Internship on Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS
1.0 Scientific Definition:
The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally covered the
study of the physical behavior of water at rest and in motion. Use has broadened its
meaning to include the behavior of all liquids, although it is primarily concerned with
the motion of liquids.

1.1 Industrial Definition:

Hydraulics is the science of forces and movements transmitted by means of liquids. It
belongs alongside hydro-mechanics. A distinction is made between hydrostatics –
dynamic effect through pressure times area – and hydrodynamics – dynamic effect
through mass times acceleration.

Fig.1.1 Hydraulic forces effect

1.2 Basic Characteristics of Hydraulics:

1.2.1 Advantageous:
 High force density, compact construction

 Easy reversal of movement

 Good controllability

 Easy movement conversion

 Simple overload protection

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 Design flexibility, force transfer over long distance

 Long life cycle, low maintenance

 Extensive standardization, interchangeable

 Easily automated

1.2.2 Limitations:

 Temperature dependency

 Leakage problems

 Compressibility

 Manufacturing costs

Table 1.1 Distinction from other technical system (System Comparison)

Criterion Hydraulics Pneumatics Electricals/ Mechanics

Electronics
Energy Carrier Oil (general fluid) Air Electrons Movements,
Position,
Displaceme
nt
Energy transfer Pipelines, Pipelines, Electric Levers, belts,
hoses, drill hoses, drill conductive rods, chains,
hoses hoses materials ( cable wheels etc.
etc)
Conversion Pumps, Compressors, Generators, —
into or from Cylinder, Cylinders, Batteries,
mechanical Hydraulic Pneumatics Electric motors,
energy motors motors Magnets,
Linear motors
Most Pressure p Pressure p Voltage V Force, Torque,
Important (30 - 400bar) (approx.6ba Electric Velocity,
parameters Flow rate q r) Flow rate current I rotational speed
q
Power density Very Good Good Not Good Good

Efficiency Not good enough Good Good

Typical Larger forces: Smaller forces: Rotational drive General power

Applications Shaping of metal, Handling, Feed drive transfer over
sheets and work Installation Spindle drive small
pieces, feed drive, equipment, distance
Pressing comfort features

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Generation of Very simple Very simple Less simple Simple

Linear
movement
s

1.3 Applications:
 Mobile Machines
 Ship building
 Metallurgical and Rolling Industry
 Plastic Machines
 Industrial Trucks
 Travel drives
 Flight Simulators
 Machine tools and transfer lines.
 Lifting and conveying devices.
 Metal-forming presses.
 Plastic machinery such as injection-molding machines.
 Rolling machines.
 Lifts.
 Food processing machinery.

 Automatic handling equipment and robots.

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Chapter-2
BASIC PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
2.0 Liquids at Rest
In studying fluids at rest, we are concerned with the transmission of force and the
factors which affect the forces in liquids. Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and
factors affecting pressure are of great importance. The terms force and pressure are
used extensively in the study of fluid power. It is essential that we distinguish between
the terms. Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull exerted against the
total area of a particular surface and is expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure means
the amount of push or pull (force) applied to each unit area of the surface and is
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or
kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cm2). Pressure maybe exerted in one direction, in
several directions, or in all directions. A formula is used in computing force, pressure,
and area in fluid power systems. In this formula, P refers to pressure, F indicates force,
and A represents area.
P=F/A (2.1)
F = force (N)
P =pressure (N/m² or Pa)
A = Area (m²)
1psi = 6894.75 Pa
1bar = 14.5 psi

2.1 Pascal's Law

Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be considered uniform throughout a practical system.
There may be small differences arising from head pressures at different heights, but
these will generally be negligible compared with the system operating pressure. This
equality of pressure is known as Pascal's law, and is illustrated in Figure.

Fig.2.1 Pascal’s law

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2.2 Pascal’s Law Applications:

1. Force Multiplication / Transmission

2. Pressure Multiplication / Transmission

3. Displacement Multiplication / Transmission

2.2.1 Force Multiplication / Transmission:

Fig 2.2 Force Multiplication

The same pressure applies at every point in a closed system. For this reason, the shape of the
container has no significance. A vehicle is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. The mass m
amounts to 1500 kg. What force FT1T is required at the piston?

