STEEL

CONSTRUCTION
Fire Protection
 2 FIRE PROTECTION

Tata Steel and the British Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA) have worked closely
together for many years to promote the effective use of structural steelwork. This collaborative
effort ensures that advances in the knowledge of the constructional use of steel are shared with
construction professionals.

Steel is, by some margin, the most popular framing material for multi-storey buildings in the UK
and has a long track record of delivering high quality and cost-effective structures with proven
sustainability benefits. Steel can be naturally recycled and re-used continuously, and offers a
wide range of additional advantages such as health and safety benefits, speed of construction,
quality, efficiency, innovation, offsite manufacture and service and support.

The steel sector is renowned for keeping specifiers abreast of the latest advances
nfo
truc tion.i in areas such as fire protection of structural steelwork and achieving buildings
stee lcons with the highest sustainability ratings. Recent publications have provided
www.
detailed guidance on CE Marking and what it means for the construction sector.
:
us on Guidance is provided on all relevant technical developments as quickly as is
Follow possible.

fo
te elcoin The sector’s go to resource website – www.steelconstruction.info -
er @s
Twitt is a free online encyclopedia for UK construction that shares
fo
uct ion.in a wealth of up-to-date, reliable information with the construction industry in
onstr one easily accessible place.
teelc
dIn: s
Linke
.info
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steelcon
ook:
Faceb

Tata Steel Europe British Constructional Steelwork Association

The European operations of Tata Steel comprise Europe’s BCSA is the national organisation for the steel construction
second largest steel producer. With the main steelmaking industry: its Member companies undertake the design,
operations in the UK and Netherlands, they supply steel and fabrication and erection of steelwork for all forms of
related services to the construction, automotive, packaging, construction in building and civil engineering. Associate
lifting and excavating, energy and power, aerospace and other Members are those principal companies involved in the direct
demanding markets worldwide. The combined Tata Steel supply to all or some Members of components, materials
group is one of the world’s largest steel producers, with an or products. Corporate Members are clients, professional
aggregate crude steel capacity of more than 28 million tonnes offices, educational establishments etc which support the
and approximately 80,000 employees across four continents. development of national specifications, quality, fabrication
and erection techniques, overall industry efficiency and good
practice.
 FIRE PROTECTION 3

Contents

Fire Design of Steel Framed Buildings 4

Design Procedure 7

Determine the Fire Resistance Period 8

Introduction 8
England and Wales: Approved Document B 10
Scotland: Technical Handbook 2 11
Northern Ireland: Technical Booklet E 11
BS 9999 12
Sector Specific Fire Rules 14
Single storey buildings 14
Car parks 14
Schools 15
Healthcare 16
Shopping centres 16

Fire Protection 17
Introduction 17
Determine the Section Factor 18
Unprotected Steel 20
Fire Protecting Structural Steelwork 21
Structural fire protection systems 21
Thin film intumescent coatings 22
Boards 24
Partial protection 25
Concrete Filled Hollow Sections 25
Design of Composite Steel Deck Floors for Fire 26
Filling of voids 26
When to use Structural Fire Standards 29

Simple Approach for Composite Floors 30

Cardington Fire Tests 30
Design Process 32
TSlab Design Tool Walkthrough 33

Summary 36

Assessment of Steelwork after a Fire 39

4 FIRE PROTECTION

Fire Design of Steel Framed Buildings

More is known about structural steelwork in fire than any other construction material. Its
performance has been determined through a series of full-scale fire tests, which are unparalleled
for other materials. There is certainty in how structural steelwork performs and certainty that
finite element models and other tools accurately reflect how it actually behaves in fire.

Determining the fire protection requirements for the structural steelwork of a building is a
simple and straightforward process, consistent across all types of common buildings.

The procedure is clearly set out in this document, which is intended to be a reference aid for
designers at all levels. Whilst it is a standalone guide, it also points the designer to the wealth
of information on structural steelwork available on www.steelconstruction.info, the free
encyclopedia for UK steel construction information.
 FIRE PROTECTION 5

Steel frames consistently capture a market share in the multi-storey non-residential buildings
market of around 70% and cost advantages are often cited as a key reason in selection of the
framing material. Advances in the science of fire protection by systems manufacturers have
ensured that this cost continues to fall, with the cost in real terms of fire protection today lower
than it has ever been.

Market Share for Structural Frames in Muti Storey Buildings

80%

70%

60%
% Based on Floor Area

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

www.
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onstr
uctio
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Artic
Steel Insitu Concrete Precast Concrete Load Bearing Masonry Timber les o
f inte
• FIR rest:
E AN
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CON EEL
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• CO CTIO
ST O N
F ST
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STEE TURA
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ald)
 6 FIRE PROTECTION

Fire Safety Engineering

Recognition of how real buildings react
in fire and of how real fires behave has
led many authorities to acknowledge
that fire safety may now be achieved by
an analytical fire engineered approach.
This change has proved beneficial to the
construction industry as a whole, but
particularly to the steel construction sector,
which has carried out most of the research
and whose structures consequently offer
the greatest potential for improved
solutions using fire engineering.
Fire safety engineering is a specialist
discipline which can combine a risk based
approach to determining the fire period
with detailed finite element modelling
to predict actual performance of the
structure and fire protection measures
in a fire. It is most commonly used on
buildings where the prescriptive provisions
given in Approved Document B, Technical
Handbook 2 and Technical Booklet E can
be shown to be more demanding than
are really neccessary. The majority of all
tall and complex steel buildings are now
engineered for fire in the UK.
Fire safety engineering will result in an
integrated package of measures designed
to achieve the maximum benefit from
the available methods of preventing,
controlling or limiting the consequences
of fire. It may consider some or all of the
following:
• means of warning and escape
• internal fire spread
• structural response
• external fire spread
• access and facilities for the fire service

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• STR INEERING
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 FIRE PROTECTION 7

Design Procedure

The procedure for determining the fire protection requirements for structural steelwork is
straightforward, but there are three distinct stages:

1. Determine the fire resistance period through Approved Documents1, BS 9999 or specific
sector requirements
2. Determine the section factor for the structural steelwork that is to be used
3. Provide the required fire resistance period through:
a. General approach for all types of construction
b. Simple approach for composite floor construction
c. Fire safety engineering

Approved Sector Specific

Documents BS 9999 Fire Rules

Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Simple
General Approach for Fire Safety
Approach Composite Engineering
Floors

Undertaken by
Protect all elements Protect the columns
specialists on large
to achieve that and primary beams
and/or complex
fire resistance period only
structures

Performance is Performance is
validated through validated through Secondary beams Outside the scope
standard fire test standard fire test left unprotected of this document
results results

1 ‘Approved Documents’ within this document is used as a generic term to simplify the text by replacing full reference to Building
Regulations Approved Document B in England and Wales, Building (Scotland) Regulations Technical Handbook 2 in Scotland and
Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Technical Booklet E in Northern Ireland in each case.
 8 FIRE PROTECTION Approved
BS 9999
Sector Specific
Documents Fire Rules

Determine the
Determine
Fire Resistance
Period

Fire Resistance Period

Introduction

The fire resistance requirement for a building and therefore the frame is defined in terms of the
fire resistance period and stated in terms of minutes (15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 or 120 minutes).

The purpose of setting a fire resistance period is to ensure that in the event of a fire within a
building, the load-bearing capacity of the building will continue to function until all occupants
have escaped, or been assisted to escape.

