M INING E XPLORATION

E VALUATION T ECHNIQUE
DR.- RER . NAT . I W AYAN W ARMADA

Laboratory of Mineral Resources

Geological Engineering Department, UGM
http://warmada.staff.ugm.ac.id

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Introduction

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Introduction (cont’d)
As an exploration geologist, you will be expected:
• to be familiar mineral deposit geology,
• to understand the implications of extraction on
the hydrology of the mineral deposit area,
• to recognize the importance of collecting
geotechnical data as strata control problems,
• to be able to propose suitable mining methods,
• to assess the economic viability of a deposit.

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Introduction (cont’d)
To be able to cope with all these tasks you will need
to be technically competent particularly in,
• sample collection,
• computing,
• mineral reserve evaluation
The basis of all geological evaluation is the sample.
Poor sample collection results in unreliable
evaluations.

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Sampling
Sampling is a scientific, selective process applied to a
large mass or group (a population, as defined by
investigator) in order to reduce its bulk for
interpretation purposes. This is achieved by
identifying a component part (a sample) which
reflects the characteristics of the parent population
within acceptable limits of accuracy, precision and
cost effectiveness.
The average grade of a tonnage of mineralized rock
(the population) is estimated by taking samples
which are either a few kg or t in weight.
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Sample acquisition
• Pre-sampling procedures consist of gaining as
much familiarity as possible with the geology
and possible problems before visiting the
location to be tested
• As much background information should be
collected as possible from previous publication
and reports
• SAFETY aspect are paramount

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Sampling methods
• Pitting and trenching
• In areas where the ground is wet, ore labour
is expensive, pits are best dug with a
mechanical excavator. Depths of 3 m to 4 m
are common and with large equipment
excavation to 6 m can be achieved
• Trenching is usually completed at right
angles to general strike to test and sample
over long lengths, as across a mineralized
zone

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Sampling methods (cont’d)

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Sampling methods (cont’d)

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Sampling methods (cont’d)
• Auger drilling, are hand-held or truck-mounted
drills which have rods with spiral flight to bring
soft material to the surface
• After drilling, a detailed geological logging is
very important!

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Sample collection
For the some confidence levels (statistically), the
relevant sample quantity must be proportionately
greater according to:
• how much coarser the sampled material is,
• the degree to which the economicaly interesting
component to be analysed is concentrated as
individual, discrete, mineral particles,
• or the valuable component is very finely
dispersed, as for example Ni in nickel laterites.

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Example 1: Sampling gold (Au) ore
• The dimension of 1 assay tonne ≈ 30 g
• It is assumed that the sample material is ground
to -80 mesh (0.177 mm), so the material is
homogen and isotropis (normal distributed)
• If a gold grain with diameter of 0.177 mm passes
through the mesh, the weight of the grain is
56·10−6 g
3
• π
The volume of a sphere is: v = 6· d

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Example 1: Sampling gold (Au) ore
• If the density of gold ρ = 19.3 g/cm3 , therefore
the weight of the sphere is:
3
GAu πd
= 6 ·ρ
π(1.77 · 102 )3 · 19.3
= 6
= 56 · 10−6 g

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Example 1: Sampling gold (Au) ore
• It is then assumed that the sample has a weight
of 30 g = 30 · 10−6 t, and therefore the
contribution of one small sphere of gold to the
total gold content of the sample is:
56 · 10−6
= 1.87 g Au/t
30 · 10−6

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Example 2: Sampling Mo ore
• A molybdenum ore is crushed to φ = 7.5 mm
and under consideration has a size of 500 g
• The molybdenum occurs as molybdenite (MoS2 )
which has a density, ρ = 4.7 g/cm3 , therefore
3
GMo = π · d
6 · ρ3
= π · 0.75
6 · 4.7
= 1.04 g
• i.e. relative to 500 g sample is 0.2% MoS2

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Gy’s Sampling Formula
The relative variance of the error s2r is:
3
C · d
s2r =
ME
where d is the diameter of the material of the sample
in cm (defined as the screen size which passed of
95% of material; ME is the sample weight in g, and
C is a constant which is defined as:
 
