Implementing Code of Good Governance

To implement the Code of Good Governance, the concerned governments and

their agencies need to be on a mission mode to follow the Code with clarity,
conviction, compassion and consistency, the prerequisites to achieve the vision
while abiding by the principles of good governance.
1. Clarity promotes transparency, participatory and efficient governance;
2. Conviction promotes accountable and effective governance;
3. Compassion promotes consensus oriented, equitable and inclusive
governance.
4. Consistency promotes responsive governance, follows the rule of the law
and modernises itself according to the needs and changes of the society
upholding the guiding principles of the Constitution.
11
Public Service Code of Conduct
Codes of Conduct for all those dealing with public affairs are needed to guide
public affairs. Those dealing with public service may subscribe to the seven
principles of probity in public life, recognized universally and applicable to all
connected with discharge of duties towards the public:
1. Selflessness
2. Integrity
3. Objectivity
4. Accountability
5. Openness
6. Honesty
7. Leadership
Overall assessment of good governance in practice in terms of the
Characteristics of good governance, namely
a. Participation
b. Rule of Law
c. Transparency
d. Responsiveness
e. Equity and Inclusiveness
f. Effectiveness
g. Efficiency
h. Accountability
i. Strategic Vision and Consensus Orientation.
An independent and professional authority at the national/state level may assess
the implementation of the Code of Good Governance/Governance Reform Action
Plan, which may eventually be based on Mo Us between levels of government.
“We must be the change we wish to see in the world”.

Development management deals with the coordination and management processes of

international development programs and projects. The dominant paradigm in
development management is the intervention in the form of a transfer of aid by an
external agency/donor and the oversight of the related project cycle, i.e. project
identification, planning (formulation and appraisal), implementation and monitoring, and
evaluation.

A broad range of donors and implementing organisations use the Logical Framework
Approach to provide a structured method of project cycle management

The main article for this category is Development studies.

Development studies is a multi-disciplinary social science which studies the principles

and processes governing structural and qualitative changes in the way society functions
which increase its capacity to accomplish its objectives. In the broadest terms applicable
to all societies and historical periods, development studies is concerned with the upward
directional movement of society characterized by greater levels of energy, efficiency,
quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and
accomplishment.

Each field of social science views the overall development of society in relation to
changes within its respective field. Development science seeks to identify the underlying
laws, processes and stages common to all fields and expressions of developmental
change.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Development

Millennium Development Goals

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"MDG" redirects here. For other uses, see MDG (disambiguation).

The Millennium Development Goals are a UN initiative.

The MDGs in the United Nations Headquarters in New-York

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international development goals
that all 192 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have
agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They include eradicating extreme poverty, reducing
child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS, and developing a global
partnership for development.[1]

Contents
[hide]
 1 Background
 2 Goals
o 2.1 Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
o 2.2 Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
o 2.3 Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
o 2.4 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rate
o 2.5 Goal 5: Improve maternal health
o 2.6 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
o 2.7 Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
o 2.8 Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
 3 Progress
 4 Review Summit 2010
 5 Challenges of the Millennium Development Goals
o 5.1 Controversy Over Funding of 0.7% of GNI
 6 Related Organizations
o 6.1 MDG Related projects
 7 References
 8 External links
o 8.1 United Nations

o 8.2 Others

Heads of State at the Millennium Summit

In 2001, recognizing the need to assist impoverished nations more aggressively, UN

member states adopted the targets. The aim of MDGs is to encourage development by
improving social and economic conditions in the world's poorest countries.

They derive from earlier international development targets,[2] and were officially
established at the Millennium Summit in 2000, where all world leaders present adopted
the United Nations Millennium Declaration, from which the eight goals were promoted.
[edit] Goals

The percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty has halved since
1981. The graph shows estimates and projections from the World Bank 1981–2009. Most
of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were developed out of the eight chapters
of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight
goals with 21 targets,[3] and a series of measurable indicators for each target.[4][5]

[edit] Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

 Target 1A: Halve the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day
o Proportion of population below $1 per day (PPP values)
o Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty]
o Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
 Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young
People
o GDP Growth per Employed Person
o Employment Rate
o Proportion of employed population below $1 per day (PPP values)
o Proportion of family-based workers in employed population
 Target 1C: Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
o Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age
o Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy
consumption[6]

[edit] Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

 Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary
schooling, girls and boys
o Enrollment in primary education
 o Completion of primary education
o Literacy of 15-24 year olds, female and male[7]