Comparison between a fire test and a real fire The ability of a component or material to achieve the required fire
1200 resistance period is demonstrated by subjecting it to a standard fire test
as defined in BS 476-20 or BS EN 1363-1.
1000
Temperature - °C

800 BS 476 Test Fire It can be seen that the time-temperature relationship bears little
Real Fire relationship to what happens in most real fires.
600

400
The temperature in a standard fire rises quickly and then increases
200 indefinitely. In a real fire, once the combustible material (the fire load)
has been consumed, the fire will decay and/or move. The movement
0
0 30 60 90 120 of fire in a compartment is related to both fire load and ventilation,
Time - minutes neither of which is considered in a standard fire test.

Fire resistance test results are expressed in terms of time to failure against one or more of three
criteria for the product/element being considered. These performance criteria are:
• Load-bearing capacity, i.e. the ability to support the applied load and to resist collapse
• Integrity, i.e. the ability to resist the passage of flames/hot gases
• Insulation, i.e. the ability to restrict the temperature rise on the unexposed face

Fire is Some building elements require that all three criteria are met, others two and some only one.
tance h of
resis t Structural columns are required to meet only the load-bearing capacity. Structural floors
t t h e leng ucture
no a str l fire, between two fire compartments must meet all three criteria and it is usually insulation,
that a
time ive in a re dard rather than structural criteria, which dictates the thickness of the slab.
urv an
will s imply a st ed to
it is
s is us
u r e that formance
meas e the per igns As can be seen from the graph, there is no direct relationship between a standard test and
a r e s
comp ifferent d nt a real fire. Fire resistance is not the length of time that a structure will survive in a real fire,
of d n s i s te
o
in a c nner
it is simply a standard measure that is used to compare the performance of different designs
ma in a consistent manner. It is therefore extremely unlikely that buildings with elements tested to
60 minutes fire resistance will collapse if subject to a 60 minutes duration real fire.
 FIRE PROTECTION 9

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Artic
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f inte
rest:
• FIR
E TES
• STR TING
UCTU
RAL
FIRE
REQU RESI
I R STAN
• SPR EMEN CE
INKL TS
ERS
IN UK
FIRE
COD
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 10 FIRE PROTECTION Approved
BS 9999
Sector Specific
Documents Fire Rules

Determine

Buildi s
ng England and Wales1: Fire Resistance
Period
t i
heigh as Approved Document B
ed
defin o the
h t t
heig r in t
he
p f lo o Structural fire resistance requirements in Approved Document B for multi-storey buildings are a
t o ved
Appro nts function of occupancy and the height of the building. It should be noted that height is not the
me
Docu
overall height of the building but is the distance from the ground to the the top floor.

The required fire resistance periods are contained in Table A2. They should not be read in
isolation but in conjunction with the accompanying notes and Table A1: Specific provisions of
test for fire resistance of elements of structure.

The different heights set within the Table A2 may seem to be a little arbitrary at 5m, 18m and
30m but they represent changes in the equipment required by the fire services to enter the
building, reinforcing again that the regulations are about maintaining stability to allow safe
Definition of building height evacuation of people from the building.
Height of top storey

Excludes roof-top Most multi-storey non-residential buildings in England and Wales are two, three or four storeys
plant areas Plant
in height (≤18m) and the majority are classed as offices, shops, commercial or assembly. This
means that the dominant period of fire resistance is 60 minutes.
Height
measured
from surface Almost all buildings over 30m in height must be fitted with a life safety sprinkler system,
of top floor
to ground
level
installed in accordance with the appropriate British Standards. The presence of life safety
sprinklers can be used to reduce structural fire resistance requirements by 30 minutes in most
buildings under 30m in height. However, this is only rarely invoked as the cost of the sprinklers
is usually greater than the cost savings from the reduction in the fire resistance period for the
passive fire protection systems.

Approved Document B – Extract from Table A2

Purpose group of building Minimum periods of fire resistance (minutes)
Height of top floor above ground
≤ 5m ≤ 18m ≤ 30m > 30m
Office 30 60* 90*
Shops and commercial 60* 60 90*
Assembly and recreation 60* 60 90* 120
Industrial 60* 90* 120* plus sprinklers
Storage 60* 90* 120*
Car parks - other 30 60 90
* Reduced by 30 minutes when
sprinklers are installed Car parks - open 15 15 15 60

Basements in buildings generally require fire resistance periods of 60 minutes where the depth
of the basement is less than 10m. For basements over 10m in depth, 90 minutes is normal.
1 BuildingRegulation powers were devolved to Wales on 31 December 2011. The Approved Documents current on 31 December 2011
for England and Wales will continue to apply to Wales. As guidance is reviewed and changes made Approved Documents for Wales
will be published. The Welsh Government has set out its review schedule to 2014 but Approved Document B has not been included.
 FIRE PROTECTION 11

Scotland: Technical Handbook 2

Domi Structural fire resistance requirements are contained in Section 2.1.1 of the Scottish Technical
nant
fire Handbook 2 for multi-storey buildings.
resi
perio stance
d in
is 60 the UK They are a function of height of the building to the upper surface of the top floor, occupancy
minu
or les tes and compartment floor area. Fire resistance requirements are short (30 minutes), medium
s
(60 minutes) or long (120 minutes). Unlike England and Wales, where periods of fire resistance
of 120 minutes usually occur in buildings over 30m in height, in Scotland this can occur at
any height if the compartment floor area is large enough. The most significant trade-off for
life safety sprinklers is that allowable floor areas may be doubled when an automatic fire
suppression system is installed in the building.

Structural fire resistance requirements in basements are either 60 or 120 minutes. They are also
a function of the floor area of the compartment and are not influenced by the depth.

Technical Handbook 2 – Fire resistance in minutes

Building use Maximum Minimum fire resistance duration
total area of any The topmost storey of a building is at a height of
compartment (m2) ≤7.5m ≤18m >18m
Office 2000* Short Medium Long
4000* Medium Medium Long
8000* Long Long Long
Shop and commercial 500* Short Medium Long
1000* Medium Medium Long
2000** Long Long Long
Assembly and recreation 1500* Short Medium Long
3000* Medium Medium Long
6000* Long Long Long
Industrial (Class 1) 500* Medium Medium Long
6000* Long Long Long
Storage (Class 1) 200* Medium Medium Long
* Area may be doubled if sprinklers are
installed 1000* Long Long Long
** Unlimited if sprinklers are installed Car park - open Unlimited Short Short Medium

Northern Ireland: Technical Booklet E

Structural fire resistance requirements are contained in Table 4.2 of Technical Booklet E for
multi-storey buildings. They are broadly the same as those in Approved Document B and are a
function of height and occupancy.

The main exception is that the requirement to install sprinklers in blocks of flats over 30m in
height, a relatively recent addition in England and Wales, has not yet been implemented in
Northern Ireland.
 12 FIRE PROTECTION Approved
BS 9999
Sector Specific
Documents Fire Rules

BS 9999
Determine
Fire Resistance
Period

BS 9999 is recognised by Local Authorities and other approved bodies as a complementary

of
Use approach to that used within the Approved Documents.
9 99’s
BS 9 ased
risk b an lead Consequently, BS 9999 gives fire resistance periods in Table 25 identical to those within
ach c
appro reduced Approved Document B if a building is simply considered in terms of height and occupancy.
to a nce
e r e sista
fir d
perio However, whereas the Approved Documents adopt a standard, prescriptive approach for
all buildings, BS 9999 allows designers to use a risk-based approach to determine the fire
resistance period for their building. It is presented in a logical and straightforward way that
walks designers through the procedure step-by-step. It is therefore available for non specialists
to use.