C = 1−α αL
L
[(1 − αL ) · µA + αL · µG ] · l · f · g
= m·l·f ·g

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Gy’s sampling formula
where,
is called the mineralogical parameter,
αL is the grade of the lot considered: not the grade
of the element, but of the relefant ore mineral,
µA is the density of the relevant ore mienral (in
g/cm3 )
µG is the density of the gangue (in g/cm3 )
f is a dimensionless form factor which for all
practical purposes is equal to 0.5

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Gy’s sampling formula
g is a dimensionless granulometric distribution
factor which for usual uncalibrated material is
taken to be equal to 0.25
l is a liberation parameter which can be estimated
from the following table. Here d/d0 is the ratio
of the largest dimension of fragments of the
sample (d) over the liberation size of the
relevant ore mineral (d0 ).

d/d0 <1 1–4 4 – 10 10 – 40 40 – 100 100 – 400 >100

l 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02

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Example for Gy formula application
Outcrops of a coarse-grained Zn mineralization in
carbonate are chip-sampled. The maximum
fragment size of the samples is 2 cm. The liberation
size of the sphalerite is estimated to be 1 mm.
Grades are estimated to be around 5% Zn. What is
the necessary sample weight for an error of 5% at 2×
standard deviation, meaning in 95 of 100 cases the
error would be within 5%?

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Example for Gy formula application
• For 5% Zn we have to calculate the amount of
sphalerite present (ZnS grade).
• atomic weight of Zn is 32,06 and molecular
weight of sfalerit is 97.44
• Zn in sphalerite is 32.06/97.44 = 0.67
• 5% Zn ≈ 5/0.67 = 7.46 = 7.5 % ZnS
• The rasio d/d0 is 2/0.1 = 20 (from the previous
Tabel l = 0.2)
• m canbe calculated
 with
1−αL
m = αL [(1 − αL ) · µA + αL · µG ]
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Example for Gy formula application
• The density of the sphalerite, which has a light
brown colour and is poor in Fe, is 4.0 g/cm3
(µA ) and the density of gangue (carbonate),
µG = 2.5 g/cm3 and αL = 7.5% = 0.075
• m
 = 
1 − 0.075 [(1 − 0.075) · 4.0 + 0.075 · 2.5]
0.075
• m = 12.33 · [3.70 + 0.19] = 48.0
• C =m·l·f ·g
• C = 48.0 · 0.2 · 0.5 · 0.25 = 1.2
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Example for Gy formula application
• The final step is calculated s2r as follows:
C · d3
ME =
s2r
• where d = 2 cm and for s2r we required a 5%
error at 2× Standard Deviation, i.e. s = 2.5% ≈
0.025 = 2.5·10−2 , therefore s2 = 6.25·10−4
1.2 · 23 4
ME = = 1.54 · 10 g
6.25 · 10 −4

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Modified Gy formula
• François-Bongarçon further studied and
modified Gy’s sampling formula. In his
sampling formula the exponent for d is not fixed
at 3, but also considered a variable for broken
gold ores:
1.5
470 · d
s2r =
ME

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Modified Gy formula
• Example: A gold sample is ground to 95%
passing 200 mesh (= 0.0074 cm). What is the
necessary sampling weight again for an error of
10% pada 2× Standard Deviation? This means
the sandard deviation is 5% ≈ 0.05.
• sr = 0,05 (1× Standard Deviation),
1,5
• ME = 470 · 0.0074 = 470 · 0.000637
2.5 · 10−3 2.5 · 10−3
• ME = 126 g of sample material is necessary.

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Another modified formula
• s2r ≈ M1
E
• If one wants, e.g. to double the precision of the
sampling, meaning the sandard deviation sr has
to be halved, then the mass has to be increased
by the square of 2 = 4
• Rumusnya menjadi:
1
s2r1 ≈
ME1

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Another modified formula

2
2
 s 2
r1 sr1 1
sr1 = = ≈
2 4 ME · 4
• If, for example in the first example one is
content with an error of 10% instead of 5%, the
necessary sample volume would be then
15.4
4 = 3.85, i.e. around 4 kg would be suffice.

