D
F F G G H
III CULTURAL PRACTICES IV STRATI-
COVER HEIGHT
FICATION
L M/N
M/N O L M/N R
LITHOLOGY
IV LANDFORM /SOIL
CLIMATE V LANDFORM LITHOLOGY/SOIL
environmental
P Q W attributes O P M L R
V VI WATER
ALTITUDE EROSION COVER CLIMATE ALTITUDE QUALITY
S T
VI
CROP TYPE specific technical VII
FLORISTIC ASPECT
attributes

The user is obliged to start with the pure land cover classifiers. However, at any time the
user can stop – dependent upon the level of detail required – and derive a land cover class
(Table 3). Further definition of this class can be achieved by adding a single or a
combination of any of the other types of attributes. These attributes are not hierarchically
ordered and selection of them will generate a separate coded string.

Because the classification is suitable for mapping purposes, the system gives high priority
to “mapability”, the user needs to follow specific rules:

• A higher level of land cover classifier must be used before going to a lower level
(because mapability is high at higher levels and decreases with lower levels).

• Within certain levels of land cover classifier there are pure land cover classifiers, and
a further subdivision of them, the modifiers, which refine the classifier further but are
optional and do not necessarily need to be determined.
18 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

• All land cover classifiers at one level of the classification have to determined before
the system allows one to go to the next level.

• At any time inside a land cover classifier level the user can stop, and a mutually
exclusive class is defined.

• All land cover classes defined in such way are hierarchically arranged in the Legend
(see Legend Module).

• At any time the user can further define the land cover class using environmental or
specific technical attributes, alone or in combination. These attributes will add a
second, separate, code to the land cover class because they are not inherent features of
land cover.

• A Boolean formula (i.e., a combination of the classifiers used), a unique code

(numerical) and a name (nomenclature) define each land cover class.

TABLE 3.
Example of the formation of land cover classes.

Example “Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation (A12)”:

Classifiers Used: Boolean Formula: Standard Class Name: Code:

Life Form & Cover A3A10 Closed Forest 20005
Height A3A10B2 High Closed Forest 20006
Spatial Distribution A3A10B2C1 Continuous Closed Forest 20007
Leaf Type A3A10B2C1D1 Broadleaved Closed Forest 20095
Leaf Phenology A3A10B2C1D1E2 Broadleaved Deciduous Forest 20097
2nd Layer: LF, C, H A3A10B2C1D1E2F2F5F7G2 Multi-Layered Broadleaved
Deciduous Forest 20628
3rd Layer: LF, C, H A3A10B2C1D1E2F2F5F7G2 Multi-Layered Broadleaved Deciduous
F2F5F10G2 Forest With Emergents 20630
Land Cover Classification System 19

2.3.3. Concepts for the Primarily Vegetated Areas

There are different ways of making an orderly arrangement of the Primarily Vegetated
Areas, with varying success according to region or purpose. Vegetation has a multitude of
properties and features, and a certain degree of abstraction is required when classifying.
However, agreement could be reached on selection of a relatively small number of
diagnostic criteria to identify plant communities.

Plant communities, or phytocenoses, are characterized by two important features:

• all plant communities consist of growth forms; and

• all plant communities consist of plant species.
This applies to all phytocenoses on earth (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988). Growth forms
(e.g., trees, shrubs, herbaceous, etc.) are so important that various vegetation scientists have
used them as criteria for classification (Danserau, 1961; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg,
1974). The growth forms are distributed within the plant community in layers or strata.
This stratification is common and the distinction of the individual strata is of fundamental
importance when analysing the plant community. Plant communities are not limited to
vertical arrangement into layers: they are also arranged horizontally (i.e., the horizontal
spatial distribution).

Thus, when observing plant communities and considering their growth forms, two factors
are fundamental:

• physiognomy, the overall appearance of the vegetation; and

• vegetation structure which is defined as “the spatial distribution pattern of growth

forms in a plant community” (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988). The structure, then,
describes the individual strata, usually characterized by height and density or
coverage of the respective growth forms.

At the same time, a plant community consists of taxa (botanical species) that are usually
unevenly distributed insofar as some may be common, or dominant, while others are less
conspicuous. The component taxa can be used to describe the plant community as well as
the structure. A description using taxa is called the floristic composition of the plant
community. The floristic composition usually contains all species, though it is unusual to
include the rare or incidental ones.

The various existing classification systems have emphasized one or other of the above (e.g.,
physiognomic-structural systems; floristic systems; physiognomic-floristic systems). There
is no doubt that a full description of a plant community must consider both physiognomic-
structural and floristic aspects. A phytocenose can have the same structural aspect but
different floristic composition, as well as the same floristic composition but a different
structural aspect. However, problems arise when attempting to incorporate both types of
information in a single classification system.

In the Land Cover Classification System, Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation, in both the
Terrestrial Areas (A12) and Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas (A24), are classified using
a pure physiognomic-structural method. The aspects considered are, thus: (1) physiognomy;
(2) vertical and horizontal arrangement; (3) leaf type; and (4) leaf phenology of plants. This
concept has been adopted with the conviction that only a pure structural representation of
vegetation is able to incorporate, without any confusion of terms, floristic aspects of
vegetation as well as environmental attributes (e.g., landform, climate, altitude, etc.). The
20 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

proposed classification allows the user to add freely these attributes at any level of the
created structural land cover class.

Users not familiar with classical vegetation classification and mapping (Eiten, 1968;
UNESCO, 1973; White, 1983; Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988) or ecological studies should
be able to build up a scientifically sound vegetation classification by following the Land
Cover Classification System. This will avoid the separation between classical vegetation
classification and land cover classification. A variety of users should be able to apply the
results of the classification, even those who are not specialized in vegetation mapping.

The physiognomic-structural approach selected for classification of vegetated areas in a

land cover classification system poses a challenge with regard to classification of vegetated
areas other than (semi-)natural vegetated areas, namely cultivated and urban vegetated
areas. These managed vegetated areas are also characterized by plant communities having
growth forms and taxa, a structure and a floristic composition. Therefore, the
physiognomic-structural approach adopted is equally applicable to such areas. Using the
same approach to describe and classify this type of area at a certain level of detail has the
advantage that all Primarily Vegetated Areas can be compared.

2.3.3.1 Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation (A12 and A24)

General rules for classification

Before starting to use the classifiers, the user has to take into account some basic rules
governing the concepts of classification of (Semi-)Natural Vegetation, namely:

• the definition of Life Form; and

• the definition of dominance
These two main aspects are very important and must be carefully determined because in the
software the determination of Main Life Form has consequences for the selections available
at subsequent levels. Certain choices at a high level of the system may disable choices at
lower levels.

• Life Form of a plant is defined by its physiognomic aspect. This is the case when
Woody plants, subdivided into Trees and Shrubs, are distinguished from Herbaceous
plants, subdivided into Forbs and Graminoids, and Lichens/Mosses.

• A condition of Height is applied to separate Trees from Shrubs: woody plants higher
than 5 m are classified as Trees. In contrast, woody plants lower than 5 m are
classified as Shrubs. This general rule is subject to the following exception: a woody
plant with a clear physiognomic aspect of trees can be classified as Trees even if the
Height is lower than 5 m but more than 3 m. In this case, a subcondition of
physiognomic aspect is added to the Height condition.

These are the limits recommended for Life Form distinction, but exceptions are allowed:

• Plants essentially herbaceous but with a woody appearance (e.g., bamboos and ferns)
are classified as Trees if the height is more than 5 m, and as Shrubs if the height is
less than 5 m.

These are the recommended thresholds for Life Form characterization.

Concerning the concept of dominance, two criteria need to be considered:

Land Cover Classification System 21

• The main criteria is the uppermost canopy layer. This means that the dominant layer
goes from Tree canopy to Shrub to Herbaceous/Forbs/Graminoids.

• This general rule is subject to a sub-condition of Cover: it is only valid if the

dominant Life Form has a Cover either Closed or Open. If the Life Form is Sparse,
the dominance goes to another Life Form that has a Closed or Open cover (Figure 9).

When the user has decided these two main aspects, the building of classes can start. The
rules explained above show that in order to determine a (Semi-)Natural Vegetation class, a
minimum of three classifiers need to be selected:
• Life Form
• Cover
• Height
These are the minimum elements required to form a Natural or Semi-Natural Vegetated
land cover class, for both Terrestrial and Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas. Because
Height (in its standard denotation) is automatically linked to the Life Form chosen, the
classifiers needing to be determined are actually two: Life Form and Cover.

FIGURE 9.
Main Structural Vegetation Domains (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 1996a).

MAIN STRUCTURAL VEGETATION DOMAINS

SHRUBS

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS:
HERBA
CEOUS
TREES

MAIN LAYER

TREES

CLOSED (FOREST)
x x CLOSED
TREES

OPEN
x x x
OPEN (WOODLAND) SPARSE TO ABSENT

SHRUBS
CLOSED (THICKET) x x
SHRUBS

CLOSED

OPEN (SHRUBLAND)
x x OPEN

x CLOSED TO ABSENT

X
x Xx
CEOUS
SPARSE HERBA

CLOSED TO SPARSE TO ABSENT

OPEN
HERBACEOUS
CLOSED TO OPEN
DEPENDING ON
THE DOMINANT
x x X
x CLOSED TO ABSENT
VEG.

LIFE FORM

X
SPARSE TO ABSENT

A. Life Form and Cover

A Life Form is a group of plants having certain morphological features in common
(Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988). According to the quality of the main axis or shoots, a
further distinction is made into Woody or Herbaceous. For further subdivision, the
following growth form criteria can be applied:

• Branching symmetry, subdividing Trees and Shrubs; and

• Herbaceous plant physiognomy, subdividing Forbs from Graminoids (Strasburger et
al., 1983; Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988) and from Lichens/Mosses.
22 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

The full definitions and guidelines for application in the system are found in the Glossary of
the software program, and as Appendix A here.

Cover can be considered as the presence of a particular area of the ground, substrate or
water surface covered by a layer of plants considered at the greatest horizontal perimeter
level of each plant in the layer (according to Eiten, 1968). A distinction is made between
Closed (>(60 – 70) percent), Open (between (60 – 70) and (10 – 20) percent) and Sparse
(below (10 – 20) percent but >1 percent). As herbaceous plants are seasonal in character, it
is always assessed in terms of fullest development.

The reason for expressing cover in terms of ranges instead of absolute values is discussed in
the relevant guidelines of the software program and in Appendix A here.

B. Height
The Height of a certain layer is measured from the ground to the average top of the life
form that is being examined (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988). The fact that single plants of
one synusia differ from the average height can be ignored, apart from the fact that they can
form their own layer (e.g., the emergents of a rainforest that tower above the rest). The
Height is classed as: Trees >30 – 3 m; Shrubs 3 – 0.3 m; and Herbaceous 3 – 0.03 m. Each
class can be further subdivided.

The major Height classes are linked to the Life Form selected. These classes provide
general information regarding height because, in the concept of the classification, this
criterion has not been given a prevalent importance. The user can choose to remain at this
generic level, or to go to the modifiers, whereupon the importance of height increases.

In the case of Shrubs or Herbaceous (Forbs or Graminoids) life forms, it is strongly

recommended not to remain at the level of the standard definition of Height, if this is
possible, but instead to select one of the modifiers. The ecological significance of these life
forms can be strongly correlated with height (e.g., separation between low and tall herbs or
between dwarf and high shrubs, especially concerning potential for grazing/rangeland).

C. Spatial Distribution or Macropattern

The next classifier that can be applied is the Macropattern. It is defined as the horizontal
spatial distribution of vegetation in a certain area. It should not be confused with Cover
because that defines the spatial arrangement of Life Forms (e.g., trees, shrubs, etc.).
Macropattern describes the spatial arrangement of specific structural vegetation types (e.g.,
Closed Forest, Closed Shrubs). This classifier may seem unusual, but there are good
reasons:

• Often the Macropattern reflects an ecological or an evolutionary aspect of vegetation

(e.g., scattered vegetation in arid areas; agricultural encroachment inside forest areas;
degradation due to overgrazing; etc.). In many classifications, one find terms that are
extremely subjective, like "Degraded Forest" or similar. The present classification
aims to be neutral in its land cover description without including ambivalent
terminology. Therefore Macropattern is used as a neutral classifier to describe
vegetation status;

• this classification has been built up for mapping purposes, therefore spatial
distribution of land cover is an important aspect; and
Land Cover Classification System 23

• macropattern is easy detectable from remote sensing data (photographs and imagery),
i.e., it has good “mapability.”

