Dialect
This article is about dialects of spoken and written with a single language. For example, Standard American
languages. For other uses, see Dialect (disambiguation). English, Standard British English, Standard Canadian En-
glish, Standard Indian English, Standard Australian En-
The term dialect (from the ancient Greek word glish, and Standard Philippine English may all be said to
be standard dialects of the English language.
διάλεκτος diálektos, “discourse”, from διά diá,
“through” and λέγω legō, “I speak”) is used in two A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a com-
distinct ways. One usage—the more common among plete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is usually not
linguists—refers to a variety of a language that is a the beneficiary of institutional support. Examples of a
characteristic of a particular group of the language’s nonstandard English dialect are Southern American En-
speakers.[1] The term is applied most often to regional glish, Western Australian English, Scouse and Tyke. The
speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare
other factors, such as social class.[2] A dialect that is different English dialects with each other.
associated with a particular social class can be termed
a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular
ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional
dialect may be termed a regiolect. According to this 2 Dialect or language
definition, any variety of a language constitutes “a
dialect”, including any standard varieties. There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguish-
The other usage refers to a language that is socially subor- ing two different languages from two dialects (i.e., vari-
dinated to a regional or national standard language, often eties) of the same language.[4] A number of rough mea-
historically cognate to the standard, but not derived from sures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results.
it.[3] In this sense, the standard language is not itself con- The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the
sidered a dialect. user’s frame of reference.
The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion
A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). Where is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to
a distinction can be made only in terms of pronuncia- be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one
variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be
tion (including prosody, or just prosody itself), the term
accent may be preferred over dialect. Other types of understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are
speech varieties include jargons, which are character- said to be different languages. However, this definition
becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in
ized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois;
pidgins; and argots. which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intel-
ligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A
The particular speech patterns used by an individual are
and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In
termed an idiolect.
this case the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it
impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the
same language or not. Cases may also arise in which a
1 Standard and non-standard di- speaker of dialect X can understand a speaker of dialect
Y, but not vice versa; the mutual intelligibility criterion
alect flounders here as well.
Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating di-
A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect alects from languages is that of linguistic authority, a
or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by in- more sociolinguistic notion. According to this definition,
stitutions. Such institutional support may include govern- two varieties are considered dialects of the same language
ment recognition or designation; presentation as being the if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to
“correct” form of a language in schools; published gram- the same authority regarding some questions about their
mars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a correct language. For instance, to learn the name of a new in-
spoken and written form; and an extensive formal litera- vention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speak-
ture that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, ers of Bavarian German and East Franconian German
etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-
1
2 2 DIALECT OR LANGUAGE
speaking expert in the subject. By way of contrast, al- The status of “language” is not solely determined by lin-
though Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in guistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and
the “Middle High German” group of languages, a Yid- political development. Romansh came to be a written lan-
dish speaker would not consult a German dictionary to guage, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even
determine the word to use in such case. though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects.
By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose vari-
linguistic variety can be considered a “dialect” of some ations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called
language—"everybody speaks a dialect”. According to dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelli-
gibility.
that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to dis-
tinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the
language or dialects of different languages. French Revolution, has made the distinction between
A framework was developed in 1967 by Heinz Kloss, “language” and “dialect” an issue of great political impor-
abstand and ausbau languages, to describe speech com- tance. A group speaking a separate “language” is often
munities, that while unified politically and/or culturally, seen as having a greater claim to being a separate “peo-
include multiple dialects which though closely related ge- ple”, and thus to be more deserving of its own indepen-
netically may be divergent to the point of inter-dialect dent state, while a group speaking a “dialect” tends to be
unintelligibility. seen not as “a people” in its own right, but as a sub-group,
part of a bigger people, which must content itself with re-
gional autonomy. The distinction between language and
dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a po-
2.1 Terminology
litical basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great
political controversy, or even armed conflict.