[edit] Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

 Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education
preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015
o Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
o Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
o Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament[8]

[edit] Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rate

 Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five
mortality rate
o Under-five mortality rate
o Infant (under 1) mortality rate
o Proportion of 1-year-old children immunised against measles[9]

[edit] Goal 5: Improve maternal health

 Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal
mortality ratio
o Maternal mortality ratio
o Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
 Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health
o Contraceptive prevalence rate
o Adolescent birth rate
o Antenatal care coverage
o Unmet need for family planning[10]

[edit] Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

 Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of
HIV/AIDS
o HIV prevalence among population aged 15–24 years
o Condom use at last high-risk sex
o Proportion of population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct
knowledge of HIV/AIDS
 Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for
all those who need it
o Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to
antiretroviral drugs
 Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of
malaria and other major diseases
o Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria
o Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets
o Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with
appropriate anti-malarial drugs
 o Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
o Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS
(Directly Observed Treatment Short Course)[11]

[edit] Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

 Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country
policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources
 Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant
reduction in the rate of loss
o Proportion of land area covered by forest
o CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
o Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
o Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
o Proportion of total water resources used
o Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
o Proportion of species threatened with extinction
 Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see
the entry on water supply)
o Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water
source, urban and rural
o Proportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation
 Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives
of at least 100 million slum-dwellers
o Proportion of urban population living in slums[12]

[edit] Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

 Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-
discriminatory trading and financial system
o Includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty
reduction – both nationally and internationally
 Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries
(LDC)
o Includes: tariff and quota free access for LDC exports; enhanced
programme of debt relief for HIPC and cancellation of official bilateral
debt; and more generous ODA (Overseas Development Assistance) for
countries committed to poverty reduction
 Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and
small island developing States
o Through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States and the outcome of the twenty-second
special session of the General Assembly
 Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing
countries through national and international measures in order to make debt
sustainable in the long term
 o Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least
developed countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developing countries and
small island developing States.
o Official development assistance (ODA):
 Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/DAC
donors’ GNI
 Proportion of total sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors
to basic social services (basic education, primary health care,
nutrition, safe water and sanitation)
 Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied
 ODA received in landlocked countries as proportion of their GNIs
 ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of
their GNIs
o Market access:
 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and
excluding arms) from developing countries and from LDCs,
admitted free of duty
 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural
products and textiles and clothing from developing countries
 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage
of their GDP
 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity
o Debt sustainability:
 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision
points and number that have reached their HIPC completion
points (cumulative)
 Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative, US$
 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services
 Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to
affordable, essential drugs in developing countries
o Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a
sustainable basis
 Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the
benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications
o Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population
o Personal computers in use per 100 population
o Internet users per 100 Population[13]

[edit] Progress

Progress towards reaching the goals has been uneven. Some countries have achieved
many of the goals,[14] while others are not on track to realize any.[15] The major countries
that have been achieving their goals include China (whose poverty population has
reduced from 452 million to 278 million) and India due to clear internal and external
factors of population and economic development.[16] However, areas needing the most
reduction, such as the Sub-Saharan Africa regions have yet to make any drastic changes
in improving their quality of life. In the same time as China, the Sub-Saharan Africa
reduced their poverty about one percent, and are at a major risk of not meeting the MDGs
by 2015.[16] Fundamental issues will determine whether or not the MDGs are achieved,
namely gender, the divide between the humanitarian and development agendas and
economic growth, according to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute.[17]

Achieving the the MDGs does not depend on economic growth alone and expensive
solutions. In the case of MDG 4, some developing countries like Bangladesh have shown
that it is possible to reduce child mortality with only modest growth by rolling out
inexpensive but effective interventions, such as measles immunisation, widely.[18]

Goal 8 of the Millennium Development Goals is unique in the sense that it focus on
donor government commitments and achievements, rather than successes in the
developing world. The Commitment to Development Index, published annually by the
Center for Global Development is often considered to be the numerical targeting
indicator for the 8th MDG.[19] It is a more comprehensive measure of donor progress than
simply Official Development Assistance as it takes into account policies on a number of
indicators that affect developing countries such as trade, migration, and investment.