Macropattern should thus be used to give supplementary ecological information (or to show
a human-induced degradational aspect of natural vegetation). The user has the possibility of
skipping this classifier if it is felt to be irrelevant.

The combinations between Cover and Macropattern are unrestricted (this is nevertheless
only valid for Closed and/or Open Cover, as will be explained later) which means that, for
instance, a Closed Tree formation (Closed Forest) can be either Continuous or Fragmented
depending on its spatial distribution in the mapping unit.

Because of this dimensional aspect, Macropattern is linked with the mapping scale. This
may seem a contradiction with the main classification concept explained above, namely that
the elements of a classification system must be scale-independent. To determine
Macropattern, one should refer to the overall appearance of a vegetation formation in a
certain area in a homogeneous landscape. However, if one wants to be more precise or
objective in the application of this classifier, some specific rules are given below to help the
user who is not familiar with this concept in order to standardize the interpretation. Because
we are dealing with the practical application of this concept in a cartographic context, the
concepts of mixed units and minimum mapable areas will be used. These concepts are
further described in Section 2.5.

A certain structural vegetation type has a continuous Macropattern if, inside the minimum
mapable area, it covers more than 80 percent of the area.

A particular structural vegetation type would be considered a Fragmented Macropattern if

inside the minimum mapable area it covers more than 20 percent but less than 80 percent.
This situation is linked with the concept of mixed unit. Three cases are possible:

• The structural vegetation type (e.g., dense forest) covers more than 50 percent of the
area and the other element (e.g., agricultural fields) covers less than 50 percent but
more than 20 percent. In this case the resulting unit will be a mixed unit with the
fragmented dense forest as the dominant one (e.g., fragmented dense
forest/agricultural fields).

• The structural vegetation type (e.g., dense forest) covers less than 50 percent but more
than 20 percent of the area. The other element (e.g., agricultural fields) covers more
than 50 percent. In this case the class is also mixed, but the dominant class will be the
agricultural fields (i.e., agricultural fields/fragmented dense forest).

• When a unit contains three elements (e.g., fragmented dense forest, agricultural fields
and bare areas) the rules for mixed units should be applied (see Section 2.5). In this
case it could be possible to have a structural vegetation type with a Fragmented
Macropattern as single unit (e.g., fragmented dense forest, 70 percent; agricultural
fields, 15 percent; and bare areas, 15 percent. As neither of the subsidiary elements
reach a cover exceeding 20 percent, the unit must be considered a single mapping unit
of fragmented dense forest). This is the only case when a structural vegetation type
with Fragmented Macropattern must be considered as a single mapping unit. Even if
theoretically possible, this case must be considered a very unusual one, and therefore
should be avoided.

The Continuous or Fragmented classifiers are linked with the Cover, Closed or Open (e.g.,
Closed Continuous Forest, Closed Fragmented Forest, Continuous Woodland and
24 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

Fragmented Woodland). Fragmentation can be further subdivided into Striped or Cellular

(e.g., the tiger bush in the Sahel, where Closed Shrubs are present in the interdunal areas,
which can be represented as Fragmented (Striped) Closed Shrubs).

The Parklike Patches Macropattern is directly linked with the cover category Sparse.
Basically, this is simply redundant information. When the user defines the cover of a certain
life form to be Sparse, the only Macropattern available for this structural vegetation type is
Parklike Patches.

The Macropattern concept is preferentially used for Woody Life Forms (Trees, Shrubs).
Herbaceous Life Forms (Graminoids, Forbs) can have a Macropattern, but this is
subordinated to the absence of Woody Life Forms. When linear patches of dense shrubs
(typical of tiger bush) are present together with dense herbaceous vegetation filling the
space between patches, one could have two different perspectives of this situation, either
Fragmented Shrubs/Herbaceous or Fragmented Herbaceous/Shrubs. In the application of
the Macropattern, the rule obliges the user to always give preference, to the Woody
component. Macropattern can be applied to Herbaceous Life Forms only when there is no
significant presence of Woody Life Forms (Trees, Shrubs). For instance, patches of dense
herbaceous vegetation in sandy areas can be called fragmented herbaceous/sand.

A structural vegetation type is Fragmented when the size of the patches of the vegetation
are between 1/15 and 1/2 of the minimum mapable unit. This rule is a very artificial one and
should not be rigidly applied. Nevertheless, the rule assists the user by providing some
reference indicator of what a Fragmented Macropattern should look like. If the patches
become too small, at a certain level they could coincide with the life form itself, thus
contradicting the basic rule explained above, namely that Macropattern describes the
specific arrangement of structural vegetation types and must not be confused with the cover
of the life form.

If all the above mentioned classifiers are determined, the user can enter the next level and
add a new set of information.

C. Water Seasonality
For Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation (A24), the second
level classifier consist of Water Seasonality. This classifier can be considered as the type of
persistence of the water at or near the surface. There are three subdivisions:
Land Cover Classification System 25

• (Semi-)Permanent (three months a year or more than a specific season)

• Temporary or Seasonal (less than three months a year or during a specific season);
and
• Waterlogged.

D. Leaf Type and E. Leaf Phenology

This level consists of the classifiers Leaf Type and Leaf Phenology. It can be entirely
skipped. This option is included to allow the user to opt for a basic physiognomic-structural
vegetation classification. The choice of the dominant Life Form will disactivate a number of
choices at this level as a consequence of the conditions of the classification.

The classifier Leaf Type is subdivided into:

• Broadleaved: referring to trees and shrubs of the botanical group Angiospermae, with
the exception of ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), which belongs to the Gymnospermae
taxonomically.

• Needleleaved: referring to trees and shrubs of the botanical group Gymnospermae

(Ford-Robertson, 1971) carrying typical needle-shaped leaves.

• Aphyllous: this category encompasses plants without any leaves and plants which
apparently do not have leaves in the common sense. In the first case, photosynthesis
takes place through other organs, such as stems, branches and twigs; in the latter case
the leaves are very short-lived or extremely reduced, to scales and thorns.
Characteristic genera are Casuarina, Euphorbia, Tamarix and many others mostly
found in arid and semi-arid regions (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).

Leaf Phenology is determined from the general behaviour of woody plants through the year.
A distinction is made between evergreen and deciduous:

• Evergreen: perennial plants that are never entirely without green foliage (Ford-
Robertson, 1971).

• Deciduous: perennial plants which are leafless for a certain period during the year
(Ford-Robertson, 1971). Leaf shedding usually takes place simultaneously and in
connection with the unfavourable season (UNESCO, 1973).

The modifiers Semi-Deciduous, Semi-Evergreen and Mixed, as well as Perennial and

Annual, are explained in the Glossary.

F. Stratification or Layering
The user can describe up to three layers of stratification (including the main layer) for
Terrestrial Vegetation (A12) and up to two layers in Aquatic or Regularly Flooded
Vegetation (A24) (see Appendix B). The users may be disappointed by the limited number
of layers at their disposal, but the classifier Stratification should contribute to the structural
definition of a vegetation class. This means that this classifier must cover all the possible
combinations with the main Life Form selected and its Cover (e.g., if we can have layering
for Closed Trees, the same must be valid for Closed or Open Shrubs or Closed Graminoids,
etc.). The layering is an active component of the class set-up; it is not a mere descriptive
(optional and unsystematic) item of the class. The proposed classification allows the user to
first build up a land cover class with the use of the classifier Stratification and, where more
26 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

detail is wanted, add a users' description to the standard one, which may contain
information on any additional layers/strata.

Some limitations in the use of the classifier Stratification have been introduced in order to
avoid irrelevant (from the structural point of view) class combinations. The following
examples will further clarify this concept:

• "Tree Savanna" is clearly defined by two main elements: a Herbaceous vegetation

layer and a Sparse Trees layer. Thus, the Stratification of the two elements
Herbaceous and Tree layer is crucial for the definition of this class.

• "Closed Forest" is clearly defined by the element of a Closed Trees layer. Limitations
have been introduced (as will be explained below) for this class in the use of
Stratification. It is not possible, in this case, to determine the presence of a
Herbaceous layer because the classification rules set up for the Layering allow the
user only to determine sub-layers of Trees and/or Shrubs. The determination of a
Herbaceous layer would not contribute to the main structural meaning of the class as
defined at the first level. The element Herbaceous layer can be added as part of the
user-defined description of the class (see Legend - Edit).

The limitations introduced, as shown in the two examples above, are to avoid introducing
elements not crucial for the determination of the structural aspects of a land cover class.
These elements can be added in the class description in the Legend (see Legend - Edit).
These limitations have the practical purpose of reducing the number of possible
combinations of classifiers, which otherwise could lead to the creation of an even larger
number of classes that yet would have the same structural meaning. All limitations in use of
Stratification are built into the software program.

From the practical point of view in the use of the Stratification concept, it is important to
recognize that two possible types of Stratification exist:

(a) where the second stratum consists of the same Life Form as the main stratum (e.g.,
trees-trees and shrubs-shrubs); and

(b) where the second stratum consists of a different Life Form (e.g., trees-shrubs).

The second case is quite straightforward and does not present any difficulty in the selection
of classifiers. The first case needs additional explanation. In the case of a dominant Life
Form of Trees with a second stratum of Trees, it is important that these layers are clearly
distinguishable from one another (e.g., a second strata of Trees Emergent over a Closed
Tree canopy; where these emergents must not be part of the discontinuity of the Closed
Tree canopy but clearly a distinct layer). The sub-condition of Height will pre-set the
available choices of Height for second and/or third layers/strata (e.g., main stratum of
Closed Low Trees (3-7 m), the emergents to be defined in the second stratum cannot have
the same height (option 3-7 m therefore not available) because the Sparse Trees of the
second layer have to be taller).

The Height parameter explained above depends on the Height value chosen for the main
stratum; it is not applied if the general Height class is selected. If the user selects the general
Height class for the main stratum, then for subsequent strata the general Height classes are
the only options available.

The main conditions applied for Stratification/Layering are the following:

Land Cover Classification System 27

(a1) Forbs and Graminoids are considered always together as Herbaceous;

(a2) For Trees, three strata including the main, can be considered (e.g., a main Closed
Tree layer with a second lower Closed to Open Tree layer and a third Sparse Tree
layer of emergents is called a "Multi-Layered Forest With Emergents");

(a3) When the main stratum is Closed Trees or Open Trees and there is a second layer
of Sparse Trees then the Height of the second layer must be higher, i.e. emergent.
If they are lower they are not considered as an independent stratum;

(a4) For Shrubs the number of strata with the same Life Form is two, including the
main strata;

(a5) For Herbaceous only one stratum is possible;

(a6) Lichens/Mosses are not described in the layering;

(a7) If the main stratum is Trees and the Cover is Open, then it is impossible to have
the same Life Form with Cover Open To Closed with a different height as a
second stratum (e.g., Open High Trees with Open Low Trees is impossible).

(a8) If the main stratum is Shrubs and the Cover is Closed or Open with the general
option of Height, then it is impossible to have the same Life Form with Cover
Open To Closed with a different height as a second stratum (e.g., Open High
Shrubs with Closed To Open Low Shrubs is impossible). The only exception to
this rule is when the second stratum consists of Dwarf Shrubs.

and

(b1) If the cover of the main stratum is Closed Trees or Closed Shrubs, then any
Herbaceous layer is not considered or described (this can be added as a user-
defined description);

(b2) Sparse Herbaceous is never considered as second layer except when the main layer
is Sparse Trees or Sparse Shrubs (but it can be added as user-defined description);

(b3) If the main stratum is Shrubs or Herbaceous, only one layer of trees can be
considered. This is linked with the criterion of dominance, as described earlier,
because the Trees or Shrubs can be only Sparse;

(b4) Only two layers other than the main layer are considered for Terrestrial Vegetation
(A12), and only one additional stratum for Aquatic or Regularly Flooded
Vegetation (A24).
28 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

2.3.3.2 Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas (A11 and A23)

Cultivated areas are often only described and classified by determining the crop species, the
cultural practices and in some case land tenure information. This may result in descriptions
like “rainfed agricultural area” or “state-owned rubber plantation.” These descriptions are
highly sectoral and do not address the needs of a wide variety of end-users. Another
important aspect is that in the sectoral approaches the principle of having a high level of
geographical accuracy is frequently lacking.