The terms “language” and “dialect” are not necessarily
mutually exclusive: There is nothing contradictory in the The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the ex-
statement “the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a pression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ("ַא
dialect of German". " ֿפלָאט" און ַארמײ ַאן מיט דיַאלעקט ַא איז שּפרַאךA lan-
guage is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid
25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political fac-
taking a position on whether the speech of a community is
tors in any attempt at answering the question “what is a
an independent language in its own right or a dialect of an-
language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any
other language. Perhaps the most common is "variety";[5]
strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural ap-
"lect" is another. A more general term is “languoid”,
proach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency
which does not distinguish between dialects, languages,
with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.
and groups of languages, whether genealogically related
or not.[6] See also Mesoamerican languages.
2.2 Political factors 2.3 German
In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the When talking about the German language, the term
sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the German dialects is only used for the traditional regional
“standard” or “proper” version of a language by those varieties. That allows distinguishing them from the re-
seeking to make a social distinction, and is contrasted gional varieties of modern standard German.
with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation.
the term “dialect” refers specifically to varieties with low Most of them are not mutually intellegible. German di-
social status. In this secondary sense of “dialect”, lan- alectology traditionally names the major dialect groups
guage varieties are often called dialects rather than lan- after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to
guages: have descended.
The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies accord-
• if they have no standard or codified form, ing to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects
are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are
• if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside less common than on the countryside. In a public en-
reported speech), vironment, dialects are less common than in a familiar
environment.
• if the speakers of the given language do not have a
state of their own, The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is differ-
ent from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The
• if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language
standardised, variety. in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is
2.6 North Africa 3
seldom spoken. Some Swiss German speakers perceive bic.
standard German to be a foreign language.
The Low German varieties spoken in Germany are of- 2.6 North Africa
ten counted among the German dialects. This reflects the
modern situation where they are roofed by standard Ger- In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the spoken North
man. This is different from the situation in the Middle African languages are sometimes considered more differ-
Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards ent from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African
an ausbau language. countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic
The Frisian varieties spoken in Germany are often ex- and conduct much of their political and religious life in
cluded from the German dialects. it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each
country’s specific variety to be a separate language, be-
cause Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam
2.4 The Balkans and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an.
Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are oc-
The classification of speech varieties as dialects or lan- cupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural
guages and their relationship to other varieties of speech life of these countries. Example of cultural elements
can thus be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. where Darijas use became dominant, include among oth-
English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English ers: Theatre, Movies, Music, TV shows, Advertisement,
and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British Social Medias, Folktales books and Companies’ names.
and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respec-
tively), along with numerous other varieties. For polit-
ical reasons, analyzing these varieties as “languages” or
2.7 Ukraine
“dialects” yields inconsistent results: British and Amer-
In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of Russia
ican English, spoken by close political and military al-
claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian
lies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a sin-
and not a language on its own. The differences were few
gle language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia
and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the
and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar ex-
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Thus the dialects in
tent as the dialects of English, are being treated by some
Ukraine eventually differed substantially from the dialects
linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely be-
in Russia.
cause the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to
being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language arti- The German Empire conquered Ukraine during World
cle deals with this topic much more fully.) War I and was planning on either annexing it or installing
a puppet king, but was defeated by the Entente, with ma-
Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutu-
jor involvement by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks. After con-
ally intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian
quering the rest of Ukraine from the Whites, Ukraine
and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect
joined the USSR and was enlarged (gaining Crimea and
continuum, is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a
then Eastern Galicia), whence a process of Ukrainization
Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary in-
was begun, with encouragement from Moscow.
ternational view and the view in the Republic of Mace-
donia, which regards it as a language in its own right. After World War II, due to Ukrainian collaborationism
Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary stan- with the Axis powers in an attempt to gain indepen-
dard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out dence, Moscow changed its policy towards repression of
of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern the Ukrainian language.
Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today’s Today the boundaries of the Ukrainian language to the
Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian di- Russian language are still not drawn clearly, with an in-
alects. termediate dialect between them, called Surzhyk, devel-
oping in Ukraine.
2.5 Lebanon
2.8 Moldova
In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population consid-
ers “Lebanese” to be in some sense a distinct language There have been cases of a variety of speech being delib-
from Arabic and not merely a dialect. During the civil erately reclassified to serve political purposes. One ex-
war Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and ample is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan parliament,
sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus citing fears of “Romanian expansionism,” rejected a pro-
further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws posal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name
are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–
parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Ara- Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show
4 3 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
that the two countries speak different languages. Lin- opinion, this pattern is clearly present among the modern
guists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring Romance languages, with Italian and Spanish having a
that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither
while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences language shares with French, despite some claiming that
of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a both languages are genetically closer to French than to
politically motivated “absurdity”. each other: In fact, French-Italian and French-Spanish
relative mutual incomprehensibility is due to French hav-
ing undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonolog-
2.9 Greater China ical change than have Spanish and Italian, not to real or
imagined distance in genetic relationship. In fact, Italian
Main article: Varieties of Chinese § Classification and French share many more root words in common that
do not even appear in Spanish.
Unlike most languages that use alphabets to indicate the For example, the Italian and French words for various
pronunciation, Chinese characters are developed from foods, some family relationships, and body parts are very
logograms which do not always give hints to its pronun- similar to each other, yet most of those words are com-
ciation. While the written characters remained relatively pletely different in Spanish. Italian “avere” and “essere”
consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronun- as auxiliaries for forming compound tenses are used sim-
ciation and grammar in different regions has developed ilarly to French “avoir” and "être”, Spanish only retains
to an extent that the varieties of spoken language can be “haber” and has done away with “ser” in forming com-
mutually incomprehensible. As a series of migration to pound tenses, which are no longer used in either Span-
the south throughout the history, the regional languages ish or Portuguese. However, when it comes to phono-
of the south, including Xiang, Wu, Gan, Min, Yue (Can- logical structures, Italian and Spanish have undergone
tonese), and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or less change than French, with the result that some native
Middle Chinese. From the Ming dynasty onward, Bei- speakers of Italian and Spanish may attain a degree of
jing has been the capital of China and the dialect spo- mutual comprehension that permits extensive communi-
ken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other cation.
varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China,
Standard Mandarin was designated as the official lan-
guage, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since
then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (di-
alects). Cantonese is still the most commonly used lan-
guage in Hong Kong, Macau and among some over- 3.1 Interlingua
seas Chinese communities, while Min-nan has been ac-
cepted in Taiwan as an important local language along
with Mandarin. Main article: Interlingua
One language, Interlingua, was developed so that the lan-
3 Historical linguistics guages of Western civilization would act as its dialects.[7]
Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific
vocabulary and Standard Average European, linguists de-
Many historical linguists view any speech form as a veloped a theory that the modern Western languages were
dialect of the older medium of communication from actually dialects of a hidden or latent language. Re-
which it developed. This point of view sees the modern searchers at the International Auxiliary Language Associ-
Romance languages as dialects of Latin, modern Greek ation extracted words and affixes that they considered to
as a dialect of Ancient Greek, Tok Pisin as a dialect of be part of Interlingua’s vocabulary.[8] In theory, speak-
English, and North Germanic as dialects of Old Norse. ers of the Western languages would understand written
This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees ge- or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study,
netic relationships as paramount: the “dialects” of a “lan- since their own languages were its dialects.[7] This has
guage” (which itself may be a “dialect” of a yet older lan- often turned out to be true, especially, but not solely, for
guage) may or may not be mutually intelligible. More- speakers of the Romance languages and educated speak-
over, a parent language may spawn several “dialects” ers of English. Interlingua has also been found to as-
which themselves subdivide any number of times, with sist in the learning of other languages. In one study,
some “branches” of the tree changing more rapidly than Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were
others. able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and
This can give rise to the situation in which two dialects Italian that students of those languages found too diffi-
(defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat cult to understand.[9] It should be noted, however, that
distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily the vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the West-
comprehensible than more closely related dialects. In one ern language families.[8]
5
4 Selected list of articles on dialects 7 External links
• Sounds Familiar? — Listen to regional accents and
5 See also dialects of the UK on the British Library’s 'Sounds
Familiar' website
• Accent
• International Dialects of English Archive Since
• Accents (psychology) 1997
• Chronolect • whoohoo.co.uk British Dialect Translator
• Creole language • thedialectdictionary.com — Compilation of Di-
alects from around the globe
• Dialect levelling
• A site for announcements and downloading the
• Dialectometry
SEAL System
• Ethnolect
• Eye dialect
• Idiolect
• Isogloss
• Koiné language
• Register
• Literary language
• Nation language
• Regional language
• Sprachbund
6 References
[1] Oxford English dictionary. Archived October 14, 2013 at
the Wayback Machine
[2] Merriam-Webster Online dictionary.
