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Concepts and Principles of Interferometry
'Interferometry' is a measurement method using the phenomenon of interference of waves
(usually light, radio or sound waves). The measurements may include those of certain
characteristics of the waves themselves and the materials that the waves interact with. In
addition, interferometry is used to describe the techniques that use light waves for the study of
changes in displacement. This displacement measuring interferometry is extensively used for
calibration and mechanical stage motion control in precision machining.
By using two light beams (usually by splitting one beam into two), an interference pattern can be
formed when these two beams superpose. Because the wavelength of the visible light is very
short, small changes in the differences in the optical paths (distance travelled) between the two
beams can be detected (as these differences will produce noticeable changes in the interference
pattern). Hence, the optical interferometry has been a valuable measurement technique for
more than a hundred years. Its accuracy has later been improved with the invention of lasers.
The first demonstration of using light interference principles as a measurement tool was achieved
by Albert A. Michelson in the 1880's by developing the first interferometer. Although the
technology (and the measurement accuracy) has been developed over the years since, the basic
underlying principles of the Michelson interferometer still remains at the core of interferometry.
A Michelson interferometer consists of a beamsplitter (half-silvered mirror) and two mirrors.
When the light goes through the half-silvered mirror/beam splitter (which is partially reflecting)
it is split into two beams with different optical paths (one going to mirror 1 and the other going
to mirror 2). After being reflected back at the mirrors these beams recombine again at the beam
splitter before arriving at the detector. The path difference of these two beams causes a phase
difference which creates an interference fringe pattern. This pattern is then analysed by the
detector to evaluate the wave characteristics, material properties or the displacement of one of
the mirrors (depending what measurement the interferometer was being used for).
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Interferometry applied
In order to generate an interference pattern with high precision (distinct fringes), it is very
important to have a single highly stable wavelength source, which is achieved using the XL-
80 laser.
There are different interferometer set up's based on Michelson's principle, however, the linear
set up is the simplest type to explain.
In the XL-80 laser system the two mirrors (used in the Michelson interferometer) are
retroreflectors (prisms that reflect the incident light back in the direction parallel to the direction
from which it came from). One of these is attached to the beam splitter forming the reference
arm. The other retroreflector forms the variable length measurement arm as its distance varies
in respect to the beam splitter.
The laser beam (1) emerges from the XL-80 laser head and gets split into two beams (reflected
(2) and transmitted (3)) at the polarising beam splitter. These beams get reflected back from the
two retroreflectors, recombine at the beam splitter before reaching the detector. The use of
retroreflectors ensures that the beams coming from the reference and measurement arms are
parallel when they recombine with each other at the beam splitter. The recombined beam
reaches the detector where they interfere with each other either constructively or destructively.
During the constructive interference the two beams are in phase and the peaks of both beams
reinforce each other resulting in a bright fringe, whereas during the destructive interference the
beams are out of phase and the peaks of one beam are cancelled by the troughs of the second
beam resulting in a dark fringe.
The optical signal processing in the detector allows the interference of these two beams to be
observed. The displacement of the measurement arm causes change in the relative phase of the
two beams. This cycle of the destructive and constructive interference causes the intensity of the
recombined light to undergo cyclic variation. One cycle of variation in intensity from light to dark
to light occurs every time the measurement arm/retroreflector is moved by 316.5 nm, which is
half the laser wavelength (as this movement causes the optical path to change by 633 nm, which
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is the laser wavelength). Therefore the movement is measured by calculating the number of
cycles using the following formula:
Where d is the displacement (in microns), λ is the wavelength of the laser (0.633 microns),
and N is the number of fringes passed. The higher resolution of 1 nm is achieved by phase
interpolation within these cycles.
No matter how good your laser unit is (i.e. how accurate and 'stable' it is) the accuracy of the
linear positional measurements depend on the accuracy to which the wavelength of the laser
beam is known. The operational wavelength of the laser beam depends on the refractive index
of the air through which it passes and this alters with air temperature, air pressure and relative
humidity. Therefore, the wavelength of the beam needs to be altered (compensated) to
incorporate any changes in these parameters.
GLONASS “Global Navigation Satellite System”
Is a space-based satellite navigation system operated by the Russian Aerospace Defence
Forces.
It provides an alternative to Global Positioning System (GPS) and is the only alternative
navigational system in operation with global coverage and of comparable precision.
Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976.
GLONASS is being built by Reshetnev Information Satellite Systems and is based on the
US global positioning system (GPS).
It is currently being operated by the Russian Space Forces on behalf of the Russian
Government.
GLONASS System Design As with GPS, the GLONASS system uses a satellite constellation to provide,
ideally, a GLONASS receiver with six to twelve satellites at most times. A minimum of four satellites in
view allows a GLONASS receiver to compute its position in three dimensions, as well as become
synchronized to the system time. The GLONASS system design consists of three parts:
The Control segment
The Space segment
The User segment
All these parts operate together to provide accurate three-dimensional positioning, timing and
velocity data to users worldwide.
The Control Segment
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The Control Segment consists of the system control center and a network of
command tracking stations across Russia. The GLONASS control segment, similar to GPS,
must monitor the status of satellites, determine the ephemerides and satellite clock
offsets with respect to GLONASS time and UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), and twice a
day upload the navigation data to the satellites.
The Space Segment
The Space Segment is the portion of the GLONASS system that is located in space,
that is, the GLONASS satellites that provide GLONASS ranging information. When
complete, this segment will consist of 24 satellites in three orbital planes, with eight
satellites per plane. Figure 1 on Page 3 shows a combined GPS and GLONASS satellite
system.
The User Segment
The User Segment consists of equipment (such as a NovAtel OEMV family
receiver) that tracks and receives the satellite signals. This equipment must be capable of
simultaneously processing the signals from a minimum of four satellites to obtain
accurate position, velocity and timing measurements. Like GPS, GLONASS is a dual
military/civilian-use system. The system’s potential civil applications are many and mirror
those of GPS.
Galileo
is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system, providing a highly accurate,
guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. Currently providing Initial Services,
Galileo is interoperable with GPS and Glonass, the US and Russian global satellite navigation
systems. By offering dual frequencies as standard, Galileo is set to deliver real-time positioning
accuracy down to the metre range.
The Galileo Space Segment will comprise a constellation of a total of 30 Medium Earth Orbit
(MEO) satellites, of which 3 are spares, in a so-called Walker 27/3/1 constellation.
Each satellite will broadcast precise time signals, ephemeris and other data. The Galileo satellite
constellation has been optimised to the following nominal constellation specifications:
circular orbits (satellite altitude of 23 222 km)
orbital inclination of 56°
three equally spaced orbital planes
nine operational satellites, equally spaced in each plane
one spare satellite (also transmitting) in each plane
The Galileo satellite is a 700 kg/1600 W class satellite.
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