Description of agricultural areas in land cover terms should be exhaustive and neutral in the
sense that the results may be used by many. Furthermore, these areas are Primarily
Vegetated land cover types, thus their description should have a link to (semi-)natural
vegetated land cover types at a certain level of detail (e.g., a user interested in trees because
of the nesting prospects of a certain bird may not be directly interested in knowing if these
trees are part of a crop or (semi-)natural vegetation). Furthermore, the focus should be on
the definition of geographically well-defined classes, i.e., classes having a high mapability.

Therefore, the approach taken in order to enable a wide variety of users to employ the
descriptions of cultivated areas is that of a basically physiognomic-structural classification.
This means that at a high level of classification the cultivated area description is based on
the structure of the vegetation, whereas at lower levels, with lower mapability, the focus is
on description of the spatial and temporal dimensions. This type of description should,
however, assure a high degree of compatibility with existing agricultural classification
systems. This means that not only should the classes be compatible but also the method of
deriving classes and their spatial and temporal dimensions (Duhamel, 1995). The spatial
and temporal dimensions for cultivated areas clearly differ from (semi-)natural vegetation,
as in most cases there is a constant flux in the observable cover.

Owing to this flux, the moment of observation of the land cover is very important, as the
land might be ploughed, sown or harvested (with no crop actually visible), or a crop is
clearly visible and different crop growth stages can be identified. These temporal
dimensions influence the land cover but should not influence its description, because the
area should be classified independent of the time of observation. It is for this reason that in
the definition of Cultivated Areas provision is made for the fact that vegetative cover is not
always present.

In the structural approach, physiognomy or Life Form is the principal classification

criterion, followed by the vertical structure, the crop layering and horizontal structure, i.e.,
the Field Macropattern, of the area. This will result in detailed cover information that can be
optionally combined with Crop Type as a specific technical attribute to establish the link
with many current classification systems.

In the major land cover type of Terrestrial Cultivated Areas and Managed Lands (A11),
Managed Lands form a separate category. They comprise land cover classes that are clearly
vegetated and managed, though not with the intent of harvesting as is the case for
Cultivated Areas. The structural description of their cover in this classification may appear
simplistic, but a further description in land use terms would render much more information.
The description in cover terms will assure a high level of mapability, which can be freely
combined with user-defined land use descriptors.

A. Life Form - Managed Lands

Managed Lands form a separate category inside the Cultivated Terrestrial Areas and
Managed Lands (A11) and consist of one single classifier: Life Form. The Managed Land
Land Cover Classification System 29

Areas are described by the Life Form composition rather than description of the individual
Life Forms of the vegetation. They are defined by specifying the occurrence of trees, shrubs
and/or herbaceous life forms. Three options are available: Parklands, Parks or Lawns.

Managed Lands may comprise private gardens, public green areas, sport fields, etc. They
are usually found in the (peri-)urban environment. This category may be further elaborated
in future to include a wider range of classifiers for more detailed descriptions.

A. Life Form - Cultivated Areas

Two main aspects of the classifier Life Form should be taken into account:

(1) the concept of Life Form in this classification; and

(2) the determination of the dominant Life Form.

Careful determination of these two main aspects is important because the classification is
set up in such a way that the choice of the main Life Form has consequences for the choices
available at lower levels due to certain built-in conditions.

Life Form is defined by the physiognomy of the plants. Under Cultivated Terrestrial Areas,
Trees and Shrubs are distinguished from Herbaceous plants, subdivided into Forbs or
Graminoids. Under Cultivated Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas, only Graminoid and
Non-Graminoid crops are distinguished. The following rule applies: those plants that belong
to the Graminae family but have a woody appearance (e.g., bamboos) are classified as
Herbaceous plants. This rule differs from the rules applied in Natural and Semi-Natural
Vegetation (major land cover types A12 and A24).

For determination of dominance the following rules apply:

• The main criterion is the uppermost canopy layer. This means that the cover goes
from Trees to Shrubs to Herbaceous/Forbs/Graminoids.

• This general condition is subject to a sub-condition of “marginality”, i.e. the crop

should cover at least 15 percent of the area and/or should return the highest
economic revenue.

These two rules are the main criteria for determining the main crop. There are no
restrictions to possible crop Life Form combinations (in contrast to the description of
(Semi-)Natural Vegetation, as explained in the next paragraph).

The Trees and Shrubs Life Forms can have two additional modifiers: Leaf Type (Evergreen
or Deciduous), in combination with Leaf Phenology (Broadleaved or Needleleaved). The
introduction of this modifier for these two Life Forms assures a link with the description of
the natural vegetated areas.
30 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

B. Spatial Aspect – Size and Distribution

The second classifier that can be applied is Spatial Aspect - Size. This classifier often
implies other aspects (e.g., land tenure, mechanization, land reclamation, etc.). In many
classifications one find terms like "large-scale irrigated agriculture" or similar. This
classification needs to be neutral in its land cover description without including ambivalent
terminology. Therefore, Spatial Aspect has been selected as a neutral classifier. For
mapping exercises, Spatial Aspect is an important aspect at the meso- or macro-level.
Furthermore, it is an easily detectable characteristic (e.g., on aerial photographs and satellite
imagery), i.e., it has good “mapability.”

Field Size may differ according to biophysical conditions. Therefore, the quantitative values
are indicative. The classifier is applicable at the level of the individual field and three
categories are distinguished:

• less than 2 ha;

• 2 to 5 ha; and

• more than 5 ha.

This classifier can be skipped because size is a very subjective element.

Spatial Distribution is the horizontal pattern of cultivated fields in a certain area. It can be
easily measured, taking the distance between one field and the next. A distinction has been
made into three classes:

• Continuous describes a continuum of more than 50 percent of cultivated fields. In

this case the land cover mapping unit may be single (inside the mapping unit the
fields take up more than 80 percent) or mixed (the fields occupy 51-80 percent of
the mapping unit) (see also Section 2.4.2). Generally, when the fields occupy 51-
80 percent of the mapping unit, the area in between the fields can be considered by
the user as part of the cultivated area, or the user can decide to make a mixed
mapping unit, depending which land cover features the user wants to highlight.

• The Spatial Distribution is Scattered Clustered or Scattered Isolated when, within

the cultivated field area, other land cover types are present. They are defined as
follows:

1. Percentage of fields is more than 20 percent but less than 50 percent, it is

Scattered Clustered: this means that the resulting mapping unit is a mixed land
cover class of a cultivated area with another subordinate land cover class, and
both components need to be defined in the legend (e.g., 40 percent of fields and
60 percent of semi-natural vegetation).

2. Percentage of fields is more than 10 percent but less than 20 percent it is

considered Scattered Isolated: this means that the resulting mapping unit is a
mixed land cover class where the dominant class is not this one. It is the only
case where a class comprising less than 20 percent is present in a mixed
mapping unit (see Section 2.5).
Land Cover Classification System 31

C. Crop Combination (only for A11)

At the second level the Crop Combination is specified for the Cultivated Terrestrial Areas.
If there is more than one crop, the crops present can be specified together with details of the
possible overlap in growing period between the main and secondary crops. The order in
which an additional crop is specified, follows the same condition as stated above.

• The dominance is determined by the main criterion of the second-uppermost

canopy layer. This means that the cover goes from Trees to Shrubs to
Herbaceous/Forbs/ Graminoids.

• This general condition is subject to a sub-condition of “marginality,” i.e. the

crop should cover at least 15 percent of the area (but less than the main crop)
and/or should return the second highest economic revenue.

It is important to note that the second-level classifier Crop Combination can also be skipped
by the user because of the apparent difficulty in determining the classifiers correctly. This
skip function will then permit the user to continue the description of the main crop at the
third level.

C. Water Seasonality (only for A23)

The second level classifier Water Seasonality of Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Cultivated
Areas describes the duration of water on or near the surface during the main crop cultivation
period. If any additional crops are cultivated after, or in overlap with, the main crop the
period of water at or near the surface for these crops should be neglected.

D. Cover-Related Cultural Practices – Water Supply and Cultivation Time Factor ( A11)
At the third level of classification the classifier Cover-Related Cultural Practices – Water
Supply is determined. The options Rainfed Agriculture, Post Flooding and Irrigated
Agriculture for Cultivated Terrestrial Areas have implications for the options available
under Cultivation Time Factor. Post Flooding cultural practices are not possible in a
Permanent Cultivation system. It is also obvious that the dominant crop determined will
have implications for other classifiers (e.g., a Tree Crop will result in a Permanent
Cultivation system).

A Permanent Cultivation system in combination with either a Trees or Shrubs Life Form
designates what is commonly known as plantations and orchards (e.g., a forest plantation or
a coffee plantation). However, these names do not occur per se in this classification system.
In combination with Crop Type, a link to current systems can be made and to commonly
used names such as “plantation” (e.g., the combination of Shrub Crop and Crop Type: Tea
covers “Tea Plantation,” while Tree Crop and Crop Type: Hevea spp. refers to “Rubber
Plantation”).

D. Cover-Related Cultural Practices – Fallow Period (only for A23)

Cover-Related Cultural Practices – Fallow Period is the third level classifier for Aquatic or
Regularly Flooded Cultivated Areas. It has three subdivisions: Permanent, Relay
Intercropping, and Sequential. They are, however, defined differently from Cultivated
Terrestrial Areas because they refer to the practices that occur after harvest of the main
aquatic crop (see also the Glossary). These practices may not relate to the same Aquatic or
Regularly Flooded environment of the main crop.
32 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

2.3.4. Classification Concepts for Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas

Areas primarily characterized by a cover other than vegetation fall into two categories:
those with a non-vegetal cover and those with no cover at all. The latter is a category that
describes the land surface rather than any cover of the land but which has been included
here, as explained earlier (see Section 1.1).

The approach adopted for describing Primarily Non-Vegetated Areas is, as for Vegetated
Classes, a “structural-physiognomic” approach, that is the physiognomy, the cover (i.e.,
density) and structure are used as parameters. The classifiers Surface Aspect (Artificial
Surfaces and Bare Areas) and Physical Status (Artificial and Natural Waterbodies, Snow
and Ice) can be regarded as descriptors of the physiognomy of the materials, like Life Form
for vegetation. The further classifiers and modifiers of Bare Areas and Artificial Surfaces
contain elements of Cover, as for Terrestrial Vegetation, whereas the Water Persistence
classifier is similar to Water Seasonality in Aquatic Vegetation.

2.3.4.1 Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas (B15)

Areas with an artificial cover resulting from human activities are described in most
classification systems in terms of use, whereas the description of cover is equally important.
An example is urban areas where the surface generally consists of impervious materials.
This type of impervious surface greatly influences run-off and the peak flow characteristics
of water. Another example is tarmac roads in hilly terrain, where road constructors need to
carefully plan for the discharge of excess water that, in poor designs, may lead to disastrous
forms of erosion.

The Associated Areas are mainly domains where the original surface is removed, such as
extraction sites, or where materials have been deposited on top of the original surface, such
as waste dumps and other type of deposits.

The characteristics of the cover of the surface are crucial in the land cover description and
therefore embody the main classification concept. This major land cover type is classified
depending upon the Surface Aspect. A category for the Built-Up Object can be specified
using the scroll list (e.g., cities and towns, roads, open mines, official waste dump sites,
etc.).

A. Surface Aspect
The Surface Aspect distinguishes two main classes, with one class having two levels with
an increase in detail. A much more detailed class description can be made using the
modifier options. These modifiers are explained in terms of cover rather than land use
terminology.

The Artificial Surface areas can be further defined according to the shape and density of the
artefacts.