To accelerate progress towards the MDGs, the G-8 Finance Ministers met in London in
June 2005 (in preparation for the G-8 Gleneagles Summit in July) and reached an
agreement to provide enough funds to the World Bank, the IMF, and the African
Development Bank (ADB) to cancel an additional $40–55 billion debt owed by members
of the HIPC. This would allow impoverished countries to re-channel the resources saved
from the forgiven debt to social programs for improving health and education and for
alleviating poverty.[20]

Backed by G-8 funding, the World Bank, the IMF, and the ADB each endorsed the
Gleaneagles plan and implemented the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative ("MDRI") to
effectuate the debt cancellations. The MDRI supplements HIPC by providing each
country that reaches the HIPC completion point 100% forgiveness of its multilateral debt.
Countries that previously reached the decision point became eligible for full debt
forgiveness once their lending agency confirmed that the countries had continued to
maintain the reforms implemented during HIPC status. Other countries that subsequently
reach the completion point automatically receive full forgiveness of their multilateral
debt under MDRI.[20]

While the World Bank and ADB limit MDRI to countries that complete the HIPC
program, the IMF's MDRI eligibility criteria are slightly less restrictive so as to comply
with the IMF's unique "uniform treatment" requirement. Instead of limiting eligibility to
HIPC countries, any country with annual per capita income of $380 or less qualifies for
MDRI debt cancellation. The IMF adopted the $380 threshold because it closely
approximates the countries eligible for HIPC.[20]

Yet, as we head towards 2015 increasing global uncertainties, such as the economic crisis
and climate change, have led to an opportunity to rethink the MDG approach to
development policy. According to the 'In Focus' Policy Brief from the Institute of
Development Studies, the 'After 2015' debate is about questioning the value of an MDG-
type, target-based approach to international development, about progress so far on
poverty reduction, about looking to an uncertain future and exploring what kind of
system is needed after the MDG deadline has passed.[21]

Further developments in rethinking strategies and approaches to achieving the MDGs

include research by the Overseas Development Institute into the role of equity.[22]
Researchers at the ODI argue progress can be accelerated due to recent breakthroughs in
the role equity plays in creating a virtuous circle where rising equity ensures the poor
participate in their country's develop and creates reductions in poverty and financial
stability.[22] Yet equity should not be understood purely as economic, but also as political.
Examples abound and include Brazil's cash transfers, Uganda's eliminations of user fees
and the subsequent huge increase in in visits from the very poorest or else Mauritius's
dual-track approach to liberalisation (inclusive growth and inclusive development) aiding
it on its road into the World Trade Organization.[22] Researchers at the ODI thus propose
equity be measured in league tables in order to provide a clearer insight into how MDGs
can be achieved more quickly; the ODI is working with partners to put forward league
tables at the 2010 MDG review meeting.[22]

The effects of increasing drug us

Review Summit 2010

A major conference will be held at UN headquarters in New York on 20-22 September

2010 to review progress to date, with five years left to the 2015 deadline.

[edit] Challenges of the Millennium Development Goals

Although developed countries' aid for the achievement of the MDGs have been rising
over the recent year, it has shown that more than half is towards debt relief owed by poor
countries. As well, remaining aid money goes towards natural disaster relief and military
aid which does not further the country into development. According to the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2006), the 50 least developed
countries only receive about one third of all aid that flows from developed countries,
raising the issue of aid not moving from rich to poor depending on their development
needs but rather from rich to their closest allies.[24]

Many development experts question the MDGs model of transferring billions of dollars
directly from the wealthy nation governments to the often bureaucratic or corrupt
governments in developing countries. This form of aid has led to extensive cynicism by
the general public in the wealthy nations, and hurts support for expanding badly needed
aid.
[edit] Controversy Over Funding of 0.7% of GNI

Over the past 35 years, the members of the UN have repeatedly made a "commit[ment]
0.7% of rich-countries' gross national product (GNI) to Official Development
Assistance."[25] The commitment was first made in 1970 by the UN General Assembly.

The text of the commitment was:

Each economically advanced country will progressively increase its official development
assistance to the developing countries and will exert its best efforts to reach a minimum
net amount of 0.7 percent of its gross national product at market prices by the middle of
the decade.[26]

However, there has been disagreement from the US, and other nations, over the
Monterrey Consensus that urged "developed countries that have not done so to make
concrete efforts towards the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national product (GNI) as
ODA to developing countries."[27][28]

Support for the 0.7% Target

The UN "believe[s] that donors should commit to reaching the long-standing target of 0.7
percent of GNI by 2015".[26]

The European Union has recently reaffirmed its commitment to the 0.7% aid targets. The
EU External Relations council says that, as of May 2005, "four out of the five countries,
which exceed the UN target for ODA of 0.7%, of GNI are member states of the European
Union."[29]