BS 9999 – Table 25
Occupancy Use Minimum periods of fire resistance (in minutes)
Character- Height of top occupied storey above access level
istic
≤5m ≤18m ≤30m >30m
A Office 30 60* 90*
120 +
B Shops and Commercial 60* 60 90*
sprinklers
B Assembly: ordinary hazard 60* 60 90*
A Industrial: ordinary hazard 60* 90* 120** 90 + sprinklers

* Reduced by 30 minutes when A Storage: low hazard 30 60* 90* 60 + sprinklers

sprinklers are installed A Car park - closed 30 60 90 120
** Reduced by 60 minutes when
sprinklers are installed A Car park - open 15 15 30 30

Step 1 is to determine the Risk Profile. This is a function of occupancy characteristic (A, B or C)
and the fire growth rate (1, 2, 3 or 4), which are combined to give the Risk Profile (A2, B3 etc).
Step 1 Table 2 gives the occupancy characteristic, Table 3 the fire growth rates and Table 4 describes
Determine Risk Profile the resultant Risk Profiles.

Table 5 gives the examples of BS 9999 – Table 5 extract

the Risk Profiles appropriate Risk Profile Occupancy
Step 2 to the majority of occupancy A2 Office (open-plan exceeding 60m2)
Check ventilation types and can be referenced A2 Classroom
requirements directly if the required A2/A3 Factory production area
occupancy is present. The A2/A3/A4 Storage and warehousing
different occupancies are A3 Workshop
listed alphabetically in the B2 Office (closed-plan or office less than 60m2)
Step 3
BS 9999 but are presented B2 Concourse or shopping mall
Determine Fire
here in terms of the Risk B3 Shop sales area
Resistance Period
Profile.
 FIRE PROTECTION 13

Use
BS 9 of Step 2 is to check that the ventilation requirements of Table 27 are met so that Table 26 may
to d 999 be used to determine the fire resistance period. (If the Table 27 requirements are not met, then
the fir etermine
period e resista the designer must use Table 25.) Most buildings would be expected to meet these ventilation
n
requir means th ce requirements.
emen at its
aspec ts
ts of for other
must fire safet BS 9999 – Table 27
also y
adopt be Occupancy Use Ventilation conditions for application of Table 26
ed
Character- Minimum potential area as a Height of opening as a percent-
istic percentage of the floor area age of the compartment height
% (i.e. from floor to ceiling)
%
A Office 5 30 to 90
B Shops and Commercial 5 50 to 100
B Assembly: ordinary hazard 2.5 30 to 80
A Industrial: ordinary hazard 2.5 30 to 80

Step 3 is then to determine the fire resistance period from Table 26. The fire period is a function of
building height and Risk Profile.

BS 9999 – Table 26
Risk Profile Minimum periods of fire resistance, (in minutes)
Height of top occupied storey above access level
≤ 5m ≤ 11m ≤ 18m ≤ 30m ≤ 60m > 60m
A2 30 D) 30 60 90 120 + sprinkler* 150 + sprinkler*
D) Reduced to 15min when ground floor
A3 60 60 90 120 300 + sprinkler* 300 + sprinkler*
area is less than 1,000m2 B2 30 30 60 75 90 + sprinkler* 120 + sprinkler*
* Sprinklers required on all buildings
> 30m high (Section 31.2.2) B3 30 45 75 105 135 + sprinkler* 180 + sprinkler*

Easily overlooked is the implication of footnote D) on buildings with Risk Profile A2 and two storeys
high, which reduces the fire resistance period to 15 minutes for buildings with a ground floor
area of <1000m2. Risk Profile A2 covers buildings such as open plan offices and a fire resistance
period of 15 minutes means that the steelwork can probably be left unprotected (see section on
Unprotected Steel). It should however be noted that though classrooms fall into the A2 Risk Profile
group, the fire resistance period is governed by the requirements of Building Bulletin 100 (see
section on Sector Specific Fire Rules).
 14 FIRE PROTECTION Approved
BS 9999
Sector Specific
Documents Fire Rules

Determine
Sector Specific Fire Resistance
Period

Fire Rules
Single storey buildings
Single
y
store mally Single storey buildings do not normally require structural fire resistance (and therefore fire
or
ngs n ire
buildi e f
protection) as Section 7.4 of Approved Document B (England and Wales) considers them to be
requir only for structures that only support a roof and excludes them. Exceptions occur where an element of
tance y wall
resis ndar the structure provides support or stability to elements such as:
a bou dition
con
• A separating wall
• A compartment wall or the enclosing structure of a protected zone
• An external wall that must retain stability to prevent fire spread to adjacent buildings (i.e. a
boundary condition). The wall must achieve not only the required fire resistance period but
also the insulation and integrity requirements too
• A support to a gallery or a roof which also forms the function of a floor (e.g. a car park or a
means of escape)
fo
tion.in
lcon struc
www .stee Although single storey buildings can require fire protection where an insurance company or
owner deems it necessary, it is commonly provided only where a boundary condition exists.
:
erest
le s of int Where this occurs, the Approved Documents expect the designer to follow the approach
Artic Y
TORE described in the Steel Construction Institute’s (SCI) P313 Guide – Single storey steel framed
G LE S
• S I N FIRE building in fire boundary conditions.
I N G S IN S
BUIL
D ITION
Y C OND
R
NDA FIRE
BOU The most common framing system for a single storey, non-domestic buildings is a portal
A R K S IN
R P frame. SCI P313 Guide includes a design method that limits provision of fire protection
• CA
only to the boundary wall columns provided that the column bases have been designed
to resist the overturning moments and forces caused by the collapse of the unprotected parts of
the building in the event of a fire.

Car parks

Car parks are classified as either open or other.

Open car parks are above ground and have large openings in the façade for natural ventilation.
A car park is defined as open if it has an aggregate vent area not less than 1/20th of the
2 It should be noted that Section 2.1.1 floor area, of which at least half should be provided between two opposing walls. They are
in Scottish Technical Handbook 2 states
that open car parks up to 18m in height
recognised as posing a relatively low risk to life and are generally required to have only 15
require 30 minutes fire resistance (a minutes fire resistance for structures <30m in height (<18m in Scotland 2). The 15 minutes fire
period defined as ‘short’). However, this
is overridden in Section 2.D.3. period is normally achieved using unprotected steel.
 FIRE PROTECTION 15

Certain situations exist where the deemed to satisfy criteria for structural steelwork in an open
Open car park may not apply:
car p
usuall arks
y
fire r achieve • Where one element of structure gives support or carries or gives stability to another, the
esist
perio anc
ds wi e fire resistance of the supporting element should be no less than the minimum period of fire
unpro th
tecte resistance of the other element (irrespective of whether that other element is load-bearing).
steel d
An example of this is where a column gives stability to the open car park and also to a
compartment wall surrounding an escape stairway. In that case, the supporting column
should have the same fire resistance as the compartment wall.
• If the building is also used for any other purpose, the part forming the car park is a
separated part and the fire resistance of any element of structure that supports or carries or
gives stability to another element in another part of the building should be no less than the
minimum period of fire resistance of the elements that it supports.

The fire resistance period for other car parks is typically consistent with those for commercial
buildings of the same height.

Schools

In England and Wales, Table A2 of Building Bulletin 100 provides guidance on fire resistance
periods for schools.

