Deflections under loading
We have already seen the effects of loading for simple cases:
Axial load F
FL dL ( z ) F
εE=σ giving
ΔL = or in general
=
EA dz EA
Shear load V
V
G h
V
A
δx
Vh
γG=τ which gives
δ x =
GA
Applying a force will cause a displacement
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Torsion
Twisting motion about an axis
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Applying a twisting moment will cause a rotation φ
Δφ
Each element acts in shear, exerting a moment
dM = r ×τ (r )dA
From elasticity
τ (r ) = γ (r ) ⋅ G Δφ
r Δφ
For volume element with length L
γ
r Δφ = γ (r ) ⋅ L Shear deflection at r
Twist angle Δφ
τ (r ) Total shear is r Δφ
= L
G
Torque T applied to the shaft
⎛ r Δφ ⎞
T = ∫ dM = ∫ rτ (r )dA = ∫ r ⎜ G ⎟ dA
⎝ L ⎠
Δφ Δφ
T= G ∫ r 2 dA = GJ
L L
TL dφ ( z ) T ( z )
Δφ = , In general
=
GJ dz GJ
GΔφ T
τ (r ) = r= r
L J
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For circular geometry, J is the polar moment of inertia
J = ∫ r dA 2
π D4
Circular Shaft: J=
32
π
Hollow Shaft: J=
32
( OD 4
− ID 4 )
π
Thin Walled Tube: J= D3t
4
For non-circular geometry, use K from tables, which is equivalent.
Cross section
TL
Δφ =
GK
1 ⎛ b⎞
K = hb3 ⎜ 1 − 0.58 ⎟
3 ⎝ h⎠
T
τ (r ) ≅ r
K
For irregular cross sections, torque gets weird.
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Bending
Consider the following rubber beam with grid lines subjected to pure bending,
created by a moment.
Where does bending stiffness come from?
Look at the material deformation.
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For a bent beam, evaluate over length L:
o
L = ρ ⋅θ
As shown above,
o = center of curvature
ρ = radius of curvature
Using small angle approximation
L
ρ=
θ
Curvature = 1/radius
ΔL ( y ) = θ ⋅ y
ΔL ( y ) θ ⋅ y
=
L L
= ε ( y)
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Look at a moment acting on a beam of length L,
Each element contributes
dM = y × σ ( y )dA
From elasticity
σ ( y) = ε ( y) ⋅ E
From above,
θ⋅y
ε ( y) =
L
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M = ∫ dM = ∫ y (σ ( y ) ) dA
⎛ y ⋅θ ⎞
M = ∫ dM = ∫ y ⎜ E ⎟ dA
⎝ L ⎠
θ θ
M= E ∫ y dA =
2
EI
L L
ML dθ M
θ= In general: =
EI dL EI
I is the second moment in the y direction
I = ∫ y 2 dA
Max stress at max y
σ ( y) = ε ( y) ⋅ E
y
=θ ⋅E
L
ML y My
= E=
EI L I
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For a beam in pure bending:
M = Applied moment
dθ ( x ) M ( x )
At distance x along beam: =
FBD: dx EI
-M x M
When M = constant
θ(x)
dv Mx
v(x) θ ( x) = =
dx EI
v ( x ) = ∫ θ ( x )dx
Mx 2
At x = 0, v = 0 so C=0 = +C
2 EI
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Beam bending is always caused by a moment in the beam.
This depends on loading and geometry.
In general, the moment varies along the length of the beam,
so the net deflection must be integrated.
V(
FBD for part of beam,
from wall to x
M(x)
M ( x) = F ( L − x)
Max stress occurs at max
M F x
Δθ = ∫
EI ∫ x ' = 0
dx = ( L − x ') dx ' M, which is at x = 0
EI
M = FL
FLx Fx 2
Δθ ( x) = − Mymax FLymax
EI 2 EI σ max = =
I I
FL2
Δθ ( L) =
2 EI
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To get deflection, integrate angle
d 2 y dθ M ( x)
= =
dx 2 dx EI
Δy = ∫ θ dx
For our example:
FLx Fx 2
Δθ ( x) = −
EI 2 EI
x
y ( x) = ∫
x '= 0
Δθ ( x ')dx '
FLx 2 Fx3
= −
2 EI 6 EI
so
FL3
y ( L) =
3EI
Usually you can use tables to provide these relations
For rectangular cross section
1 3
I= bh
12
E ⋅ A ⋅ h2
Stiffness = dF/dy is proportional L3
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Understanding beam stresses:
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Second
Cross- moment about Equivalent
sectional area neutral axis polar moment
1 3⎛ b⎞
hb ⎜1 − 0.58 ⎟
3 ⎝ h⎠
(b<h)
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Linearity and superposition
For small deflections, you can find the net effect from
multiple forces by
1. Compute deflections from each force, ignoring the
other forces
2. Add the deflections
This is true for both linear and angular deflections
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Reciprocity
For two points A and B
Consider two reciprocal cases:
A force FA applied at A gives deflection at B δBA
A force FB applied at B gives deflection at A δAB
A A FA
δAB
B B
FB
δBA
It is generally true that
δBA / FA =δAB / FB
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Resonant frequency
ΔF
You can always find the stiffness as the ratio of Δy
dF, dy
Resonant frequency for a spring-mass system is
k
ωn = (units are radians/sec)
m
To find the resonant frequency, you need the ratio of the
effective stiffness to the effective mass.
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The force applied is due to the mass and gravity
F = m⋅ g
The deflection of the spring depends on stiffness k
F = k ⋅δ x
So
m ⋅ g = k ⋅δ x
k g
= = ωn
m δx
For 1 mm deflection, ωn = 100 rad/s = 16 Hz.
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Specific stiffness
Self-weight deflection – resulting solely from gravity acting on the
structure’s mass
– Self weight deflection is proportional density ρ and inversely
proportional to the elastic modulus E.
– Specific Stiffness (E/ρ) is the ratio of the modules of elasticity to
density -- Higher is better
y
ρgA F = ρ gAL
FL3 ρ gAL4
δy = =
x
L
8 EI 8 EI
Resonant frequency also depends on specific stiffness
⎛ EI ⎞
ωn = 3.516 ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ρ AL ⎠
The modal stiffness is always proportional to E and the modal mass
is always proportional to ρ.
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Buckling
Compressive forces, coupled with deflections can create unstable members
Restoring moment from spring = K (2Δθ)
Moment from axial force and geometry = PL/2 Δθ
Unstable for PCRIT > 4K/L
Column stability, same idea
Other ends:
replace L with Le
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