2.3.4.2 Bare Areas (B16)

Areas which are primarily bare are usually described by geologists, soil scientists or
geomorphologists (using technical terms like granite rock, rendzhina, sand dunes, inselberg,
tor, etc.). This type of description is highly technical, and may be difficult to understand for
users with a different background. An approach is therefore needed which describes the
type of material on the surface, with additional options to go into more detail, in
combination with elements describing either some specific properties (physical or chemical)
of the surface material, or describing some specific forms. Specific forms implies that the
Land Cover Classification System 33

surface may consist of shapes that form a pattern at the macro-level. The focus of the cover
description is on the surface and not on the subsoil.

The major land cover type Bare Areas is, therefore, described mainly by the appearance of
the surface. The concept adopted describes the aspects of the cover: whether it is
consolidated or not, and of what kind of material it comprises (e.g., rock, sand, etc.), and
which may be combined with Macropattern. The more discipline-related descriptors for
geology, landform and soil are available as attributes and can be used to link the land cover
description to the technical disciplines.

A. Surface Aspect
The Surface Aspect describes the surface of the Bare Area at two levels, with an increase in
detail. A further specification can be made by using one of the modifiers. These modifiers
specify some physical or chemical properties.

B. Macropattern
The Macropattern describes the pattern of the surface. This classifier is linked to the
Surface Aspect because a Macropattern can only be of the same material as the surface
described. Hence the choice made under Surface Aspect may disable certain choices in this
classifier. Two types are distinguished, namely Bare Soil and Loose and/or Shifting Sands.

2.3.4.5 Artificial and Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice (B27 and B28)
The two major land cover types describing water surfaces or other physical appearances of
water, Artificial Waterbodies, Snow and Ice (B27) and Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice
(B28) are described by taking into account their temporal aspect. Water, snow and ice may
not be present all year round and therefore it is also important to know what the cover is
when they are absent. This temporal aspect should not influence the classification results
because classification by default is independent of temporal change.

In most existing classification systems these land cover types are only briefly described in
terms of cover, with no additional information. The concept adopted by this classification
puts more emphasis on the temporal aspect.

The major difference between these two major classes is that Artificial Waterbodies, Snow
and Ice are surfaces in places where, under natural circumstances, no water, snow or ice
surface would exist. Therefore these surfaces are the result of an artefact, such as the
construction of a dam, the making of artificial ice or snow, etc.

A. Physical Status
The Physical Status describes in which form water is found. Three options are available:
Water, Snow or Ice. Depending on the choice made here, other classifiers at lower levels
may be disabled. For water and ice a further specification can be made into Flowing or
Standing Water and Moving or Stationary Ice.

B. Persistence
Persistence, i.e., the duration that Water, Snow or Ice covers the surface, is described. If
Water, Snow or Ice is present for nine months or less per year, the surface then exposed can
be further specified.
34 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

C. Depth
The Depth can be described because this is directly related to cover aspects. The proposed
classifier has not been given a lot of detail because the most important feature to be
determined is whether it is deep or not, i.e., whether it is shallower or deeper than 2 m. This
limit has an ecological meaning as it is the maximum rooting depth for the great majority of
aquatic plants (Cowardin et al., 1979).

D. Sediment Load
The suspended Sediment Load in the water influences the cover and implies other
environmental aspects, such as upstream erosion and downstream sedimentation. It also
influences the aquatic fauna and flora. It is a relatively easily observed characteristic of the
water, but difficult to measure as it fluctuates. Therefore the subdivision has not been given
great detail.
Land Cover Classification System 35

2.3.5 Environmental and Specific Technical Attributes

The pure land cover classifiers can be combined with so-called attributes for further
definition (see also Section 2.3.2.) of the land cover class. These attributes are intended to
be used as a further characterization of the land cover itself rather than to add a new data
layer. Application of the attributes in the full legend, when all classes would have the same
set of attributes, they could be used as a separate layer in the database. Two types of
attributes, which form distinct levels in the classification, are distinguished:

Environmental Attributes: attributes that are not inherent features of land cover but may
influence the land cover.

Specific Technical Attributes: attributes referring to the technical discipline of the major
land cover type.

2.3.5.1 Environmental Attributes

L. Landform
Land forms are described first and foremost by their morphology, and not by their genetic
origin or the processes responsible for their shape. The dominant slope is the most
important differentiating criterion, followed by relief intensity.

This attribute can be applied to all classes except Artificial Surfaces and Artificial and
Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice. The attribute consists of two different levels, that is
major land form and slope class according to the Soils and Terrain (SOTER) methodology
(UNEP/ISSS/ISRIC/FAO, 1995).

M. Lithology
The lithology can be described based on the geological parent material and the age of it.
The options provided have been provided by S.B. Kroonenberg (1998). Three major
groupings are distinguished and further subdivided (see Glossary).

N. Soils
For the Primarily Vegetated Areas, the user can describe first the soil’s Surface Aspect,
followed by a detailed description of the soil profile according to the Revised Soil Legend
(FAO, 1988). For Bare Areas (B16) only the soil profile description is applicable because
the soil surface aspect is a classifier of this major land cover type.

O. Climate
The concept adopted to add climatic parameters to the land cover classes is from De Pauw
et al. (1995). The revised Length of Growing Period (LGP) approach gives recognition to
the relevant climatic constraints in any major region of the world. The combination of
Thermal Classes and Moisture Classes gives the climate. No conditions have been pre-set.

P. Altitude
This attribute can be used in all major land cover types. The classes of this attribute are a
proposal and can be further subdivided by using the possibility available in the Legend
Module to create a user-defined attribute (see Section 5.2.5).
36 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

Q. Erosion
In the description of Erosion in the land cover, emphasis is given to accelerated or human-
induced erosion. Human-induced erosion is often the result of irrational use and poor
management, such as incorrect agricultural practices, overgrazing or overexploitation of the
(semi-)natural vegetation. These practices result in a cover type with specific features. Most
of the erosion can be classified as either Water or Wind erosion and deposition, with the
Mass Movements as a third major category. Further subdivision can be made by using the
User-defined Attribute option in the Legend Module.

This attribute is applicable in all Primarily Vegetated Areas and Bare Areas (B16).

R. Water Quality (only for A24)

This attribute is only applicable in (Semi-)Natural Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Terrestrial
Areas (A24). It can be used to specify the salinity of the water (measured in ppm of TDS)
according to Cowardin et al. (1979).

U. Vegetation (only for B16, B27 and B28)

This attribute is applicable for Bare Areas and Artificial and Natural Waterbodies, Snow
and Ice (e.g., sandy riverbed with scattered vegetation) to indicate that less than 4 percent of
vegetation is present. In the case of the presence of Lichens and/or Mosses, they should be
less than 20 percent (see Glossary).

W. Cover/Crop Density (only for A11 and A23)

This attribute is only applicable for the Cultivated Areas, both Terrestrial and Aquatic or
Regularly Flooded. This attribute gives information on the density of the permanent crops,
(e.g., Trees and Shrubs), or the cover of the temporary life forms (e.g., Herbaceous, Forbs
and Graminoids). This information is an indicator of the success of crop establishment and
hence its possible yield.

The density has not been used as a land cover classifier, as for (semi-)natural vegetated
areas, because it normally would not add any useful information to the land cover class. The
density is related to the planting distance of the crop, which differs according to crop (e.g.,
olive trees versus maize). However, it is a useful attribute when describing a cultivated area
which does not have the expected density of the crop (e.g., in marginal areas).

2.3.5.2 Specific Technical Attributes

These attributes are related to the technical discipline associated with the major land cover
type: thus, for (Semi-)Natural Vegetated, areas the Floristic Aspect can be described; for
Bare Areas, the Soil Type (as discussed under N. Soils); for Cultivated Areas, the Crop
Types; and for Artificial and Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice, the Salinity.

S. Crop Type (only for A11 and A23)

The Crop Type can be specified according to the major groupings used for the FAO
Production Yearbooks. If a Crop Type is not present, it can be defined and added under the
header Other in the boxes which open upon clicking. Furthermore, the name of the crop has
to be linked to the dominant, second or third crop choices, if not the entry is not saved.
Thus, a maximum of three names can be specified.
Land Cover Classification System 37

T. Floristic Aspect (only for A12 and A24)

This attribute has two major divisions: if the name is derived from a single plant species or
a group of plants. In the first option, a further subdivision is possible into Dominant Species
(Height, Cover or combination of both) and Most Frequent Species. The second option is
subdivided into: Plant Groups (e.g., Braun-Blanquet) and Plant Groups Derived Without
Statistical Methods (e.g., same ecological significance, same geographic distribution, same
dynamic significance, etc.). The specific name of the Floristic Aspect can be added with the
User-Defined Attribute option in the Legend Module.

V. Salinity (only for B27 and B28)

The Salinity of the water can be specified for Artificial and Natural Waterbodies. Three
main classes are distinguished, based upon Cowardin et al. (1979).
38 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

2.4 THE ADVANTAGES OF THE METHOD ADOPTED

2.4.1 Advantages from the conceptual point of view

It is a real a priori classification system in the sense that, for the classifiers considered, it
covers all their possible combinations. Some particular combinations are excluded, due to
conditions that are elements of the classification system. In this case the type of
combinations and the conditions, i.e., the reasons, for this “exclusion” are clearly listed and
explained.

A given land cover class is clearly and systematically defined making a clear and
unambiguous differentiation by use of the classifiers as follows:
• pure land cover classifiers (each one ordered from general to more specific level);
• environmental attributes (e.g., Climate, Landform, Geology, etc.); and
• specific technical attributes (e.g., Floristic Aspect for (Semi-)Natural Vegetation).
This system avoids unclear definitions (e.g., “tropical rain forest” where a climatic attribute
is used for a floristic description).

The classification is truly hierarchical. The class’ hierarchical arrangement is a basic

component of the mechanism of the class formation. The difference between a land cover
class (at a more general level) and a further subdivision of it is given through the addition of
new classifiers (or a more detailed level of the one forming the previous class). The more
classifiers used, the greater the detail of the land cover class defined.

The classes derived from the proposed classification system are all unique and
unambiguous, due to the internal consistency and systematic description of the class as a
basis for objective and repeatable classification. Correlation studies between classifications
show that in many cases definitions of the class names are often either unclear or
unsystematic, or both, due to the fact that in traditional classification and legends the
“meaning” of a class is derived only from its general description. Such a descriptive text is
very often unsystematic, and as a result in many cases there are insufficient details to define
strict boundary conditions. The classes are therefore open to misinterpretation and lack
internal consistency. With the present classification the user’s primary descriptive tool is
the Boolean Formula of all classifiers used to build the class; this cannot be anything other
than a systematic description of the class. In addition to this, the traditional class description
is used. A strict class boundary definition and internal class consistency are inherent to the
method.

LCCS is designed to map at a variety of scales, from small to large (see Section 3).

For two main reasons, the classification can be used as reference classification:

• the classification contains a large number of classes (the classes of the existing
classifications and legends can always be accommodated); and

• emphasis is on a set of classifiers rather than just a name, which allows easy
correlation even when a range of values, such as the percent of cover of a given life
form, does not fit with the proposed value; the dissimilarity is clear and remains
limited to only a portion of the elements forming the class. This event however
should be extremely rare due to the different levels, from more general to more
specific, forming a single type of classifier.
Land Cover Classification System 39

2.4.2 Advantages from the practical point of view

The specific design of the classification allows easy incorporation and integration into GIS
and databases. The mechanisms of how the classes are built up (see Section 2) facilitate
overlay procedures.

It will produce a real multi-user database. Despite the high demand for natural resources
information, many databases are not developed to meet multi-user requirements. This is
shown by the fact that very often the number of real users is often a small portion of the
potential ones. An important cause is the inherent rigidity of the natural resources
information (i.e., land cover) of the databases. Two cases are typical:

• the original project is very specialized (e.g., vegetation ecology), and hence the class
name and description of the resulting legend are difficult to understand by other users
(such as rural planners, statisticians, etc.); or

• the original project is not specialized, and so the classes or the class descriptions are
too generic to be used by specialized disciplines.

The ways in which current classifications determine the classes (names and generally a
broad description) do not allow a great deal of flexibility of use by the final user. The
present classification system assumes two types of final users:

• the one that uses the classification to built up the database (the user basically doing
the interpretation activity); and

• the one that is the final user of the database created.