Building Bulletin 100 – Table A2

Minimum periods of fire resistance (in minutes)
Basement storey Ground or upper storey:
(including floor over) Height (m) of top floor above ground,
not more than 10m in a building or separated part of a building.
deep
Not more than 5 Not more than 18
Not sprinklered 60 60 60
Sprinklered 60 30 60

Whilst the option for construction without sprinklers is presented, the Department for Education
has stated its expectation that all new schools will be sprinklered. This is due to around 1 in 20
schools experiencing a fire each year, with nearly 60% of school fires started deliberately.

Guidance is also available from the Scottish Executive in its publication, Fire Safety in Schools.
However, this document does not impact the fire resistance period beyond the requirements of
Technical Handbook 2.

16 FIRE PROTECTION

Approved Sector Specific

Documents BS 9999 Fire Rules

Determine
Fire Resistance
Period

Healthcare

Best practice guidance and recommendations for healthcare buildings in England and Wales
is given in Health Technical Memorandum HTM 05-02. It provides guidance on the design of
fire precautions in new healthcare buildings and major extensions. The fire resistance period
required is defined in Table 2 of HTM 05-02.

In Scotland, special Annexes 2A & 2B in Technical Handbook 2 provide guidance for healthcare
buildings.

HTM 05-02 Table 2: Fire resistance of elements of structure

Minimum period of fire resistance
provided by compartmentation
Unsprinklered Sprinklered
Single storey healthcare buildings 30 minutes 30 minutes
Healthcare buildings with storeys up to 12m above 60 minutes 30 minutes
ground or basements no more than 10m deep (60 minutes in respect of basements)
Healthcare buildings with storeys over 12m above 90 minutes 60 minutes
ground or basements more than 10m deep
Healthcare buildings with storeys over 30m 120 minutes 90 minutes

Shopping centres

It is acknowledged that the provisions given for single shops in Section 11.7 of Approved
Document B may not be suitable for shops that form part of a complex. The Approved
Document therefore states that to ensure a satisfactory standard of fire safety in shopping
complexes, alternative measures and additional compensatory features are required. Such
features are set out in Sections 5 and 6 of BS 5588-10. Structural fire resistance requirements
for elements of structure in the standard are 120 minutes and provision of a life safety sprinkler
system is required.
 FIRE PROTECTION 17

Fire Protection Determine Determine

Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Introduction
Simple
General Approach for
Approach Composite
Floors

Effect of temperature on steel strength

Fire limit state loading is an accidental loadcase and is therefore
subject to lower load factors than ultimate limit state. Looking
1.0 purely at applied loading, a member at
100% capacity under ultimate limit
Room Temperature Strength Ratio

0.8
state load factors would typically 550
°C
be at only 60% capacity with i s limitin
0.6 temp g
the fire limit state load factors memb erature fo
ers h r
0.4
applied instead. eated
four o n
620 side
°C is s.
0.2 temp limitin
e g
Any fire protection provided beam rature for
s sup
must therefore maintain the a floo porting
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
r slab
Temperature °C
structural steelwork at a minimum
of 60% of its room temperature
strength.

All materials lose strength as they get hot and the plot of strength against temperature is
shown for steel. To ensure 60% strength of the steelwork and therefore maintain the stability
of a building, the temperature of the steelwork must not exceed 550°C. The design of fire
protection is therefore based on this limiting temperature for elements exposed to fire on four
sides.

For a beam supporting a concrete slab, temperature profile also

Temperature profile in steel sections
has an impact on load-bearing capacity. Tests have demonstrated
that the limiting temperature for beams in this arrangement is
620°C.
550°C 460°C

This increased temperature is achieved because the heat sink

effect of the concrete slab generates a significant temperature
profile across the section. When the hotter part of the section
550°C 620°C reaches 550°C, it yields plastically and transfers load to the
Fully loaded beam exposed Fully loaded beam exposed cooler regions of the section, which still acts elastically. As the
on four sides, fails at 550°C on three sides, fails at 620°C
temperature rises further, more load is transferred from the hot
region by plastic yielding until eventually the load in the cool
region becomes so high that it too becomes plastic and the member fails at 620°C. The design
of fire protection is therefore based on this limiting temperature for beams supporting a
concrete slab exposed to fire on three sides.
18 FIRE PROTECTION Determine
Fire Resistance
Determine
Section Factor
Period

Simple

Determine the General

Approach
Approach for
Composite
Floors
Section Factor
The section factor is a way of describing the heating rate of a member, which is a key factor in
Low section factor
Slow heating determining fire resistance for that section. The shape of the member governs the time taken
for it to reach its failure or limiting temperature and varies according to the
relative dimensions of the section. A heavy, massive section will heat up
more slowly than a light, slender section. This effect is quantified in
ion
the section factor. Sect is
r
facto V in
A/
called 93 and
The section factor is defined differently by BS EN 1993-1-2 N 19 5950
BS E
in BS is the
and BS 5950-8, though the number is the same for both. Hp/A lue
he va
BS EN 1993-1-2’s A/V ratio dominates most current literature but t e for both
although BS 5950-8’s Hp/A ratio can sometimes still be seen. sam

High section factor In BS EN 1993-1-2, it is defined as the surface area of the member
Fast heating per unit length (Am) divided by the volume per unit length (V). It is measured in units of m-1.
BS 5950-8’s terminology is perhaps simpler to understand as it defines the section factor as the
heated perimeter of the exposed cross section (Hp) divided by the total cross sectional area (A).
Both approaches give the same value for sections of constant cross-sectional area.

Section factors vary from 25m-1 for very large sections to over 300m-1 for small, slender sections.

Whilst the section factor can be calculated, it is usual to refer to the Advance Section Property
Brochure or the eBlue Book to determine the section factor for UKB, UKC, UKPFC, UKA or
UKT profiles. As can be seen, the section factor is also dependent on whether a boxed out fire
protection system or a coating-based section profile system is adopted and on whether or not
the section is carrying a floor slab.

Where a section is partially protected, for example when a column is built into a perimeter wall,
the section factor should be calculated as standard tables do not represent this arrangement.
The procedure is straightforward and a worked example is given in the online article on
Calculating Section Factors.

.info
ction
elconstru
ww w.ste

:
erest
le s of int
Artic
TING
CULA
• CAL CTOR
S
T IO N FA
S EC
O OK
B LUE B
• THE
 FIRE PROTECTION 19

Extract from Advance® Section

N Property Tables

UKB
n
h d
N
C

UKB
h d tw
C
tw

Designation A/V ratio (m-1)

Serial size Profile Profile Box Box

3 sides 4 sides 3 sides 4 sides
Wh 457 x 191 161 75 85 60 65
multip ere
of fir le layers 133 90 100 70 80
e pro
are r tectio 106 110 125 85 100
eq n
some uired, it 98 120 135 90 105
econ tim es be w ill
sectio om ic t more 89 130 145 100 115
n fac o reduce
the w to r t h e 82 140 160 105 125
eight by increa
memb of th sing 74 155 175 115 135
er to e ste
fire r a el
esist chieve the 67 170 190 130 150
single a nce w
applic ith a
ation
It should be noted that cellular beams can display complex failure mechanisms in fire. Research in
this area has been led by The Association for Specialist Fire Protection (ASFP) and fire protection
manufacturers. Working with the SCI, the ASFP have developed structural models for beams with
circular and rectangular web openings.

