Review

L 23 – Vibrations and Waves [3]

• A mechanical wave is a disturbance that
¾ resonance travels through a medium – solids, liquids or
¾ clocks – pendulum gases – it is a vibration that propagates
¾ springs
¾ harmonic motion • The disturbance moves because of the
¾ mechanical waves elastic nature of the material
¾ sound waves • As the disturbance moves, the parts of the
¾ golden rule for waves material (segment of string, air molecules)
¾ musical instruments execute harmonic motion (move up and
¾ The Doppler effect down or back and forth)
z Doppler radar – transverse wave
z radar guns
– longitudinal wave

transverse & longitudinal waves Harmonic waves

the string motion in vertical but the wave moves in the λ λ

horizontal (perpendicular) directionÎ transverse wave
• each segment of the string undergoes simple
harmonic motion as the wave passes by
the coils of the slinky move
• Look at a snapshot of the string at some time
along the same direction
• distance between successive peaks is called the
(horizontal) as the wave
WAVELENGTH λ (lambda), it is measured in
Î longitudinal wave meters or cm

The golden rule for waves Example: wave on a string

• The “golden rule” is the relationship
between the speed (v) of the wave, the
wavelength (λ) and the period (T) or
frequency ( f ). (recall that T = 1 / f, f = 1/T )
• it follows from Æ speed = distance / time 2 cm 2 cm 2 cm
• the wave travels one wavelength in one
period, so wave speed v = λ / T, but • A wave moves on a string at a speed of 4 cm/s
since f = 1 / T, we have • A snapshot of the motion shows that the
wavelength,λ is 2 cm, what is the frequency, ƒ ?
• v=λf • v = λ × ƒ, so ƒ = v ÷ λ = (4 cm/s ) / (2 cm) = 2 Hz
• this is the “Golden Rule” for waves • T = 1 / f = 1 / (2 Hz) = 0.5 s

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 SOUND WAVES Sound and Music
• SoundÆ pressure waves in a solid, liquid
S N
or gas
• The speed of soundÆ vs
• longitudinal pressure • Air at 20 C: 343 m/s = 767 mph ≈ 1/5 mile/sec
Patm
disturbances in a gas • Water at 20 C: 1500 m/s
• the air molecules jiggle • copper: 5000 m/s
back and forth in the
same direction as the • Depends on density and temperature
the diaphragm of wave
The speaker moves • Sound waves cannot
propagate in a vacuum 5 second rule
in and out for thunder and lightening
Æ DEMO

Why do I sound funny when

Tuning forks make sound waves
I breath helium?
• Sound travels twice as fast in helium, • The vibration of the fork
because Helium is lighter than air causes the air near it to
• Remember the golden rule vs = λ × ƒ vibrate
• The wavelength of the sound waves you • The length of the fork
make with your voice is fixed by the size of determines the frequency
your mouth and throat cavity. – longer fork Æ lower f
– shorter fork Æ higher f
• Since λ is fixed and vs is higher in He, the
• It produces a pure pitchÆ
frequencies of your sounds is twice as
single frequency
high in helium!

Stringed instruments Vibration modes of a string

• Three types
N A N Fundamental mode
– Plucked: guitar, bass, harp, harpsichord
Wavelength = 2 L
– Bowed: violin, viola, cello, bass Frequency = fo
L
– Struck: piano
• All use strings that are fixed at both ends
A
– Use different diameter strings (mass per unit N N A N
First harmonic mode
length is different)
Wavelength = L
– The string tension is adjustable - tuning L Frequency = 2 fo

N = nodes, A = antinodes

2
 Standing waves Vibration frequencies

• At the NODE positions, the string does not • In general, f = v / λ, where v is the
move propagation speed of the string
• At the ANTINODES the string moves up • The propagation speed depends on the
and down harmonically diameter and tension
• Only certain wavelengths can fit into the • Modes
distance L – Fundamental: fo = v / 2L
• The frequency is determined by the – First harmonic: f1 = v / L = 2 fo
velocity and mode number (wavelength) • The effective length can be changed by
the musician “fingering” the strings

Bowed instruments Organ pipes

• The air pressure inside the
• In violins, violas, cellos and basses, a bow made pipe can vibrate, in some
of horse hair is used to excite the strings into places it is high and in other
vibration places low
• Each of these instruments are successively • Depending on the length of
bigger (longer and heavier strings). the pipe, various resonant
• The shorter strings make the high frequencies modes are excited, just like
and the long strings make the low frequencies blowing across a pop bottle
• Bowing excites many vibration modes • The long pipes make the low
simultaneouslyÆ mixture of tones (richness) notes, the short pipes make
the high notes

St. Vincent’s Episcopal Church in Bedford, TX

Beats – wave interference
Gravissima 8.2 Hz
• Waves show a special property called
4400 Hz
interference
• When two waves are combined together,
the waves can add or subtract
• We call this constructive and destructive
interference
• When a wave is launched on a string it
can reflect back from the far end. The
reflected wave can combine with the
original wave to make a standing wave

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Constructive interference Destructive interference Combining 2 waves of the same frequency
Launch 2 up-going pulses on string Launch 1 up-going and 1 down-going
pulses on string

Waves add to
double amplitude

waves add to give zero amplitude

Red + Blue

Combining 2 waves of slightly different frequencies

Room Acoustics

• Destructive interference accounts for bad

room acoustics

• Sound that bounces off a wall can interfere

destructively (cancel out) sound from the
speakers resulting in dead spots

Red + Blue
Beats

Wave interference can be used to eliminate The Doppler Effect

noise – anti-noise technology
• If a source of sound is moving toward you, you
Take one wave, turn it hear a higher frequency than when it is at rest
upside down (invert its
• If a source of sound is moving away from you,
phase) then add it to you hear a lower frequency than when it is at rest
the original wave
• You can hear this effect with sirens on fire
engines of train whistles
• A similar effect occurs
with light waves and
radar waves

Noise elimination headphones

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 Doppler effect Æ Radar guns

• The Doppler effect works for all kinds of waves,

including light waves and radar
• When radar waves bounce off a moving object
(echo) the frequency of the reflected radar
changes by an amount that depends on how fast
the object is moving. The detector senses the
frequency shift and translates this into a speed.