The system obliges the first user (the database builder) to follow specific rules in the
combination of classifiers (to assure standardization and comparability of the data set) but
allows the database user (see Section 3) to define freely the set of classifiers with which
they wish to re-aggregate the original polygons of the database. Because the class definition
is linked with the classifiers’ Boolean Formula, this is a straightforward process. Of course,
the number of potential recombination of classifiers is extremely large, and some
combinations may be illogical, but this respects the concept of multiple users, each with
their very specific needs.

For interpretation purposes, the advantages are:

1. It is highly flexible, responding not only to the information available or gathered in a

given area, but also to the time and budgetary constraints of a project. This means that
within one land cover map, mapping units will contain the maximum available
information, but that the quantity of information may differ between the mapping
units. This will not affect the homogeneity of the resulting map. It will be possible,
for instance, to have within the same map, in a certain geographical area polygons of
a class formed with a certain number of classifiers (a high number as here more
ancillary information is available), while, in another part, polygons where the same
type of class will have fewer classifiers. It will always be possible to compare the two
classes.

2. It rationalizes the field data collection. Because the classes are defined by a
combination of classifiers, field surveyors should detect the single classifiers and not
deal with the final class name. This means that the field survey can be done
independent of, or parallel to, the interpretation process.
40 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

3. It facilitates standardization of the interpretation process, contributing to its

homogeneity. Despite the huge number of classes the interpreter can generate to fit
the land cover variations, one is dealing only with a limited number of classifiers. So
one does not need to scroll inside a big, obscure list of class names but must simply
aggregate a limited number of well-defined classifiers. This will also reduce
heterogeneity between interpreters and between interpretations over time.

4. It allows the building up of a new procedure of accuracy analysis of the result. Until
now, accuracy analysis was done for single classes; henceforth it will be possible to
assess the accuracy not only for the entire class but also for each of the classifiers
forming the specific class. This will give a high flexibility to finalization of the
classes. If, for instance, a class formed by five classifiers shows an accuracy of
60 percent, which is too low according to the established standard, then by looking at
the individual classifiers forming this class the user can analyse the contribution of
each individual classifier to the overall class accuracy. If, in the example, the first
four classifiers have an accuracy of 90 percent while the fifth classifier only
60 percent, the user may decide to eliminate this last and less accurate classifier in
order to have a final class with less detail but with a higher accuracy.
Land Cover Classification System 41

2.5 FROM CLASSIFICATION TO LEGEND

Classification is an abstract representation of the situation in the field using a particular set
of diagnostic criteria, whereas a legend is the application of the classification’s abstract
design in a particular area using a defined mapping scale and a particular data set. This
transition implies establishment of specific conditions not present in the classification
concept (e.g., Minimum Mapable Area and Mixed Mapping Units). Because one of the
ultimate goals of this classification is to provide a useful tool for mapping exercises, these
conditions will be discussed here even if they are not strictly appropriate to the main subject
of this chapter.

2.5.1 The Minimal Mapable Area concept

The Minimal Mapping Area is a concept applied by cartographers when addressing the
smallest area that can be shown on a map. This concept is therefore scale-dependent and not
related to classification. However, the issue is addressed here as it usually poses problems.

The concept of one single mapable area is generally applied. Historically, the cartographer
determined one particular minimum size of area to be represented on the map. This was
applied to all classes contained in the legend. The disadvantage of this method is that
classes with a difference in importance would follow the same rules. It would have been
more logical to define a set of different sizes for the various features with differing
importance (Di Gregorio, 1991).

The flexibility of this current classification allows the introduction of the concept of a
variable minimal mapable area. Thus, the user can relate the size of the minimal mapable
area to the eight major land cover types from which the classes are derived (Figure 10).

FIGURE 10.
Example from the East Africa Project, with variable minimal mapable areas (not at original scale).

B15 B27 B28 A11 A23 A24 A12 B16

Variable minimum mapable unit

42 Part A: Classification Concepts – The Conceptual basis

2.5.2 The Occurrence of Mixed Mapping Units

In the classification system, all classes are unique and no Mixed Mapping Units are
considered. Mixed Mapping Units are cartography related. However, the user can go from a
more general to a more detailed level of definition of a class. If for instance the classifier
Woody is used, this implies that an intricate mixture of trees and shrubs is present in which
neither is clearly dominant. This results in a mixture of two life forms but not in a mixed
land cover class. A Mixed Mapping Unit in the legend is always characterized by two or
more (to a maximum of three) separate single land cover classes as defined in the
classification system. The conditions governing the utilization of mixed mapping units are
that within the minimum mapable area, two or more land cover classes are present, which
can be:

(1) in a spatially separate entity (e.g., patches of agriculture fields inside a forest); or

(2) in an intricate mixture (e.g., rainfed cultivated fields with Baobab woodland).

The latter is applicable only if a more general definition of the class (as explained above) is
not appropriate.

In the case of spatially separate entities of two or more classes, the general criteria proposed
is that the cover of each one of the class considered must be more than 20 percent (and
consequently less than 80 percent) of the mapping unit. The limit of 20 percent is thus the
threshold of “visibility” of a class in a Mixed Unit. The only exception to this rule is in the
major land cover type of Cultivated Areas, where the use of the option Scattered Isolated of
the classifier Spatial Distribution goes from 10 to 20 percent (see Section 2.4.2).

The sequence of the class names in a mixed mapping unit represents the dominance (e.g.,
for Forest/Cultivated Areas, Forest is more than 50 percent and less than 80 percent,
whereas Cultivated Areas is less than 50 percent but more than 20 percent). A Mixed
Mapping Unit can contain a maximum of three classes.

In the particular case of classes belonging to the major land cover categories Cultivated and
Managed Terrestrial Area(s) (A11) or Cultivated Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Area(s)
(A23), the user has an additional means to create a Mixed Mapping Unit. The classification
system offers the possibility to create a so-called “Temporal Mixed Unit”. Such a unit is
used to describe the situation were in different years, different types of cultivation are
executed in the same field (i.e. the mapping unit). This is the case when the user has, for
example, a situation with cultivated fields of paddy rice in one year (e.g. when there is
sufficient rainfall) followed by a terrestrial crop in the subsequent year(s) (e.g. when rainfall
is poor). This particular type of Temporal Mixed Unit shows often a cyclic, almost
customary, alternation of different crops in subsequent years (e.g. generally an Aquatic crop
followed by Terrestrial crops, or an Irrigated crop followed by Rainfed crops, etc.). It is
important to note that the alternation of crops should be considered only when this
occurs on an annual basis. The combination of different crops in the same growing period
is an option already considered in LCCS’ class creation (see the classifiers related to Crop
Combination in A11). However, because of the specific nature of this type of Mixed Unit,
that occurs only where crops are growing, the classes composing such a mixed unit can
only be those of Cultivated Area(s).
Land Cover Classification System 43

- PART B -

Land Cover Classification System:

User Manual

For software version 1.0

44 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual
Land Cover Classification System 45

3. INSTALLATION

A user-friendly interface has been built between the set of databases holding the numerous
potential land cover classes formed by selection of the classifiers and attributes available.
The branching options in the classification system are many and the software application
should make any of these classes easily retrievable. ACCESS 7.0 has been used as the
development platform.

This section of the User Manual will cover:

• hardware and software requirements;

• installation procedure; and

• directory structure.

Before trying to install the Land Cover Classification System ensure the PC meets the
requirements specified below.

Please note that LCCS comes as a run-time software application, therefore, it is

not necessary to have ACCESS7.0 installed on your computer.

System Requirements
Hardware:
• Pentium processor
• 8 MB RAM (16 MB or more recommended)
• Hard disk with at least 25 MB of free space
• The screen size can be variable

Operating System:
• Windows 95 or Windows NT

Installation Procedure
LCCS comes as a Run-time version. The users have to follow the regular installation
sequence for Windows-based programs.

For Windows 95 and NT users, the procedure is as follow:

(1) Insert the CD-ROM in your CD-ROM drive (in most cases D:)

(1) Click on Start

(2) RUN

(3) type D:setup

46 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

After having completed this step, a guided set-up procedure is activated. It is highly
recommended that its proposals be accepted regarding the installation directory and naming
of new program groups.

At a certain point in the set-up procedure a MSDOS window is opened where the user has
to touch a button to proceed. After completion this window can be closed a window with
the message “Land Cover Classification System Setup was completed successfully” will be
displayed. Click the OK button to exit the set-up.

At the end of the set up, a new sub-directory C:\LCCS is created and a new Land Cover
Classification System icon is added to the WINDOWS Program Manager.

Directory Structure
The installation looks for the following directory structure and - if necessary - creates it:

• C:\LCCS contains the database software and the databases as such.

• C:\LCCS\DOCS contains the WinWord documentation files for LCCS.

• C:\LCCS\IMAGE contains the example image files delivered with LCCS.

Land Cover Classification System 47

4. OPERATION

Though no previous knowledge of Microsoft WINDOWS is required to operate LCCS,

there are some Selection Techniques and Screen Objects the user should become familiar
with in order to be able to use the LCCS Action Panel without problems.

Selection Techniques
• Mouse click: moving the arrow shaped mouse cursor to an object (such as a button or
a symbol) and pressing the mouse’s left button once.

• Double click: as above, but pressing the left mouse button rapidly twice.

Screen Objects
Typical objects in LCCS, through which the user communicates with the program by
making a selection or triggering an action, are:

• Buttons: clicking when the mouse arrow is over a button object triggers the action
usually displayed as the button’s label (like making a menu choice or quitting a
program).

Buttons can take 3 different states:

Enabled but not activated: button takes a risen appearance.

Enabled and activated: button takes a sunken appearance.

Disabled: a button that is disabled cannot be activated; its label shows as lighter
grey.

• Combo Boxes: these boxes let the user select from a list of items. By typing the first
few characters of a possible choice in the box a matching entry will be displayed and
can be selected by pressing <Enter> or by double-clicking the requisite list item. A
list of entries unfolds upon clicking the down-arrow at its right hand side. An entry
can be selected by double-clicking on it. Should the list be longer than the size of the
box, vertical scrollbars are displayed at the right hand side of the box, inviting the
user to click on the up or down arrows to see further entries in the list box.

• LCCS Sub-menus: like the Main Menu screen, the LCCS sub-menus let the user
branch to further options by clicking on one of the menu buttons.

• The F1 Key/Help: pressing the F1 key in any of the forms/screens of LCCS brings up
a context-sensitive Help screen. The effect of pressing the F1 key is the same as
clicking on the ‘Help’ button.

The Classification Module Actions Panel appears in the majority of forms/screens of this
module. This panel contains 10 buttons that trigger different actions (Figure 11).

FIGURE 11.
The Actions Panel in the Classification Module.
48 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

End Classification

Previous Form/Screen

Legend Menu

Image Database

Show Classifier Codes

Context Sensitive Help

Show Class

Write Class to Legend

Attributes Menu

Next Form/Screen

The buttons of the Action Panel trigger the following events:

• End Classification: This button opens a box containing the question

“Do you really want to quit Classification?” with the options Yes or No.

• Previous Form/Screen: This button brings the user back to the previous form/screen,
with all previously selected buttons visible.

• Legend Menu: This button brings the user to the Legend Module menu.

• Image Database: This button activates stand-alone commercial public domain

software for image (e.g. satellite imagery) display.

• Show Classifier Codes: This button opens a window with the relevant classifier
options and their corresponding codes. The Close button can be used to close this
window.
Land Cover Classification System 49

• Context-sensitive Help: This button opens the Help facility of the current major land
cover type the user is in, and which contains all definitions and guidelines for the
correct use of the classifiers, modifiers and attributes.

• Show Class: This button opens a new window in which the classifier, modifier and
attributes codes used can be viewed, as well as the name of the land cover class. The
button in the lower right-hand corner can be used to close this window.

• Write Class to Legend: This button opens a window in which the user has to select
one of its options before the class can be successfully written to the Legend Module
(for further explanation see Section 5.2).

• Next Form/Screen: This button brings the user to the next level of the classification
and is only enabled when all available classifiers in the form have been determined.
This button is not available for environmental and specific discipline related
attributes.

The buttons are in the enabled position when the action they trigger is valid. The Show
Class button in the enabled position indicates that a land cover class has been formed, that
is the minimum set of classifiers to define a land cover class has been determined.