These models enable the calculation of the limiting temperature as a function of beam geometry
and load. This can then be used to determine the correct fire protection thickness for the
required fire resistance period, based on a section factor calculated using the formula:

Section factor = 1400/t

where t is the web thickness in mm (if the web thickness varies, this is the bottom web
www. thickness)
asfp.
org.u
k
Reco For all types of section, a reduced section factor may result in thinner fire protection to achieve
mmen
ded r
• AS efere the same fire resistance. Where multiple layers of fire protection are required, it will sometimes
FP’S nce:
BOO Y ELLO be more economic to reduce the section factor by increasing the weight of the steel member to
K GI W
VES
GUID D E T AILED achieve the fire resistance with a single application. The marginal increase in weight may be more
ANCE
PROE ON F than offset by the reduction in fire protection costs by application of a single layer of protection
CTIO IRE
PROC N DE rather than multiple layers.
SIGN
EDUR
FREE ES A
ND IS
TO D
OWN Having determined the section factor, the designer can then assess the type of protection
LOAD
required (if any) to achieve the required fire resistance period.
 20 FIRE PROTECTION

Unprotected Steel

Approved Documents deem hot rolled structural sections and tubes under full design load in fire
to have 15 minutes inherent fire resistance if they meet the following criteria:
ed
otect
Unpr deemed
is s
steel 15 minute • Beams supporting concrete floors – section factor of <230m-1
a v e i n
to h ance
esist ved • Sections heated on four sides (columns) – section factor <180m-1
fire r ppro
the A ents • Bracing – section factor <210m-1 (Note: bracing only requires fire protection where it
m
Docu provides structural stability to the building to ensure safe evacuation in the event of fire.
There is often therefore no requirement to fire protect bracing in single storey sheds)

The vast majority of hot rolled structural sections meet these criteria. The small number of
sections which have higher section factors may do so if the load applied at ultimate limit state
is reduced. The threshold levels for these sections are given in the tables below for BS 5950-8
design.

UKB Maximum load ratio for 15 minutes fire resistance

Section Size Section factor Maximum load ratio1 Maximum load ratio
(A/V) non-composite 100% shear connection
127×76UKB13 280m-1 0.53 0.41
152×89UKB16 270m-1 0.53 0.41
178×102UKB19 260m-1 0.55 0.43
203×102UKB23 235m-1 0.64 0.5
203×133UKB25 245m-1 0.54 0.42
254×102UKB22 280m-1 0.47 0.37
254×102UKB25 250m-1 0.58 0.45
305×102UKB25 280m-1 0.49 0.38
305×102UKB28 250m-1 0.59 0.47
1 Load ratio is defined as load applied in 356×127UKB33 250m-1 0.59 0.46
fire condition divided by load capacity of 406×140UKB39 240m-1 0.59 0.46
the section at ambient temperature.

UKC Maximum load ratio for 15 minutes fire resistance

Section Size Section factor Slenderness ratio Maximum load ratio
(A/V)
152UKC23 305m-1 81 N/A, Choose next in the section range
152UKC30 235m-1 78 0.36
152UKC37 195m-1 77 0.45
203UKC46 200m-1 58 0.51
 FIRE PROTECTION 21

Fire Protecting Determine

Fire Resistance
Determine
Section Factor

Structural Steelwork
Period

Simple
General Approach for
Structural fire protection systems Approach Composite
Floors
Thin
intum film
e
coati scent UK fire protection market share over the last 20 years is Protect all elements Protect the columns

ngs a
to achieve that and primary beams

board
only
nd
fire resistance period
shown in the chart below. The most striking point to note
domin systems
ate t is the rise in popularity of thin film intumescent coatings on
h
marke e UK steel framed buildings. They have gone from a 20% market share in 1992 to 75% in 2012.
t

Industry dynamics have been the catalyst for continuous development in the science of
intumescent coatings. Systems continue to develop but those in use today are more efficient
and much more economic than those available 20 years ago. This has resulted in real term costs
that are a fraction of what they were in the 1990s. The market share for intumescent coatings
has also been assisted by the development of offsite applied systems, which contribute 20% to
intumescent’s total 75% market share.

The systems commonly used are thin film intumescent coatings, board protection, partial
protection and concrete filled hollow sections. Implications on design of the floor slab are also
considered for mesh and fibre reinforced systems.

Market Share of Fire Protection Systems

80%
board
70%
spray
60% intumescent
other
50%

40%

30%

20%

www.
steelc 10%
onstr
uctio
n.info
Artic
le of 0%
intere
st:
• FIR 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2012
E PR
OTEC
STRU TING
CTUR
STEE A L
LWO
RK
22 FIRE PROTECTION
Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Simple
General Approach for
Approach Composite
Floors
s
Finishe
e
must b o
d t
Protect all elements Protect the columns

detaile
to achieve that and primary beams
r Thin film intumescent coatings
oom fo e
fire resistance period only

allow r o f t h
x p a n sion
e scent
intume g Thin film intumescent coatings are paint-like materials which are inert at low temperatures
coatin but which provide insulation as a result of a complex chemical reaction at temperatures of
approximately 200-250°C, a threshold temperature at which the properties of steel are still
unaffected.

As the coating reacts, it swells to provide an expanded layer of

low conductivity char that insulates the steel section. Typical
expansion ratios are about 50:1, i.e. a 1mm thick coating will
expand to about 50mm when affected by fire.

Thin film intumescent coatings are predominantly used in

buildings where the fire resistance requirements are up to
90 minutes. In recent years, a number of products have been
developed which can provide 120 minutes fire resistance.

Intumescent coatings can be applied either on-site or offsite

and can be used to achieve attractive surface finishes. If
a decorative or bespoke finish is required, this should be
included in the specification. Thin film intumescents have the
added advantages that they can easily cover complex shapes
and post-protection service installation is relatively simple.

Offsite intumescent coatings are widely used in the UK, but

generally only used on projects where the programme saving
offsets the extra cost of additional work in the shop. The
majority of commercial buildings in London tend to use this
method.

Offsite application tends to be used where a non-aesthetic

finish is required. Aesthetic finishes have been achieved using
offsite application but it requires an additional level of care
and attention. This is because bolts have to be coated on-site
along with occasional damage during transit. As it is difficult
to match the appearance of the on-site application to the rest
of the coating, this adds a layer of complexity to the work.
 FIRE PROTECTION 23

UKB/UKCs - 4 sided exposure - indicative data Intumescents are specified in terms of dry film thickness,
A/V Critical temperature 550°C based on the heating profile (3 sided or 4 sided), the section
Dry film thickness (mm) for fire resistance period factor of the steel to be protected and the required fire
30 min 60 min 90 min resistance period. The requirements of each proprietary system
30 0.261 0.324 0.470 are presented separately for open sections (UKB/UKCs) and
50 0.261 0.347 0.690 for closed sections (Celsius). They can be found either in
70 0.261 0.413 0.959 manufacturer’s literature or in the ASFP’s Yellow Book.
90 0.261 0.490 1.212
110 0.265 0.582 1.394
130 0.276 0.663 1.589
150 0.289 0.747 1.929
170 0.306 0.842 2.147

UKBs - 3 sided exposure - indicative data

A/V Critical temperature 620°C
Dry film thickness (mm) for fire resistance period
30 min 60 min 90 min
30 0.265 0.265 0.420
50 0.265 0.276 0.494 Beha
cellula viour of
70 0.265 0.319 0.679 fire is r beams in
90 0.265 0.357 0.907 is rec complex
o . I
110 0.265 0.419 1.099 beam mmended t
manu that
130 0.286 0.487 1.300 and c facturers
manu oat
150 0.295 0.545 1.493 factu ing
r
cons ers are
170 0.300 0.626 1.727 ulted

Cellular beams are normally protected

using intumescent coatings. Designers should ensure that
the beam manufacturer provides a limiting temperature for
his product. The proposed coating should not only meet this
limiting temperature but have also been tested to the ASFP’s
fire testing protocol for cellular beam protection. Further
details on fire protection of cellular beams can be found in the
ASFP’s Yellow Book.
 24 FIRE PROTECTION
Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Simple
General Approach for
Approach Composite
Floors

Protect all elements Protect the columns

to achieve that and primary beams

Boards fire resistance period only

Boards are widely used for structural fire protection in the UK. They offer a clean, boxed
appearance and have the additional advantage that application is a dry trade and can be
applied to unpainted steelwork.