Many organizations are working to bring U.S. political attention to the Millennium
Development Goals. In 2007, The Borgen Project worked with Sen. Barack Obama on
the Global Poverty Act, a bill requiring the White House to develop a strategy for
achieving the goals. As of 2009, the bill has not passed, but Barack Obama has since
been elected President.[30][31]

Challenges to the 0.7% Target

However, many OECD nations, including key members such as the United States, are not
progressing towards their promise of giving 0.7% of their GNP towards poverty
reduction by the target year of 2015. Some nations' contributions have been criticized as
falling far short of 0.7%.[32]

John Bolton argues that the U.S. never agreed in Monterrey to spending 0.7% of GDP on
development assistance. Indeed, Washington has consistently opposed setting specific
foreign-aid targets since the U.N. General Assembly first endorsed the 0.7% goal in
1970.[33]
The Australian Government has committed to providing 0.5% of GNI in International
Development Assistance by 2015-2016, without noting the long-standing 0.7% goal.[34]

[edit] Related Organizations

This section requires expansion.

The United Nations Millennium Campaign is a UNDP campaign unit to increase support
to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and seek a coalition of partners for action.
The Millennium Campaign targets intergovernmental, government, civil society
organizations and media at both global and regional levels.

The Millennium Promise Alliance, Inc., or Millennium Promise,[35] is a U.S.-based non-

profit organization dedicated to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
and founded in 2005 by renown international economist and Special Advisor on the
MDGs to the UN Secretary General, Professor Jeffrey Sachs, and Wall Street leader and
philanthropist, Ray Chambers. Millennium Promise coordinates a project, the Millennium
Villages Project,[36] in partnership with Columbia University's Earth Institute and the
UNDP that aims to demonstrate the feasibility of achieving the Goals through an
integrated and community-led approach to holistic development. The Millennium
Villages Project currently operates in 14 sites across 10 countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

The Micah Challenge is an international campaign that encourages Christians to support

the Millennium Development Goals. Their aim is to "encourage our leaders to halve
global poverty by 2015."[37]

8 Visions of Hope is a global art project that explores and shows how art, culture, artists
& musicians as positive change agents can help in the realization of the eight UN
Millennium Development Goals.[38]

The Development Education Unit of Future Worlds Center envisions, designs and
implements development education awareness campaigns, trainings, conferences and
resources since 2005. Leads a number of European-wide projects such as the Accessing
Development Education and TeachMDGs.

MDG Related projects

Accessing Development Education:[39] Portal developed within the EU funded project

'Accessing Development Education (ONG-ED/2007/136-419). Provides relevant
information about Development Education/ Global Education and helps educators find
resources and materials that are most suitable for their work.
TeachMDGs:[40] European project that aims to increase awareness and public support for
the Millennium Development Goals by actively engaging teacher training institutes,
teachers and pupils in developing local oriented teaching resources promoting the MDGs
with a particular focus on sub-Saharan Africa and integrate these into the educational
systems

Management in all business areas and organizational activities are the acts of getting
people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively.
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and
controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the
purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and
manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and
natural resources.

Because organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as

human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a
system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting
to manage others.

Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of
management.

Performance management (PM) includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently
being met in an effective and efficient manner. Performance management can focus on
the performance of an organization, a department, employee, or even the processes to
build a product or service, as well as many other areas.

Performance management as referenced on this page is a broad term coined by Dr.

Aubrey Daniels in the late 1970s to describe a technology (i.e. science imbedded in
applications methods) for managing both behavior and results, two critical elements of
what is known as performance.[1]

There are many ways and methods to measure employee performance but one of the most
effective ways is using automated tools. The following are the advantages for using an
automated performance management systems:

 Automation of Processes:Organisations can improve their HR Reporting and

analytics with the automation of their performance measurement process. It also
saves time and money.
 Goal clarity and alignment: Everyone in the organisation is clearly aware about
the common organisational goals and objectives. Once the goals are clearly
defined, everyone works for the growth of the organisation.
  Remote Workers (out of office operations):Technological advancements have
lead to the growth of alternate working arrangements. With an EPM, employees
working out of offices can coordinate their efforts with their managers.
 Flexibility and customisation: The employee performance management solutions
can be customised according to the needs of the organisation.
 Competency management: Every organisation has some competencies around
which their business operations revolve. An efficient and effective employee
performance measurement solution ensures that the competencies are managed
well.
 Talent management ( retention and growth): Employee performance management
is an important factor for Talent Management. It helps identify known
competencies, develop succession plans, notice talent gaps and establish
compensation scales based on employee assessment.