In the Legend Module the screen objects consist of buttons that may or may not be followed
by a combo box or sub-menu with several options, as described earlier.

For the main Legend menu options Display, Standard Description and Classifiers Used, a
report will be shown which can be printed. The same applies for Similarity Assessment in
the Translator Module.

In the Translator Module the selection technique consists of clicking on button objects or
highlighting a selected item by clicking once on it (especially in list boxes).
50 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual
Land Cover Classification System 51

5. THE PROGRAM MODULES

Each of the four modules will be discussed in detail regarding its purpose, the options
available and the links with other modules of the software.

5.1 CLASSIFICATION

5.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this module is to define a land cover class according to two main phases:

• An initial Dichotomous Phase, where the user derives the main land cover type. For
this phase at each level a choice is made between two alternatives, hence the term
dichotomous. After having determined the main land cover type, the user can proceed
to the next Phase, but the user can also define a generic class using only this initial
phase.

• A subsequent Modular-Hierarchical Phase, where a land cover class is defined by

determining one classifier at a time. The classifiers available are tied to the main land
cover type. In this Phase, the selection of one classifier at a high level may have
consequences for the options available at lower levels. The system is constructed in
such a way that choices no longer valid in connection with a chosen classifier at a
higher level become inactive.

At any level within these Phases the user can ask for the land cover class and store its
Boolean formula, numerical code and class name in the module called "Legend."

5.1.2 Dichotomous Phase

In the Dichotomous Phase the user can select the major land cover category to which the
land cover belongs. There are two ways to proceed through the options, to either:

• start at the top of the key and determine at each level which option is valid by
clicking the appropriate button; or

• identify immediately to which major land cover type the class will belong and by
clicking directly on the button with the arrow immediately below the button with the
major land cover type name.

Having determined the major land cover type (Figure 12), the Dichotomous Phase is
completed and the user automatically enters the next phase. A pop-up screen will inform the
user of the change of Phase.

If the level of information needed or available to determine a land cover class is very
limited, the user can select the appropriate choice(s) in this phase and a land cover class will
be defined. This class will consist of a Boolean formula, a standard name and numerical
code. This class can be stored in the Legend Module (see Section 5.2). Classes thus defined
are broad categories because of the limited number of classifiers used. For more detailed
definition of classes the user should apply the classifiers of the Modular-Hierarchical Phase.

FIGURE 12.
52 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

The Dichotomous Phase with the classifier options Primarily Vegetated - Terrestrial - Natural and
Semi-Natural Vegetation selected.

5.1.3 Modular-Hierarchical Phase

The Modular-Hierarchical Phase is a phase where the set of available classifiers is tailored
to the major land cover type. This means that the type, amount and hierarchical arrangement
of classifiers will differ from one major land cover type to an other.

In each module, however, three groups of classifiers and attributes are available and they
are always presented in the same hierarchical order. Each type of classifier and attribute is
also presented in a different colour on the video screen (Figure 13). A distinction is made
between:

• pure land cover classifiers at the top levels of the module;

• environmental attributes at the intermediate levels; and

• specific technical or discipline-related attribute at the bottom level.

Land Cover Classification System 53

FIGURE 13.
Example of the classifiers and attributes of two major land cover types: Cultivated and Managed
Terrestrial Areas (A11) and Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation (A12).

Pure Land Cover Classifiers

The difference between these classifiers and the attributes is that the land cover classifiers
are strictly hierarchically ordered. One cannot skip a classifier and go on to the next one
unless this possibility is provided for by the program, as occurs with “Semi-Natural and
Natural Vegetation” and “Cultivated Terrestrial Areas and Managed Lands”. The user must
proceed step-by-step in order to develop the structural-physiognomic concept (see Sections
2.3.4.1 and 2.3.4.2).

The classifiers are also ordered according to their mapability. The classifiers at a high level
have a higher mapping accuracy than classifiers from lower levels, which means that they
will contribute more to establishing clear and precise boundaries between different land
cover classes than will lower-level classifiers. If a classifier cannot be determined, the user
can stop.

Definition of the land cover class results in:

• a unique Boolean formula (a coded string of the classifiers used);

• a standard name (nomenclature); and
• a unique numerical code that may be useful in GIS applications.
Both the numerical code and nomenclature name can be used to automatically generate a
Legend (see Section 5.2).

The user will start to identify any land cover class using the pure land cover classifiers. A
minimum number of these classifiers need to be determined before the user is allowed to
combine these classifiers with any of the attributes. If the minimum requirement for
classifiers has been satisfied, the button for proceeding to the environmental attributes will
be enabled, as well as the buttons to show the class and save it to the Legend.
54 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

The pure land cover classifiers are always presented in blocks in which the choices are
mutually exclusive, i.e., the user can select only one option. Even where there are two
different levels, a more general level and a more specific level, presented in two rows (e.g.,
in Life Form “Woody” above “Trees” and “Shrubs” in Figure 14) only one option can be
selected. If the user clicks on the button “Woody” followed by clicking on “Trees”, the
button “Woody” will return to its original, inactive, position.

FIGURE 14.
Example of classifier options at different levels of detail (major land cover type A12 - classifier Life
Form with a first general level and a second more detailed level).

There are also options that further modify a classifier option (Figure 15). These are called
Modifiers and they immediately follow a classifier option (e.g., in Leaf Phenology for Forbs
and Graminoids “Mixed” above “Perennial” and “Annual”, or in Height for all Life Forms).
Modifiers belonging to one classifier option are mutually exclusive. Only after selection of
the classifier can a modifier be added. If the user clicks the button of a modifier without
having clicked on the appropriate classifier first, a message will pop up to inform the user
that the classifier should be selected first.

FIGURE 15.
Example of modifier that further defines a classifier option (major land cover class A12 - classifier
Leaf Phenology with modifier options Mixed and Semi-Deciduous).

The use of these modifiers will generate (examples are shown in Figure 16):

• a separate Boolean Code (e.g., “Basic Classifier: A3A10B2C1” and “Modifier: B5”)

• a distinct numerical code which follows the classifier code and is separated from it by
a hyphen (e.g., 20007-13152); and

• a change to the standard name (e.g., Continuous Closed High Forest).

Land Cover Classification System 55

The more levels with their classifiers that are used, the more specific becomes the land
cover class defined. Choices made at a high level may have implications for the availability
of a certain classifier at a lower level. If certain options are no longer valid the buttons are
disabled. In this way the user is guided through the program and invalid choices prevented.

FIGURE 16.
Examples of Show Class windows with a land cover class defined in the Natural and Semi-Natural
Terrestrial Vegetation major land cover type.

Environmental Attributes
The environmental attributes are not hierarchically ordered and the user is free to add
appropriate choices in any order. Use of these attributes further defines the environmental
settings in which a land cover unit is found (Figure 17). The options within one
environmental attribute are mutually exclusive. Use of attributes will result in:

• a separate string of codes in the Boolean formula (e.g., Basic Classifier:

A3A10B2C1-L2L7, Modifier: B5);

• no alteration of the numerical code (e.g., 20007-13152 remains unchanged); and

56 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

• no change in the standard name, as these choices follow the standard name and each
choice refers back to the attribute itself (e.g., Class Name: Continuous Closed High
Forest; Major Landform: Sloping Land; Slopeclass: Rolling).

FIGURE 17.
Example of Show Class window with a land cover class with additional environmental attributes:
Landform and Climate.

Specific Technical Attribute

Use of the specific technical attribute will further define the land cover class using the
related discipline (e.g., for vegetation, the method of how species were recorded can be
specified; for cultivated areas, the crop type can be specified)(Figure 18). Again choices are
mutually exclusive. Use of a specific technical attribute will result in:

• a separate code added to the string of codes of attributes in the Boolean formula (e.g.,
Basic Classifier: A3A10B2C1-L2L7T3, Modifier: B5);

• no alteration of the numerical code (e.g., 20007-13152 remains unchanged);

• no change in the standard name as the specific technical attribute choice follows the
standard name and after any environmental attributes used (e.g., Class Name: Closed
High Forest; Major Landform: Sloping Land; Slopeclass: Rolling; Floristic aspect:
Dominant species (Height or cover or a combination of both)).

The user can go through the levels of the Modular-Hierarchical Phase of certain major land
cover classes and build up as many classes as needed. These classes can be stored in the
Legend Module, described in detail in the next Section.
Land Cover Classification System 57

FIGURE 18.
Example of the use of the Specific Technical Attribute Floristic Aspect.

5.2 LEGEND

5.2.1 Purpose
The main purpose of the Legend Module is to store the land cover classes identified in a
hierarchical structure that groups the classes according to the main land cover type.
Therefore the Legend usually contains only a subset of the Classification, that is those
classes which are applicable in the area (to be) interpreted or mapped.

In addition to providing a hierarchical structure, the Legend also offers capabilities to

display, edit and add user-defined attributes to a land cover class. It provides standard
descriptions for the classes identified and the classifiers used, and all this information can
be exported in various formats.

Because in the Legend the classification is applied to a specific area, Mixed Mapping Units
can be formed. A Mixed Mapping Unit can comprise two or three classes from the same
major land cover type, or two or three classes from different major land cover types. The
order of the classes in a Mixed Mapping Unit reflects the dominance in the mapping unit
(see also Section 2.5).

5.2.2 How To Create A Legend?

Land cover classes are defined in the Classification Module. A Legend is created by storing
these land cover classes in the Legend. To store a class defined in the Classification
Module, the “Write Class to Legend” button needs to be clicked on in the action panel of
the Classification Module (see Section 4.1), upon which a sub-menu is shown (Figure 19).
This sub-menu questions the user whether the class is a “Single or Mixed Unit?”. The
following choices are available, either

• clicking on the Single option stores the class defined in the Legend and the user can
define the next new land cover class; or
58 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

• clicking on the Mixed option makes the program keep the first class defined in
memory and await definition of the second and/or third component of the Mixed
Mapping Unit.

• If the second land cover class is the ultimate component of the Mixed Mapping Unit,
the user should then click on End Mixed, but if there is a third component the user
should click on 2nd Mixed.

• To define a third, and final, component of a Mixed Mapping Unit, the third land cover
class needs to be defined, followed by clicking on End Mixed.

• To annul storage of a land cover class in the Legend the user can select Cancel, or, if
the second or third component defined should not be written to Legend, the same
button can be used. However, by annulling this component, the system still expects
definition of the second and/or third elements.

The Help button gives further information on which option to select in case of writing a
class to the Legend.

FIGURE 19.
From the Classification Module to Legend: window in which user has to select whether or not the
defined land cover class is part of a Mixed Unit.

In the current classification (and its derived Legend) a Mixed Unit is defined as a mapping
unit where more than 25 percent of the dominant cover belongs to another land cover
class. The dominant land cover class is always the first class mentioned (e.g., Closed
Forest/Herbaceous Fields indicates a Mixed Mapping Unit of forest and fields where the
forest is the class covering the bigger portion of terrain, more than 50 percent, while the
agricultural fields cover at least 25 percent of the area, but less than 50 percent).

The Mixed Mapping Unit is then stored in the Legend. The user can continue to define
other land cover classes or switch to any of the other program modules.

There are two ways to enter the Legend Module, either:

• directly from the Main Menu; or

• from the appropriate button of the Action Panel in the Classification Module.
Land Cover Classification System 59

In the Main Menu there is a button which leads the user directly to the Legend Module.
However, if no land cover classes have been defined in the Classification Module and
subsequently stored in the Legend, the Legend will be empty.

From the Classification Module there is a special button to go directly to the main Legend
menu, from where the various options can be chosen, as explained below.

5.2.3 Add User-Defined Attribute

Land cover classes can be “cloned” in order to add some specific user-defined attributes to
the standard land cover class selected. This allows the addition of more specific and user-
oriented attributes while maintaining a standardized land cover class. The user may want to
further define a classifier and/or attribute already used, or the user might want to add a new
attribute. A standard set of options is provided (see Figure 20).

FIGURE 20.
Window with the options for definition of the Type of Clone in order to add a User-Defined
Attribute.