There are broadly two families of board protection, lightweight and heavyweight. Lightweight
boards are not suitable for decorative finishes and are
used where aesthetics are not important. Heavyweight
boards will generally accept decorative finishes and are
therefore used where aesthetics are important.

Boards are specified in terms of thickness required to

achieve the limiting temperature for a particular section
factor. The requirements of each proprietary system can
be found either in manufacturer’s literature or in the
ASFP’s Yellow Book.
Courtesy of Promat

In rare instances, cellular beams may be protected by

boards. In this case the procedure given in the ASFP’s
Yellow Book should be followed.

UKB/UKCs - 4 sided exposure - indicative data UKBs - 3 sided exposure - indicative data
A/V Critical temperature 550°C A/V Critical temperature 620°C
Board thickness (mm) for fire resistance period Board thickness (mm) for fire resistance period
30 min 60 min 90 min 30 min 60 min 90 min
30 15 15 15 30 15 15 15
50 15 15 15 50 15 15 15
70 15 15 15 70 15 15 15
90 15 15 15 90 15 15 15
110 15 15 20 110 15 15 15
130 15 15 20 130 15 15 15
150 15 15 20 150 15 15 20
170 15 15 20 170 15 15 20
 FIRE PROTECTION 25

How
to de
prote termine
requ ction
partia irements Partial protection
lly fo
can b exposed r a
e fou c
stee nd on olumn
lcon w ww. Most commonly, partial protection refers to the general arrangement of either a beam cast into
stru
info c t i o n. the depth of the floor slab that it supports or a column built into a cavity wall.

The most common example of this is the Slimdek system from Tata Steel, but it also applies
to Slimflor beams (UKCs with a plate welded to the bottom flange to provide a similar profile
to the Slimdek ASB) or for a standard rolled UKB supporting the floor slab on shelf angles to
minimise the depth of construction.

Rather than providing protection to the required fire resistance period,

designers can take advantage of the benefit of the heat sink effect of the slab
to reduce the fire protection or eliminate it altogether. The most common
application of this approach is the use of Slimdek’s FE range of ASBs to achieve
a 60 minutes fire rating without having to provide any fire protection.

For a partially exposed column, the fire protection required can be calculated
from the section factor of the exposed part of the member rather than
conservatively using the value for the whole profile, as given in the tables.

This is straightforward to calculate and a worked example is given in the online article
Calculating Section Factors.

Concrete Filled Hollow Sections

By filling hollow sections with concrete, a composite section is produced resulting in increased
www. load capacity compared to an unfilled section. For fire resistance periods of 60 minutes or
steelc
onstr greater, when using externally unprotected sections, they will usually need to contain
uctio
n.info
reinforcement. Design of composite hollow sections in fire should be undertaken
Artic
les o using the Firesoft design software from Tata Steel. Details at
f inte
rest:
• www.tatasteelconstruction.com.
CALC
SECT ULAT
ION ING
FACT
ORS Fire protection may be provided by application of external fire protection, usually a thin
• HO
LLOW coat intumescent. As the presence of the concrete core acts as a heat sink, the effective
SECT
IN FI IONS
RE section factor should be used to determine the coating thickness required. Details of
how to calculate the effective section factor can be found in the online article on Hollow
Sections in Fire.
 26 FIRE PROTECTION
Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Design of Composite Steel General

Approach
Simple
Approach for
Composite

Deck Floors for Fire Floors

Protect all elements Protect the columns

to achieve that and primary beams

nt Composite steel deck floors consist of a profiled steel deck only

eme o
fire resistance period

r c
nfo yt with a concrete slab. Mesh or fibre reinforcement is cast into
Rei he ke ance
is t erform the slab to control cracking, to resist longitudinal shear and, in the case of fire, to act as tensile
p e
slab in fir reinforcement. Indentations in the profiled deck allow the concrete and steel to bond and share
load. Composite action between the supporting beams and the concrete is created by welding
shear studs through the deck onto the top flange of the beam.

ComFlor® 60 Span table - normal FibreFlor CF60 Span table - normal In the fire condition standard practice amongst designers is to
weight concrete weight concrete
Span Fire Slab Mesh Span Fire Slab FibreFlor assume that the steel deck makes no contribution to overall
Rating depth Rating depth dosage strength. The deck does however play an important part in
(mm) (mm) (kg/m2)
130 A142 130 26 maintaining integrity and insulation. It acts as a diaphragm
1 hr
1 hr 130 A252 130 26 preventing the passage of flame and hot gases, and it controls
160 A252 Single span 140 31
Single span
140 A193 slab & deck
1.5 hr
170 31
spalling. It is not normally necessary to fire protect the exposed
slab & deck 1.5 hr
170 A252 150 36 soffit of the deck.
2 hr
150 A193 180 36
2 hr
180 A252 130 26
1 hr In fire the reinforcement becomes effective and the floor
130 A142 130 26
Double
1 hr 130 A252
span slab & 1.5 hr
140 31 behaves as a reinforced slab with the loads being resisted by
Double 160 A252 deck 170 31
the bending action. Catenary action may develop away from
span slab & 140 A193 150 36
1.5 hr 2 hr
deck 170 A252 180 36 the edges of the floor with the reinforcement then acting in
150 A193 direct tension rather than bending. Slab failure occurs when
2 hr
180 A252
the reinforcement yields.

Most steel decking manufacturers provide software for the design of floors using their products
and also produce literature with quick reference information with the reinforcement required to
achieve the desired fire resistance period.

Filling of voids

Research has shown that filling the voids between the raised parts of the deck profile and
the beam top flange in composite steel deck construction as part of the beam fire protection
strategy is not always necessary. The upper flange of a composite beam is so close to the
plastic neutral axis that it makes little contribution to the bending strength of the member as
a whole. Thus, the temperature of the upper flange can often be allowed to increase, with a
corresponding decrease in its strength without adversely affecting the capacity of the composite
system significantly.
 FIRE PROTECTION 27

Treat Voids under decking with dovetail or re-entrant profiles can remain unfilled for all fire resistance
m
of vo ent periods. The larger voids which occur under trapezoidal profiles can be left open in many
ids in
floor instances for fire ratings up to 90 minutes, although some increase to the thickness of fire
s
depen labs
ds on protection applied to the rest of the beam may be necessary.
deck
profile
The ASFP offers two approaches to allow voids to be unfilled. Table 18 provides guidance on
modification to fire protection thicknesses and Table 19 provides guidance on temperature
modifications for beams with specified limiting temperatures.

For standard UKB sections, Table 18 offers the most straightforward procedure to enable voids
to be left unfilled.