Application

This is used most often in the workplace, can apply wherever people interact — schools,
churches, community meetings, sports teams, health setting, governmental agencies, and
even political settings - anywhere in the world people interact with their environments to
produce desired effects. Armstrong and Baron (1998) defined it as a “strategic and
integrated approach to increasing the effectiveness of organizations by improving the
performance of the people who work in them and by developing the capabilities of teams
and individual contributors.”

It may be possible to get all employees to reconcile personal goals with organizational
goals and increase productivity and profitability of an organization using this process. It
can be applied by organisations or a single department or section inside an organisation,
as well as an individual person. The performance process is appropriately named the self-
propelled performance process (SPPP).[citation needed]

First, a commitment analysis must be done where a job mission statement is drawn up for
each job. The job mission statement is a job definition in terms of purpose, customers,
product and scope. The aim with this analysis is to determine the continuous key
objectives and performance standards for each job position.

Following the commitment analysis is the work analysis of a particular job in terms of the
reporting structure and job description. If a job description is not available, then a
systems analysis can be done to draw up a job description. The aim with this analysis is
to determine the continuous critical objectives and performance standards for each job.

Benefits

Managing employee or system performance facilitates the effective delivery of strategic

and operational goals. There is a clear and immediate correlation between using
performance management programs or software and improved business and
organizational results.
For employee performance management, using integrated software, rather than a
spreadsheet based recording system, may deliver a significant return on investment
through a range of direct and indirect sales benefits, operational efficiency benefits and
by unlocking the latent potential in every employees work day (i.e. the time they spend
not actually doing their job). Benefits may include:

Direct financial gain

 Grow sales
 Reduce costs
 Stop project overruns
 Aligns the organization directly behind the CEO's goals
 Decreases the time it takes to create strategic or operational changes by
communicating the changes through a new set of goals

Motivated workforce
 Optimizes incentive plans to specific goals for over achievement, not just business
as usual
 Improves employee engagement because everyone understands how they are
directly contributing to the organisations high level goals
 Create transparency in achievement of goals
 High confidence in bonus payment process
 Professional development programs are better aligned directly to achieving
business level goals

Improved management control

 Flexible, responsive to management needs
 Displays data relationships
 Helps audit / comply with legislative requirements
 Simplifies communication of strategic goals scenario planning
 Provides well documented and communicated process documentation

Organizational Development

In organizational development (OD), performance can be thought of as Actual Results vs

Desired Results. Any discrepancy, where Actual is less than Desired, could constitute the
performance improvement zone. Performance management and improvement can be
thought of as a cycle:

1. Performance planning where goals and objectives are established

2. Performance coaching where a manager intervenes to give feedback and adjust
performance
3. Performance appraisal where individual performance is formally documented
and feedback delivered
A performance problem is any gap between Desired Results and Actual Results.
Performance improvement is any effort targeted at closing the gap between Actual
Results and Desired Results.

Other organizational development definitions are slightly different. The U.S. Office of
Personnel Management (OPM) indicates that Performance Management consists of a
system or process whereby:

1. Work is planned and expectations are set

2. Performance of work is monitored
3. Staff ability to perform is developed and enhanced
4. Performance is rated or measured and the ratings summarized
5. Top performance is rewarded[2]

Management in all business areas and organizational activities are the acts of getting
people together to accomplish desired goals and ...

Quality management can be considered to have three main components: quality control,
quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on
product/service quality, but also the means to achieve it. Quality management therefore
uses quality assurance and control of processes as well as products to achieve more
consistent quality.

Organization development (OD) is a planned, organization-wide effort to increase an

organization's effectiveness and viability. Warren Bennis has referred to OD as a
response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs,
attitudes, values, and structure of organization so that they can better adapt to new
technologies, marketing and challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. OD is
neither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training function of the
organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a
particular kind of end result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's
"processes," using behavioural science knowledge[1] as well as organizational reflection,
system improvement, planning, and self-analysis.

Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although he
died before the concept became current in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of
group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as
providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the
"Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after
his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training
Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-group and group-based OD emerged. In the UK,
the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations was important in developing systems theories.
The joint TIHR journal Human Relations was an early journal in the field. The Journal of
Applied Behavioral Sciences is now the leading journal in the field.
The term "Organization Development" is often used interchangeably with Organizational
effectiveness, especially when used as the name of a department within an organization.
Organization development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches
including Positive Adult Development.