In order to clone a standard land cover class and add a user-defined attribute, follow the
steps below (an example is shown in Figure 21):

(1) Identify the land cover class to be cloned in the Identify class to be cloned box.

(2) Click on the button Select.

(3) A window with the Type of Clone opens in which one option needs to be selected,
followed by clicking either OK to accept or Cancel if the operation needs to be
cancelled. The option selected will add a figure between brackets to the coded
string of classifiers of the class (e.g., 20007-13152(3)).

(4) The cloned land cover class is shown in the lower part of the screen.

(5) Type the attribute to be added in the User’s Label box and a description in the
Description box, if any.

(6) Press Apply.

(7) A pop-up message with Cloned legend successfully recorded will be displayed.
Press OK.

(8) Press Close when no more classes need to be cloned in order to add user-defined
attributes.
60 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

FIGURE 21.
Example of Legend User-Defined Attribute within a mixed class.

5.2.4 Display
In Display, the classes contained in the Legend will be displayed in a pre-defined
hierarchical structure (Figure 22):

(1) The land cover classes defined are grouped under the main land cover type they
belong to, and according to the Structural Domain within one major land cover type
(e.g., Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation with the structural domains
Forest, Woodland, Thicket, Shrubland, Grasslands and Lichens/Mosses.)(Box 2 and
Appendix B).

(2) Within one domain, classes are hierarchically ordered according to the level of
classifiers used.

(3) Three items are displayed vertically in the same column: (1) the numerical code, the
Map Code, of the land cover class; (2) the string of classifiers used; and (3) the Land
Cover Class name.

(4) The column User’s Label will be displayed as an empty column unless a label has
been added by the user in the Legend – Edit function.

Mixed Mapping Units will be displayed under the Structural Domain Mixed Class under the
major land cover type of the first, and therefore dominant, element of the class.
Land Cover Classification System 61

FIGURE 22.
Example of Legend Display.

BOX 2. MAJOR LAND COVER TYPE WITH THEIR STRUCTURAL DOMAINS

A11. Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas Tree Crops
Shrub Crops
Herbaceous Crops
Graminoid Crops
Non-Graminoid Crops
Managed Lands
A12. Natural and Semi-Natural Terrestrial Vegetation Forest
Woodland
Thicket
Shrubland
Grasslands
Sparse Vegetation
Lichens/Mosses
A23. Cultivated Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Areas Aquatic Or Regularly Flooded Graminoid Crops
Aquatic Or Regularly Flooded Non-Graminoid Crops
A24. Natural and Semi-Natural Aquatic or Regularly Forest
Flooded Vegetation Woodland
Closed Shrubs
Open Shrubs
Grasslands
Sparse Vegetation
Lichens/Mosses
B15. Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas Built-Up Areas
Non Built-Up Areas
B16. Bare Areas Consolidated Areas
Unconsolidated Areas
B27. Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas Artificial Waterbodies
Artificial Snow
Artificial Ice
B28. Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice Natural Waterbodies
Snow
Ice
62 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

5.2.5 Edit
In Edit, the classes comprising the Legend are displayed, placing the elements composing
the class in different boxes.

The numerical code and standard name cannot be edited. These are standard elements of a
class and are identical for anyone in the world using the system and defining the same class.
These elements help the user to trace which class needs to be edited.

The User’s Label and Description are the two boxes in which the user can enter user-
defined labels and descriptions. These will be displayed in the Legend – Display once
entered.

Two buttons are displayed at the bottom of the screen:

• Delete to delete a complete land cover class from the Legend; and

• Close, use of which stores the new User’s Label(s) and/or Description(s) in the
Legend and returns the user to the main Legend menu. The Legend – Display option
can be used to check that the operation has been implemented satisfactorily.

5.2.6 Standard Description

The user is provided with a Standard Description for every class defined in the
Classification Module and stored in the Legend. This description gives more insight into the
classifiers used and the structure of the class than can be inferred from the standard name
alone. User-defined attributes are not incorporated in the Standard Description; for an
explanation of those, the Legend – Edit option should be used.

In the Standard Class Description, classes are hierarchically arranged according to the
Structural Domains of each Major Land Cover Type (see Box 2), identical to the Legend
Display, and the following information is shown:

(1) The major land cover type with its hierarchically ordered Structural Domains
followed by the Land Cover Class Code (LCC Code) and Boolean formula or Map
Code (LCC Formula).

(2) The standard land cover class name (LCC Label) followed by the user-defined
label, if any (LCC User defined label).

(3) The Standard Description (Standard Description) of the class followed by the
User defined description, if any. This description may be useful in reports
accompanying maps in which the classes of the map are described in more detail.

The Standard Description can be printed by selecting Print from the toolbar at the top of the
screen (Figure 23).
Land Cover Classification System 63

FIGURE 23.
Example of the Legend Standard Description.

5.2.7 Classifiers Used

In the Display, Edit, Add User-Defined Attribute and Standard Description menu options,
the Boolean Formula of the land cover class defined is displayed. The menu option
Classifiers Used gives the user the possibility to interpret what these code strings mean, as
it presents, under the headings of the major land cover types, the key to the codes used in
the Legend (Figure 24).

This explanation will be useful in GIS/database queries where the user wants to re-select the
data according to a certain classifier or a group of classifiers. Combining numerical codes
and the Boolean formulae allows re-grouping according to user-defined queries.

5.2.8 Print
Clicking on this menu option will not invoke a new screen display but will send the created
Legend to the printer. The output appears as described under Display (Section 5.2.3).

5.2.9 Save/Retrieve
This set of options allows the user to Save and Retrieve the legends created an without
exchange facility with other LCCS users. A legend stored in this way can only be retrieved
by the same copy of the software program.

• To Save a Legend: click on Save and a window will open in which the user is asked
to type the legend name in the appropriate box. No pathway needs to be entered.

FIGURE 24.
64 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

Example of Legend Classifiers Used.

• To Retrieve a Legend: click on Retrieve and a window will open containing the
names of the legends already saved. Click with the mouse on the correct name and
click OK or Cancel.

• The option Delete will delete a stored legend.

5.2.10 Export/Import
Clicking on this menu option will invoke a new screen display offering with four choices.
This set of options allows storage of legends in specified formats and exchange of legends
with other LCCS users on different computer platforms.

• To Export a Legend: click on Export and select one of the four options displayed,
namely:
Land Cover Classification System 65

The text file will store the Legend as a .TXT file; the HTML file as an .HTM file; the
spreadsheet option as an .XLS file; and the external Access database for re-import as an
.MDB file.

• select Export to export the legend in the selected file format(s).

• a new window is opened in which the user can type the name and select the directory
in which to store the legend.

• To Import a Legend: click on Import and specify whether it is a spreadsheet or an

external databse file and type the pathname and filename of the legend to be
imported.

5.2.11 New Legend

This menu’s options removes the existing Legend, which can be stored in the Output to
window specifying the directory and name. The default name is TLegend.txt and a new
Legend can be created as the user is so informed.

5.2.12 Close
This menu option will return the user to the where the user was previously. If the user was
in the Classification Module before, new classes can be defined and written to the Legend.
66 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

5.3 FIELD DATA

5.3.1 Purpose
In this module, which will become available in version 2.0, the sample site is described and
other relevant information can be stored. These data are automatically classified by being
translated into the classifiers, modifiers and attributes of LCCS. The sample site can be
described using a minimum dataset, a user-defined set or a full set of items. The minimum
data set contains only those items needed to meet the requirement to be able to classify the
entry according to the Classification System. If the user-defined or customized option is
selected, the user needs to choose from the menu which items will be described. These
settings can be saved in a file. It will depend on the objectives of a field survey as to which
selection will be chosen.

The Field Data Module is designed in such a way that the user does not need to be familiar
with the classification concepts. Based on the information observed, the Module will check
the various concepts in order to define, for instance, the layering in a vegetation type or the
type of cover present.

5.4 TRANSLATOR

5.4.1 Purpose
Existing classifications and legends can be translated into the reference classification. By
translating them into the Land Cover Classification System, this system acts as a reference
base in which correlation between classifications and/or legends becomes possible.

The Translator Module offers the possibility to:

• translate classes of existing classifications and legends into LCCS;

• assess similarity of classes according to other classifications and legends using LCCS
as a reference base;

• compare classes of translated classifications and legends and their attributes, using
LCCS as a reference base, at the level of the individual classifiers used;

• to compare two land cover classes of LCCS and their attributes (these may be two
classes belonging to the same major land cover type or two classes belonging to two
different land cover types) which may be useful when comparing a preliminary land
cover class with a validated land cover class in field surveys.

FAO will co-ordinate input of translated classifications and legends for the time being.
Major current classifications translated into the system will come as a standard with the
software program or will be provided at a later date.

From the Main Menu the user can go directly to the Field Data Module. This provides a
short link in the event that preliminary classes need to be compared with final classes
derived through field observation.

In the Main Menu the user will also find an option to return to the Main Menu.
Land Cover Classification System 67

5.4.2 How to translate a classification or legend

Translation of external classifications and legends into LCCS can be done by using the
Classification Module and thus creating a Legend (see Sections 5.1 and 5.2) which can be
imported in the Translator Module, or by direct input of external classes. In both cases the
Import option will be used.

Import
If the user has created a Legend containing all the classes of the classification or legend to
be imported, these classes can be imported in the Translator Module one by one. In the
menu of the Import screen (Figure 25), the option Retrieve From Legend should be selected,
which displays the screen in which classes from the legend can be imported.

FIGURE 25.
First screen of Import.

The Retrieve From Legend option will open the Legend Export to Translator window. In
the box the classes stored in the Legend Module are displayed. How to export a class from
the Legend Module into the Translator Module is described below:

(1) Identify the land cover class to be exported to the Translator Module (or Imported
into the Translator Module).

(2) Click on Select as 1st to display the class in the Classes Identified Frame.

(3) Add the user-defined elements from the original external legend to the land cover
class selected, i.e., add a numerical ID, type the original name in the box Class
Name in Legend, type the external legend or classification name in the box Ext.
Classification Name.
68 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

(4) Select Export.

(5) This will bring the user back to the Import window.

(6) Select Process Class 1 to let the system find the corresponding information in the
LCCS databases and type an ID in the box above GIS Code Class1.

(7) Select Save Class to store the class.

(8) Repeat for other classes.

If a class consists of two LCCS classes, i.e., a Mixed Class, the procedure is slightly
different. The Select as 2nd option should be used immediately after having selected the
first class of the mixed unit (Step 2 above). After having completed steps 3 to 6, the option
Process Class 2 should be selected, followed by Steps 7 and 8. The components of a Mixed
Class have to be defined as single classes in order to recompose the mixed class in the
Translator – Import.

This stepwise procedure allows each individual land cover class in the Legend to be
exported into the Translator Module.

The second option is to add the classes, one by one, into the Translator Module using the
Import screen display and without using the Retrieve from Legend option (Figure 26). A
new and unique legend name needs to be added to the existing list and for each class to be
imported the user needs to follow the sequence below:

(1) Type a unique ID in the ID box; this can be the code in the original external legend
or classification.

(2) Type a unique two-letter code to identify this legend or classification (e.g., AF is
typed for the Afghanistan Land Cover Legend).

(3) Type the original name in the Class Name in Legend box (e.g., Afghanistan).

(4) Type Background Information in the appropriate box.

(5) Type a unique sequential numerical ID for the land cover class in the ID box of the
LCCS Translator.

(6) Type the GIS Code Class 1 (derived from the Classification Module).

(7) Type the codes of the Environmental Attributes (derived from the Classification
Module), if any.

(8) Select Process Class 1, the system will now find in the databases the
corresponding class name.

(9) Follow Steps 6 to 8 if there is a second component of the class, using the second
set of boxes and click on Process Class 2 to finish.

(10) Click on Save when the boxes are filled with the appropriate labels of LCCS.

(11) Click on New Class to import a new land cover class.

Land Cover Classification System 69

This sequence needs to be completed for any class of the external legend to be imported. By
clicking on Close the user returns to the Main Menu of the Translator Module.

FIGURE 26.
Retrieving individual land cover classes from the Legend Module into the Translator - Import
facility.

Display Imported Legend

This screen will display the final result of the imported external classification and its
translation into LCCS. The user can select to display according to the order in the original
classification or legend, or to display according to the order of LCCS. Mixed Classes will
be displayed according to the dominant, and first mentioned, class.