ASFP Yellow Book – Table 18: Recommendations for beams assessed at 550°C or 620°C
TRAPEZOIDAL DECK
Beam type Fire protection on Fire resistance (minutes)
beam
Up to 60 90 Over 90
Trapezoidal deck
Composite Materials No increase Increase in thickness by 10% Fill voids
assessed at 550°C in thickness or assess thickness using A/V
increased by 15%*
Composite Materials Increase in thickness by 20% Increase in thickness by 30% Fill voids
assessed at 620°C or assess thickness using A/V or assess thickness using A/V
increased by 30%* increased by 50%*
Non-composite All types Fill voids above the flange
Dovetail deck *The least onerous option may be used

For cellular beams refer to manufacturer’s specific data

DOVETAIL DECKS
Beam type Fire protection on Fire resistance (minutes)
beam
Up to 60 90 Over 90
Any All types Voids may be left unfilled for all periods of fire resistance

www.
steelc
onstr
uctio
n.info
Artic
le of
intere
st:
• DES
COM IGN
POSIT OF
DECK E ST
FLOO E EL
RS F
FIRE OR
28 FIRE PROTECTION
Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period

Simple
General Approach for
Approach Composite
Floors

Protect all elements Protect the columns

to achieve that and primary beams

It should be noted that Tables 18 and 19 were intended to fire resistance period only

ids be used for solid beams only. When considering unfilled

Vo be
st e
mu wher s voids above cellular beams, the ASFP states that Table 18 should not be used and that Table 19
d rm
fille am fo a should only be used if the beam design specifies a limiting temperature provided by a suitably
e f
a b art o ment qualified structural engineer.
p art
mp all
co w
Designers should take care that voids are filled where the beam forms part of the compartment
wall to ensure the integrity of the compartment. It should be noted that the material used to fill
the voids does not have to be the same as that used to protect the beam, though it is required
to meet the same fire resistance period.

In the rare case where non-composite steel deck construction is used, the voids must always be
filled if trapezoidal decking is used.

Trapezoidal deck ASFP Yellow Book – Table 19: Temperature modifications for beams with specified limiting temperature
TRAPEZOIDAL DECK
Beam type Temperature reductions for fire resistance (minutes) of
30 60 90 Over 90
Composite 50°C 70°C 90°C Fill voids
Non-composite Fill voids
For cellular beams refer to manufacturer’s specific data
Dovetail deck
DOVETAIL DECKS
Beam type Temperature reductions for fire resistance (minutes) of
30 60 90 Over 90
Any No temperature modifications are required
For cellular beams refer to manufacturer’s specific data
 FIRE PROTECTION 29

When to use Structural Fire Standards

In most instances, the performance of components and systems in fire is demonstrated through
the standard test. However, there are occasions where the designer may wish to consider using
structural fire standards (BS 5950-8, BS EN 1993-1-2 or BS EN 1994-1-2) to reduce the fire
protection required to achieve the fire rating.

The limiting temperature method allows the designer to assess the need, or otherwise, for
fire protection by comparing the temperature at which the member will fail (the limiting
temperature) with the temperature of the hottest part of the section at the required fire
resistance time (the design temperature). In BS 5950-8 this is done via a set of prepared tables.
If the limiting temperature exceeds the design temperature, no protection is necessary.

This can be of particular value when assessing whether unprotected steel will achieve
30 minutes fire resistance without protection. It can also be of value when calculating failure
temperatures to assess how much fire protection is required for higher periods of fire resistance.
For example, if it can be shown that the failure temperature of a beam carrying a non-
composite floor slab is say 700°C rather than 620°C (which is possible if for any reason the load
on the beam is low) significant reductions in fire protection thickness may be possible. This can
be important for any fire protection material but is particularly useful with intumescent coatings
at high fire resistance periods and/or high section factors.
www.
steelc
onstr
uctio
n.info For external steelwork, the most common form of fire protection is thin film
Artic
le of
intumescent coating. It may be possible to reduce the fire protection through
intere
st
: calculation since in the event of a fire it will be heated only by flames emanating from
• STR windows or other openings in the building façade. This will typically be less severe than
UCTU
RAL the heating profile to which internal steelwork is exposed. BS EN 1993-1-2 Appendix B
ENG FIRE
INEE
RING contains a method for calculation of the size and temperature of flames from openings
and radiation and convection parameters for heat transfer calculations.
30 FIRE PROTECTION Simple
Approach for
Composite
Floors

Simple Approach for Protect the columns

and primary beams

eel
only

St he
t d Composite Floors
is este
t
s t l n
i
mo teria
Performance is

ma fire Cardington Fire Tests validated through

standard fire test
results
Secondary beams
left unprotected

A fire at Broadgate Phase 8 in 1990 was the catalyst for a series of full-scale fire tests that
transformed the understanding of how structural steelwork behaves in fire. The composite steel
deck structure had some partially applied fire protection and was subject to a four hour fire.
According to the knowledge of how buildings behaved in fire at that time, Broadgate Phase 8
should have collapsed. That it not only survived but came through such an onerous fire relatively
unscathed demonstrated that buildings with this framing and floor system had much greater
fire resistance than could be expected by predictions based on standard fire tests on individual
sections in furnaces.

To explore this outcome, a series of seven full-scale fire tests were carried out on an eight-
storey steel framed building with composite steel deck floors built at the Building Research
Establishment’s (BRE) Cardington facility between 1994 and 2003. The test programme
comprised a single beam test and six compartment tests.

To obtain a direct comparison with the standard fire tests, the first test was carried out on a
single unprotected beam and surrounding area of slab. Steel temperatures of over 1100°C were
measured without failure, far greater than the temperature of 700°C at which the beam would
have failed if tested in isolation.

Further tests were carried out in compartments varying in size from 50m² to 340m². Columns
were protected but beams were not. Despite atmosphere temperatures of over 1200°C and
temperatures on the unprotected steel beams of up to 1100°C, no structural collapse took
place.
 FIRE PROTECTION 31

Compressive arching It was found that a composite steel floor

plays a crucial role in providing enhanced fire
resistance not apparent by tests on single
isolated elements of construction. Leaving
the beams unprotected enabled the slab to
deflect and to develop tensile membrane
action at high temperatures. This provided
greatly enhanced load carrying capacity.

The development of tensile membrane action

was found to be a two stage process. At low
deflections, there was compressive arching
of the slab against the adjacent structure and
thermal buckling of the slab.

At high deflections, tensile membrane

action developed with biaxial tension in the
reinforcement at the centre of the slab and
Tensile membrane action
a compressive ring in the concrete around
the edge of the panel, rather like the rim and
spokes of a bicycle wheel.

All that was required to develop tensile

membrane action was to provide vertical
support on all four edges of a slab panel and
provide reinforcement to the slab.

The design strategy to take advantage of

tensile membrane action requires the primary
beams and columns to be fire protected,
the primary beams to be designed to resist
the additional compressive loading from the
slab at low deflection and for the slab to be
www.
steelc checked to ensure that there is sufficient
onstr
uctio
n.info The tension reinforcement to support tensile
stand
a membrane action between the protected
Artic
le of fire t rd
intere does e st primary beams at high temperature. The
st: n’t
• STR how b reflect secondary beams must be left unprotected.
u
UCTU
RAL behav ildings
FIRE e in r
ENG eal
INEE fires
RING
 32 FIRE PROTECTION

Design Process

Following the Cardington tests, a number of simple structural

models were developed which combine the residual strength
of steel composite beams with the strength of the slab in fire.
These models use the combined yield line and membrane action
approach described in BRE Digest 462 to assess performance of a
slab designed to generate tensile membrane action.

Using these models, the designer is able to leave large numbers

of secondary beams unprotected in buildings requiring 30 to 120
Courtesy of Arup Fire

minutes fire resistance although some compensating features,

such as increased mesh size and density, may be required.

The most widely used of these models is TSlab v3, a

straightforward spreadsheet tool developed by the SCI and Tata
Steel. It is Eurocode compatible but, as a simple tool, it is restricted to rectangular grids.