Understanding organizations

Weisbord presents a six-step model for understanding organization:

1. Purposes: The organization member are clear about the organization’s mission
and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization’
purpose.
2. Structure: How do we divide up the work? The question is whether there is an
adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.
3. Relationship: Between individual, between units or department that perform
different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their job.
4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the
organization formally reward or punished for doing.
5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance
among them
6. Helpful mechanism: Is a helpful organization that must attend to in order to
survive which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems that
help organization member accomplish.[7]

[edit] Modern development

In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing
change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic
that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.[8]

With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizational
development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) [9] writes
about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing,
outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment,
and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety,
apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deKlerk
(2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D.
practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for
employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and
then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by
having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having
them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it
allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words.
Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to
draw a picture and then discuss its meaning.
[edit] Action research

Wendell L French and Cecil Bell define organization development (OD) at one point as
"organization improvement through action research".[4] If one idea can be said to
summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was
conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral
scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective,
permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly
related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to
adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps,
each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the
result of action".[10]

Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process

Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps [10]:

"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes

aware of a need to change.

"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and
tested.

"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted.

Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action
research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins
with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working
together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data
gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems
theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as
yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the
consultant the process of problem diagnosis.

The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage
includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and
to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in
Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the
effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system
into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning
activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following
the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of
the transformation stage.[6]

The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes
actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following
the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be
determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor
adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see
Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first,
or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in
Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring
results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated
in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness.[10] The
action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort
to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between
the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process).
The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job
and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-
solving behavior.

Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves the
client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving
process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed
back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying
and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in
developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in
the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring
results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral
part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-
correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's
system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-
renewal
OD interventions

"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see Figure 1) of
organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in
combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task
performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement
program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of
the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured
activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires,
attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings
between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that
influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system
relationship can be said to be an intervention.[11]

There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several
assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a
particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:

1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the
basic units of change are groups, not individuals.
2. An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition
between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative
condition.
3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information
sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.
4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage
their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of
managerial strategy.
5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication,
mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.
6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be
allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct
of the change.[3]

Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals

through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total
organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and
those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions
may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize:
for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and
communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice.[12]

One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client
system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning
builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior,
new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an
unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of
psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in
organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal
true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited
atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways
may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may
also be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will
become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority,
specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also
discourage experimentation.[11]

The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the
things which will help him are:

1. A real need in the client system to change

2. Genuine support from management
3. Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior
4. A sound background in the behavioral sciences
5. A working knowledge of systems theory
6. A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better
ways to do things.[11]

A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group

Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership
development

Varieties of individual power

According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, the ability to attain these unique
powers is what enables leadership to influence subordinates and peers by controlling
organizational resources. The successful leader effectively uses these power(s) to
influence employees, and it is important for the leader to understand the uses of power to
strengthen the leadership functioning.

The authors distinguish the following types of organizational power:

 Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within an

organization structure that inherent such power. E.g. Manager, Vice President,
Director, Supervisor, et cetera. These levels of power commands to the
hierarchical executive levels within the organization itself. The higher position
 such as President of the company has a higher power than the rest of professional
positions in the hierarchical executive levels.

 Reward Power given the power to managers that attain administrative power
over a range of rewards. Employees whom work for managers desire the reward
from the manager, they will be influenced by receiving them as the product of
work performance. The rewards may be the obvious—pay raise or promotions.

 Coercive Power given the manager's ability to punish an employee whom did not
follow the company policy, loss of profit, et cetera. Punishment can be
determined range of mild to serious punishment... a mild punishment is a
suspension and serious punishment is actual termination.

 Expert Power an expert power attained by the manager by their own talents such
as skills, knowledge, abilities, or previous experience. Any of these manager has
the power within the organization will be very valuable and important manager in
the company.

 Charisma Power a manager has a charisma that will positively influence on

workers, and admired manager that creates the opportunity for interpersonal
influence. A person has charisma, and this will confer great power as a manager.

 Referent Power a power that gained by association. This person with whom he or
she is associated or has a relationship, often referred to assistant or deputy.

 Information Power a person who has possession of important information at a

important time when such information is needed to organizational functioning.
Someone who has this information knowledge has genuine power. Manager's
secretary would be in a powerful position if a secretary has information power