To display an imported Legend follow the following steps:

(1) Select the classification and press the Go Next button (button with arrow pointing
to the right).

(2) The imported classes will be shown in the order of the original IDs on the left side
of the screen.

(3) The Show LCCS Legend will display the translation into LCCS classes.

(4) There are two other options for displays which affect the order in which the
classes are displayed: Original A–Z follows the order of the imported legend or
classification, whereas LCCS A–Z follows the intrinsic LCCS order.

(5) The User-defined Legend Option will write selected classes to a file.

(6) The Close option will bring the user back to the Main Menu of the Translator
Module.
70 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

5.4.3 Comparison of External Classes

Similarity Assessment
The similarity of individual external classes to other legends or classifications can be
quantified. Select the option Similarity Assessment in the Main Menu. In the screen display
the user has to select the reference class with which the other classes will be compared. A
number of threshold settings are provided. These values are stored in a table of
correspondence in which the following assumptions have been made:

• the classifier Trees is the same whether coming from Natural or Semi-Natural
Vegetation or from Cultivated Areas.

• the classifier Herbaceous comprises Graminoids and Forbs, or Non-Graminoids,

therefore the threshold has been set at 50 percent. The same applies to Woody.

To make a Similarity Assessment of two classes (an example is shown in Figure 27):

(1) Select the Classification Name of the legend that should provide the Reference
Class.

(2) Select Classes and highlight the appropriate class.

(3) Click the Reference Class set of arrows to get the selected class in the Reference
Class box.

(4) Click the Compare button.

(5) Click on the Reference Class button and the class selected will be shown on the
left side, together with its classifier and the options used.

(6) Select Empty Report and press OK.

(7) Select the legend or classification to be compared.

(8) Set the threshold values. Two groups are distinguished: (1) to set if the first
classifier should be the same; (2) to set the threshold value of the similarity.

(9) Click Process and the assessment will start. A pop-up message will be displayed
when the assessment is completed.

(10) Select Preview Report and a report will be shown showing the Reference Class,
the legend or classification selected for similarity assessment and the results,
namely the classes and the similarity value.

(11) Select Close to return to the Main Menu of the Translator Module.
Land Cover Classification System 71

FIGURE 27.
First screen of the Similarity Assessment, in which the reference land cover class is selected and
second screen in which a number of options need to be selected.
72 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

Comparison of External Classes

Once classes have been translated into LCCS, the system can act as a reference base for
comparison. Individual classes can be compared at the level of their classifiers and
attributes, though only those which are provided by the system; user-defined attributes will
not be considered. By selecting the option Comparison of External Classes from the Main
Menu, a screen will be displayed showing the translated classification available or legends
and their class codes. By selecting a classification by clicking, and a class by clicking, the
boxes with Class 1 and Class 2, if appropriate, will be filled. The arrows allow the user to
select either of the two classes as the reference class. Selection of a second class of the same
classification or legend, or a different one, followed by putting the selected class in the right
box of class to be compared allows the user to go on to the next screen where the actual
comparison will take place. Clicking on the button OK will bring the user to the comparison
screen. Click on Display and it will show the two classes and their classifiers; clicking on
the button Compare will activate the comparison. The comparison will take into account all
the classifiers of the class to be compared with those of the reference class. The following
colours may be displayed:

• blue: from the same classifier, the options selected are identical.

• red: from the same classifier, different options have been selected (e.g., from the
classifier Life Form one class contains the option Trees and the other Non-
Graminoids).

• Yellow: the two classifiers are different and comparison does not make sense, or only
one of the two classes contains this classifier.

The same procedure can be followed for comparison of Environmental Attributes, if any, by
selecting the Env. Attributes option.

5.4.4 Comparison of Two LCCS Classes

Two classes of LCCS may be compared to one another at the level of the classifiers and
attributes used. Such a comparison may be based on a class defined in a preliminary
interpretation and the other one derived from field observation. By selecting Comparison of
Two LCCS Classes from the Main Menu a screen is invoked in which the Class codes of the
two classes to be compared should be typed, or the most recent data entry of the Field Data
Module is displayed and the user has to fill the box with the class to be compared. The
Reference Class and Class To Be Compared can also be entered manually by typing the
correct codes in the appropriate boxes. The same set of screens will thereafter be displayed
as described under Comparison of Two External Classes (Section 5.4.3). Figure 28 shows
an example of two external classes being compared.
Land Cover Classification System 73

FIGURE 28.
Comparison of two external classes using LCCS as reference classification system.
74 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual
Land Cover Classification System 75

REFERENCES

Alexandratos, N. (ed.) 1995. World Agriculture: Towards 2010. An FAO Study. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome/Wiley and Sons, Chichester.

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., & Witmer, R.E. 1976. A land use and land cover
classification system for use with remote sensor data. U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper, No. 964. USGS, Washington, D.C.

Barisano, E. 1996. Proposition préliminaire pour une légende de l’occupation du sol pour le
projet Africover. Draft report. FAO, Rome.

Beek, K.J., De Bie, K., & Driessen, P. 1997. Land information and land evaluation for land
use planning and sustainable land management. The Land, 1(1): 27-44.

Belward, A. (ed.) 1996. The IGBP-DIS global 1 km land cover data set “DISCover” -
Proposal and implementation plans. Report of the Land Cover Working Group of the
IGBP-DIS. IGBP-DIS Working Paper, No. 13. Stockholm.

CEC [Commission of the European Communities] 1993. CORINE Land Cover - Guide
technique. Brussels.

Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., & LaRoe, E.T. 1979. Classification of wetlands
and deepwater habitats of the United States. Office of Biological Services, Fish and
Wildlife Services, U.S. Dept. Of the Interior, Washington D.C.

Danserau, P. 1961. Essai de répresentation cartographique des éléments structuraux de la

végétation. pp. 233-255, in: Gaussen, H. Méthodes de la cartographie de la végétation.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. 97th International Colloquium, Toulouse,
1960.

Darwin, R., Tsigas, M., Lewandrowski, J., & Raneses, A. 1996. Land use and cover in
ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 17: 157-181.

De Pauw, E., Nachtergaele, F.O., & Antoine, J. 1995. A provisional world climatic resource
inventory based on the length-of-growing-period concept. pp. 30-42, in: Batjes, N.H.,
Kauffman, J.H., Spaargaren, O.C. (eds.) National Soil Reference Collections and
Databases (NASREC) Workshop Proceedings: Vol. 3 - Papers and Country reports. 6-17
November 1995, Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISRIC, Wageningen.

Di Gregorio, A. 1991. Technical report on the land cover mapping of Lebanon. FAO
Project NECP/LEB/001/SAU.

Di Gregorio, A. 1995. FAO land use statistics: A case study for three countries using
remote sensing and GIS technology. Consultancy Report for FAO Statistics Division,
Rome.

Di Gregorio, A., & Jansen, L.J.M. 1997. A new concept for a land cover classification
system. Proceedings of the Earth Observation and Environmental Information 1997
Conference. Alexandria, Egypt, 13-16 October 1997.
76 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual

Di Gregorio, A., & Jansen, L.J.M. 1996a. Part I - Technical document on the Africover
Land Cover Classification Scheme. pp. 4-33; 63-76, in: FAO. Africover Land Cover
Classification. 1997.

Di Gregorio, A., & Jansen, L.J.M. 1996b. FAO Land Cover Classification System: A
Dichotomous, Modular-Hierarchical Approach. Paper presented at the Federal
Geographic Data Committee Meeting - Vegetation Subcommittee and Earth Cover
Working Group, Washington, 15-17 October 1996.

Di Gregorio, A., & Jansen, L.J.M. 1996c. The Africover Land Cover Classification System:
A Dichotomous, Modular-Hierarchical Approach. Working Paper with the Proposal for
the International Working Group Meeting, Dakar 29-31 July 1996. FAO, Rome.

Duhamel, C. 1995. Programme télédétection et statistique. Cadre de travail statistique

utilisation des sols. Draft. Eurostat/CESD-Communautaire, Luxembourg.

Eiten, G. 1968. Vegetation forms. a classification of stands of vegetation based on structure,

growth form of the components, and vegetative periodicity. Boletim do Instituto de
Botanica (San Paulo), No. 4.

European Soils Bureau (ed.) 1997. Geo-referenced Soil Database For Europe. Manual of
Procedures. Draft 2.1. pp. 79-81.

FAO. 1988. FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World. Revised Legend.

FAO/UNESCO/ISRIC World Soil Resources Reports No. 60 (Reprinted 1990)

FAO. 1995. Planning for sustainable use of land resources. Towards a new approach. FAO
Land and Water Bulletin No. 2.

FAO. 1997. Africover Land Cover Classification. Rome.

Ford-Robertson, F.C. (ed.) 1971. Terminology of Forest Science, Technology Practice and
Products. Society of American Foresters, Washington, D.C.

Fosberg, F.R. 1961. A classification of vegetation for general purposes. Tropical Ecology,
2: 1-28.

Humboldt, A. von 1807. Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewaechse. Tuebingen.

Jansen, L.J.M., & Di Gregorio, A. 1997. Problems of current classifications: development

of a new approach. Paper prepared for the EC Eurostat Seminar on Land Cover and Land
Use Information Systems For European Policy Needs. Luxembourg, 21-23 January
1998.

Kuechler, A.W., & Zonneveld, I.S. (eds.) 1988. Vegetation Mapping. Handbook of
Vegetation Science, Vol. 10. Dordecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.

Meyer, W.B., & Turner II, B.L. 1992. Human Population Growth and Global Land
Use/Land Cover Change. pp. 39-61, in: Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. No. 23.

Mueller-Dombois, D., & Ellenberg, J.H. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology.
New York and London: John Wiley.

Nègre, T. 1995. Report of the Preparatory Mission: Outlines for the Africover Classification
System. Draft document. FAO, Rome.
Land Cover Classification System 77

Reichert, P., & Di Gregorio, A. 1995. Preparation of a forest cover map and reconnaissance
forest inventory of Albania. Technical Report of FAO Project GCP/ALB/002/IDA.

Sims, D. 1995. Background note on ongoing activities relating to land cover and land use
classification. FAO/AGLS, Rome.

Sokal R. 1974. Classification: purposes, principles, progress, prospects. Science 185

(4157): 111-123.

Thompson, M. 1996. A standard land-cover classification for remote-sensing applications

in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 92: 34-42.

Townshend, J.R.G. (ed.) 1992. Improved global data for land applications. IGBP Report
No. 20. IGBP Secretariat/Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm.

Trochain, J.L. 1961. Représentation cartographique des types de végétation intertropicaux

africains. pp. 87-102, in: Gaussen, H. Méthodes de la cartographie de la végétation.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. 97th International Colloquium, Toulouse,
France, 1960.

UNEP/FAO. 1994. Report of the UNEP/FAO Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Land Cover
and Land Use Classifications. Geneva, 23-25 November 1993. GEMS Report Series No.
25.

UNEP/ISSS/ISRIC/FAO. 1995. Global and National Soils and Terrain Digital Databases
(SOTER). Procedures Manual. FAO World Soil Resources Reports 74 (Rev. 1).

UNESCO. 1973. International Classification and Mapping of Vegetation. Paris.

U.S. Soil Conservation Service. 1975. Soil Taxonomy, by the Soil Survey Staff. USDA
Agriculture Handbook No. 436. Washington, D.C.

Walter, H. 1968-1973. Die Vegetation der Erde. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.

White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. A Descriptive Memoir to Accompany the

UNESCO/EATFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa. UNESCO. Paris, France.

Wyatt, B., Billington, C., De Bie, K., De Leeuw, J., Greatorex-Davies, N., Luxmoore, R.
(unpubl.) Guidelines for land cover and land use description and classification. Draft
Final Report. UNEP/FAO/ITC/ITE/WCMC, Huntingdon.
78 Part B: Land Cover Classification System – User manual
 Land Cover Classification System 79

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AGLS Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service (FAO)

DIS Data and Information System (IGBP)

GIS Geographical Information System

IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

LCCS Land Cover Classification System

SDRN Environment and Natural Resources Service (FAO)

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

View publication stats