Procedure for analysis using TSlab v3 is:

1. Input structural information
a. Slab panel general arrangement
b. Slab depth, deck profile, mesh reinforcement and concrete grade
2. Input loading
a. Slab self weight is auto calculated
3. Specify beam sections and steel grade
a. Secondary beams
b. Primary beams
c. Panel continuity for each primary beam (internal or external beam)
4. Input fire resistance period
a. Input fire resistance required
5. Analyse using standard temperature-time fire curve

Results for the slab and perimeter beams are presented in tabular format with graphical plots
of temperature, capacity and deflection over time for each component too. Slab capacity over
time is presented in terms of the maximum unity factor. Mesh area and position are usually the
critical factors to consider should the floor slab fail during an initial assessment.

A detailed description of TSlab and its methodology is in SCI P390 Guide, which updates and
replaces P288 Fire Safe Design – a new approach to multi-storey steel framed buildings. TSlab
v3 is free to download along with its user manual from www.tatasteelconstruction.com.
 FIRE PROTECTION 33

TSlab Design Tool Walkthrough

TSlab – Depends on a clear definition of the slab with critical dimensions

TSlab – Input structural information

34 FIRE PROTECTION

TSlab – Input loading

TSlab – Specify steel sections and steel grade

 FIRE PROTECTION 35

TSlab – Input fire resistance period and analyse

TSlab – Presentation of results

36 FIRE PROTECTION

Sector Specific
Approved
Fire Rules
Documents BS 9999
Single storey p14
England and Wales p10 Car parks p14
Scotland p11 p12 Schools p15
Northern Ireland p11 Healthcare p16
Shopping centres p16

Determine Determine
Fire Resistance Section Factor
Period p18

Simple Approach for

General Composite Floors
Approach p 30
TSlab v3 p33

Protect all elements Protect the columns

to achieve that and primary beams
fire resistance period only

Unprotected Steel p20 Unprotected Steel p20

Secondary beams
Intumescents p22 Intumescents p22
left unprotected
Boards p24 Boards p24
Partial Protection p25 Partial Protection p25
Filled Hollow Sections p25 Filled Hollow Sections p25
Floor Slab p26 Floor Slab p26
 FIRE PROTECTION 37

Summary

More is known about structural steelwork in fire than any other construction material. Its
performance has been determined through a series of full-scale fire tests, which are unparalleled
for other materials. There is certainty in how structural steelwork performs and certainty that
finite element models and other simpler tools accurately reflect how it actually performs in fire.

Determining the fire protection requirements for the structural steelwork of a building is a
simple and straightforward process, consistent across all types of common building types.

The first step is to determine the fire resistance period that the structure is required to withstand
in order to ensure adequate time for the building to be evacuated in the event of a fire. The
fire resistance period is determined by use of either the prescriptive approach of Approved
Documents or through the risk based approach set out in BS 9999. Reference should also
be made to sector specific fire rules that may supplement the requirements of the other
documents.

The second step is to determine the section factor of the structural steelwork specified. The
section factor (A/V or Hp/A) is used to describe the heating rate of a member, with lower
numbers indicating stockier sections that are slower to heat than slender members with higher
section factors. Section factors can be calculated but would normally be selected from Advance
Section Property Tables or from the eBlue Book. It varies dependent on profile of fire protection
(boarded or intumescent) and on exposure of the member to the fire (3 or 4 sided).

The final step is to derive the fire protection requirement based on the required fire resistance
period and section factor.

Unprotected steelwork is usually deemed to have 15 minutes inherent fire resistance. For higher
fire resistance periods, fire protection is usually required. In the UK, this will typically be provided
by either intumescent coating or board.

Default temperatures for steelwork designed to BS 5950-8 are 550°C for members exposed
to fire on 4 sides and 620°C for beams supporting a concrete floor, due to the heat sink effect
of the slab. In both cases, the section factor should be used to determine the thickness of fire
protection for that system from either manufacturer’s literature or the ASFP’s Yellow Book.

Cellular beams can display complex failure mechanisms in fire. They are normally protected
using intumescent coatings and care should be taken to ensure specification of an appropriate
product. It is recommended that designers consult both beam and coating manufacturers to
ensure correct specification.
38 FIRE PROTECTION

To determine fire performance of a floor slab, manufacturer’s design tables should be used.
Increased fire resistance periods will typically result in an increase in the reinforcement that must
be provided. The ASFP’s Yellow Book gives guidance on the filling of voids beneath different
deck profiles. Beams forming part of a compartment wall will require the voids to be filled. Care
should be taken when considering voids on floors supported by cellular beams.

The general approach is to fire protect all elements in a structure and demonstrate performance
through standard fire test results. However, for composite floors, there is the option to use the
simple modelling approach to leave secondary beams unprotected.

TSlab is a simple to use spreadsheet-based tool developed following the full-scale fire tests
at Cardington. These tests demonstrated that a composite steel floor plays a crucial role
in providing enhanced fire resistance not apparent by tests on single isolated elements of
construction.

It provides a step-by-step approach for designers to ensure that a composite floor slab will
develop tensile membrane action, allowing the secondary beams to be left unprotected. Critical
to this design approach is the position and amount of reinforcement provided. TSlab can be
downloaded from www.tatasteelconstruction.com
 FIRE PROTECTION 39

Assessment of Steelwork after a Fire

When considering whether steelwork that has been subject to fire can be re-used, a general
rule of thumb is that if the steel is straight and there are no obvious distortions then it is
probably still fit for purpose. At 600°C the yield strength and stiffness of steel is equal to
about 40% and 30% respectively of their room temperature values. Any steel still remaining
straight after the fire and which had been carrying an appreciable load was probably not
heated beyond 600°C, will not have undergone any metallurgical changes and will therefore
be fit for re-use.

Determining tensile strength from hardness However in practice it is recommended
test results that, in all instances, some hardness tests
Brinell Vickers Ultimate should be carried out. For grade S275
Hardness Hardness Tensile steel, if the ultimate tensile strength
Number Number Strength resulting from the tests is within the
N/mm2 range specified in the table, then the
steel is probably reusable. For grade
187 197 637 S355 steel additional tensile test coupons
179 189 608 should be taken from fire affected high
Grades S355

170 179 559 strength steel members when hardness

tests show that:
163 172 539
156 165 530 • there is more than 10% difference in
hardness compared to non-fire
149 157 500
Grades S275

affected steelwork,
143 150 481
137 144 481 or
131 138 461 • hardness test results indicate that
www.
steelc 126 133 451 the strength is within 10% of the
onstr specified minimum.
uctio 121 127 431
n.info
Artic
le of
intere
st
: Where deflections are visible, general guidelines on the maximum permissible levels
• FIR of deflection to ensure satisfactory performance are difficult to specify. The amount
ASSE E D AMA
SSM GE of deflection or distortion must be checked so that its effect under load can be
ROLL ENT calculated to ensure that the functioning of the structure is not impaired. Therefore
ED S OF H
TRUC OT
STEE TURA every building should be considered as a separate case and the structural engineer
LWO L involved in the reinstatement exercise must decide what level is acceptable to satisfy
RK
the relevant Codes.

Trademarks of Tata Steel

Advance, Slimdek, Slimflor, UKA, UKB, UKC, ComFlor, FibreFlor

and Celsius are trademarks of Tata Steel
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Produced for
The British Constructional Steelwork Association
www.steelconstruction.org
and
Tata Steel
www.tatasteelconstruction.com
by Barrett, Byrd Associates
www.barrett-byrd.com

September 2013