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Treatment of Sample Series
with Different Sample
Qualities

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Assessment of core loss
• Core loss is a relatively common occurence
during diamond drilling. The question is how
to assess core losses so that undesirable bias
tendencies, to either lower or higher values, are
avoided during the final evaluation
• Good geological observation and judgement are
very important if core loss doue occur.
• If the core recovery is mostly in the range
between 85% and 100%, then it is generally
assumed that the bias is negligible.

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Statistical treatment
There are two extreme cases for the calculation of
reserves and grades from drill core if the recovery is
less than 100%:
• Only the recovered core is taken into account.
For example, if the recovery of a 1,5-m section is
60%, then this is calculated to be 1,5 · 0,6 =
0,9m
• It is assumed that the core loss is distributed
equally throughout the section, and there has
been no “upgrading” or “downgrading”, else
repaet drilling.
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Analytical methods: Microcopy
• Polarized Light Microscope or PLM
• Transmited reflected (thin section)
• Refected (polished section)
• Cathodoluminescence Microscopy
• Infrared Microscopy
• Fluid Inclusion analysis
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

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Analytical methods in geochemistry
• Data quality may be measured in the following
terms
• precision, which refers to the repeatability
of a measurement. It is a measure of the
reproducibility of the method and is
determined by making replicate
measurements on the same sample

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Analytical methods in geochemistry
• Data quality may be measured in the following
terms
• accuracy, which is about getting the right
answer. It is an estimate of how close our
measured values is to the true value.
Knowing the true value can be very difficult,
but it is normally done by reference to
recommended values for international
geochemical reference standard (see GERM)

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Analytical methods in geochemistry
• Data quality may be measured in the following
terms
• detection limit, is the lowest concentration
which can be ’seen’ by a particular method,
and is a function of the level of background
noise relative to an element signal.

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Methods in geochemical analysis
• X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD), is a
versatile, non-destructive technique that reveals
detailed information about the chemical
composition and crystallographic structure of
natural and manufactured materials.
• X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), is
currently the most widely used analytical
technique in the determination of the major and
trace element chemistry of rock samples.

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Methods in geochemical analysis
• Neutron activation analysis (INAA and
RNAA), is a sensitive and versatile method of
rock analysis, chiefly applicable to trace
elements and capable of determining a large
number of elements simultaneously without
necessary destroying the sample. There are two
approach:
• Instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA)
• Radiochemical neutron activation analysis
(RNAA)
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Methods in geochemical analysis
• Inductively coupled-plasma emission
spectrometry (ICP), is a comparatively new
technique with enormoue potential in
geochemistry. In principle the method is
capable to measuring most elements in low
detection limits.
• Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), is
based upon the observation that atoms of an
element can absorb electromagnetic radiation.
This occurs when the element is atomized and
the wavelength of light absorbed is specific.
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Methods in geochemical analysis
• Mass spectrometry, in its various forms is the
most effective method of measuring isotope
ratios. It is normally proceded by the chemical
separation of the element of interest. There are
some methods in mass spectrometry, such as:
isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS),
inductively coupled-plasma emission mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS), and spark source mass
spectrometry (SSMS).

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Methods in microchemical analysis
• Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA), the
principles of electron microprobe analysis are
very similar to those of X-ray fluorescence
except that the sample is excited by a beam of
electrons rather than an X-ray beam.
• Ion microprobe analysis, combines the
analytical accuracy and precision of mass
spectrometry with the very fine spatial
resolution of the electron microprobe. It is
currently used in the fields of geochronology,
stable isotope, and trace element analysis.
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Methods in microchemical analysis
• Proton microprobe analysis, also known as
Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), is a
powerful yet non-destructive elemental analysis
technique now used routinely by geologists,
archaeologists, art conservators and others to
help answer questions of provenience, dating
and authenticity.

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Source of error in analysis
• Contamination, during sample preparation can
be a serious source of error in geochemical
analysis. This is most likely occur during
crushing and grinding
• Calibration, all the methods of analysis
describe above, with the exception of some of
the mass spectrometry applications, measure
concentration relative to a standard of knows
composition or to a calibration curve.

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