[3] Maiden, Martin & Mair Parry. 1997. The Dialects of
Italy. London: Routledge, p. 2.
[4] Cysouw, Michael and Jeff Good. (2013). “Lan-
guoid, Doculect, and Glossonym: Formalizing the No-
tion'Language'.” Language Documentation and Conserva-
tion. 7. 331–359.
[5] Finegan, Edward (2007). Language: Its Structure and Use
(5th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. p.
348. ISBN 978-1-4130-3055-6.
[6] “Languoid” at Glottopedia.com
[7] Morris, Alice Vanderbilt, General report. New York: In-
ternational Auxiliary Language Association, 1945.
[8] Gode, Alexander, Interlingua-English Dictionary. New
York: Storm Publishers, 1951.
[9] Gopsill, F. P., International languages: A matter for Inter-
lingua. Sheffield: British Interlingua Society, 1990.
6 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
8.1 Text
• Dialect Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect?oldid=681463399 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Koyaanis Qatsi,
Slrubenstein, XJaM, Enchanter, Wathiik, Roadrunner, R Lowry, Wichitalineman, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Gabbe,
Zeno Gantner, TakuyaMurata, Nine Tail Fox, DavidWBrooks, TUF-KAT, Angela, Salsa Shark, Glenn, Kvintadena, Error, Bogdangiusca,
Ruhrjung, Rob Hooft, Johan Magnus, Sarafemme, Mulad, Timwi, Trontonian, Lfh, Denni, Gutza, Paul-L~enwiki, Tuomas, Nickshanks,
Joy, Robbot, Psmith, Hankwang, RedWolf, Altenmann, Mikalaari, Ajd, Buncic, Meelar, Hippietrail, Cyrius, Dina, Davidcannon, Adam78,
Wikilibrarian, Zigger, Grant65, Pne, Wiki Wikardo, Golbez, Arjuna~enwiki, Toytoy, J. 'mach' wust, Gdm, Quadell, M.e, Mschlindwein,
Klemen Kocjancic, Acsenray, Grstain, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Mani1, Björn Knutson, ESkog, Ntennis, JoeSmack,
Neko-chan, *drew, Kwamikagami, Tverbeek, ThierryVignaud, Shanes, Triona, MPS, BT2, Ejrrjs, SpeedyGonsales, Man vyi, Nk, Hajenso,
Tresoldi, Ardric47, Haham hanuka, Xgoni~enwiki, Jumbuck, Arthena, Alex '05, Ish ishwar, Omphaloscope, Galaxiaad, Dejvid, Dr Gan-
grene, FrancisTyers, Angr, Brolland, Woohookitty, Ae-a, Futhark, Eleassar777, Twthmoses, Cbdorsett, Karmosin, Umofomia, Btyner,
Palica, Dysepsion, Graham87, BD2412, Nlsanand, Sjö, Mayumashu, Erebus555, Amire80, Zinoviev, Grzegorj, Mo-Al, Cassowary, Ya-
mamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Gurch, Jrtayloriv, Chobot, Samwaltz, YurikBot, Wavelength, Dannycas, RussBot, Pigman, Polyvios, RadioFan,
Van der Hoorn, Stephenb, Rintrah, Gaius Cornelius, Zimbricchio, Purodha, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, Welsh, Retired username, Xdenizen,
AdiJapan, Epa101, Maunus, Thnidu, Јованвб, SMcCandlish, Red Jay, GrinBot~enwiki, Finell, Erik Sandberg, SmackBot, Imz, Unyoyega,
Alex earlier account, Sebesta, Gilliam, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Kurykh, LinguistAtLarge, Rex Germanus, NCurse, Ninonino,
Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, WSaindon, Ioscius, Chlewbot, Shunpiker, Rossholland, Grover cleveland, Jumping cheese, Kagli,
Sandman 0070, Nasz, SofieElisBexter, Lambiam, G-Bot~enwiki, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, JorisvS, Hemmingsen, Mgiganteus1,
Pfold, Hvn0413, SQGibbon, Stevemarlett, Bashari, Intranetusa, Richman271, Norm mit, Iridescent, Laurens-af, Joseph Solis in Australia,
Licheong~enwiki, The fantom x, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, FilipeS, Cydebot, Andreasegde, Pablogrb, Travelbird, Spylab, Ulritz, Garik,
Epbr123, Headbomb, Escarbot, Alessandriana, Marokwitz, Darklilac, JAnDbot, MER-C, Instinct, RedZebra, Unoffensive text or char-
acter, A12n, VoABot II, Lucyin, LookingGlass, Cakeandicecream, Spellmaster, Vssun, Dan Pelleg, Kayau, ASDFGH, J.delanoy, Altes,
Numbo3, A Nobody, RoboMaxCyberSem, NewEnglandYankee, Xaviercas~enwiki, Lebob, Mrmuk, Vanished user 39948282, Signal-
head, Craitman17, X!, Cal Evans, VolkovBot, Gazh, TXiKiBoT, Andreas Kaganov, BotKung, Piotr Baevski, Fleela, Cnilep, Allebor-
goBot, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Matthew Yeager, Aristolaos, FunkMonk, Toddst1, Oda Mari, Jojalozzo, Yerpo, Napule, Fratrep, Hooiwind,
Getmy, Dialects, YSSYguy, ClueBot, PipepBot, Kotniski, Wikievil666, EoGuy, GeneCallahan, Ventusa, Royalgaianofficer, Niceguyedc,
Dekalbhuskies, Cherylpok, Excirial, Alexbot, BlueCaper, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, SEoF, SilvonenBot, Xasha, Addbot, Jncraton, Vish-
nava, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Buster7, LemmeyBOT, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Jarble, Legobot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, Universal Life,
Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Clarinetguy097, Ulric1313, Mahmudmasri, Hunnjazal, Arthur-
Bot, Markworthen, Tydoni, Xqbot, Jsharpminor, Almabot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, The Wiki ghost, GhalyBot, A. di M., ,
Thehelpfulbot, Hladnikm, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, AlexanderKaras, Pinethicket, LittleWink, SynConlanger, Jauhienij, FoxBot, Reaper
Eternal, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bento00, Ripchip Bot, Slon02, EmausBot, Efficiency Kasai 327, Mordgier, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Solarra,
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Wiki13, Gazaneh, Orakologen, Glacialfox, Lassebechjensen, Conifer, Jaqeli, HumanNaturOriginal, CeraBot, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri,
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W. P. Uzer, TCMemoire, Crossswords, BlanketPI, VandVictory, SarahTehCat, JerryMuzsik, Tounsimentounes, KasparBot, Yupanqui and
Anonymous: 342
8.2 Images
8.3 Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