Fig.2.3 Force detection

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2.2.2 Pressure Multiplication / Transmission:

The hydrostatic pressure p1 exerts a force F1 on the area A1 which is transferred via
the piston rod onto the small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area A2 and
produces the hydrostatic pressure p2. Since piston area A2 is smaller than piston area
A1, the pressure p2 is greater than the pressure p1. Here too, the following law applies:

Fig.2.4 Pressure multiplication

2.2.3 Displacement Multiplication / Transmission:

Fig.2.5 Displacement multiplication

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Chapter-3

Symbols According to DIN ISO 1219-1

In fluid power systems, energy is transported within a circuit by a pressurized medium
(liquid or gaseous) and open or closed-loop controlled. Graphical symbols help to
identify the function in circuit diagrams of fluid power technology. They can also be
attached to the components themselves for this purpose. The symbols included in
standard DIN ISO 1219 should preferably be used, but their use does in no way rule out
the use of symbols commonly applied in other technical areas for identifying pipes and
hoses. The followings lists are not complete, but must be regarded as working aid for
the preparation or completion of project-related circuit diagrams. The graphical
symbols used in the manual comply with DIN ISO 1219 - fluid power technology;
graphical symbols and circuit diagrams; part 1: Graphical symbols. The basic rules for
the preparation of hydraulic circuit diagrams are determined in part 2 of standard DIN
ISO 1219. Circuit diagrams are a tool to simplify the planning and description of a
hydraulic system in order to prevent - through a standardized representation –
uncertainties and faults at the planning stage, during production, installation, and
servicing.
3.0 Basic symbols:
Table 3.1 Symbols and components designation

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Chapter-4

ENERGY CONVERSION
Hydraulic systems convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, transport it in this
form in an open or closed-loop controlled way and then re-convert it into mechanical
energy. For the conversion of energy, hydraulic pumps are used on the primary side,
and hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors on the secondary side. Hydraulic energy
and hence the transmitted power can be influenced in pressure and flow by hydraulic
pumps, and in its magnitude and direction of action by open and closed-loop control
valves. The hydraulic fluid that is directed via pipes, hoses and bores in control blocks
or manifolds assumes, among others, the energy transport. For storing and maintaining
the hydraulic fluid, additional equipment such as reservoirs, filters, coolers, heaters,
measuring and testing instruments are required.

Fig.4.1 Energy conversion

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The figure below schematically shows the components of a simple hydraulic system.

Fig.4.2 Basic hydraulic system

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Chapter-5
EXPERIMENTS ON HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
5.0 Experiment 1: Extension of Cylinder upon Operation A Push
Button
In this experiment, a double acting cylinder is to extend and retract. The extending
process is controlled by operating a push button. When the push button is released, the
cylinder retracts automatically.

With this experiment the following knowledge is imported:

 How to complete a simple circuit diagram with two current circuits.

 Illustration of the difference between a control circuit and a main circuit.

 Indication of types of switches contacts and their classification figure (normally closed,
change over switches, normally open).

 How to draw a contact element chart.

5.0.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.1 Extension of cylinder by push button

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5.0.2 Electric Circuit:

Supplement the electrical circuit diagram so that the solenoid coil Y1 of the 4/2 way
directional control valve is energized as soon as the push button S1 is operated.Upon
releasing the push button,the solenoid coil is to be de-energized.

Fig.5.2 Electric circuit

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5.1 Experiment 2: Signal Storage by Electrical Self-Locking

5.1.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.3 Hydraulic Circuit

5.1.2 Electrical Circuit:

Supplementary circuit diagram show that the solenoid coil Y1 of the 4/2way
directional control valve is energized when push button S1 is operated. When the
push button is released power should still be supplied to the solenoid coil. The
cylinder rate tracks when the power supply to the solenoid coil is interrupted by the
operation of a second push button S2.

 NOTE:
 Connect and normally open contact relay K1 in parallel to push button S1 storage of
the signal from push button is shown by K1.
 Withdraw the signal provided by push button as one by means of push Button S2.

Fig.5.4 Electric circuit

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5.2 Experiment 3: Mechanical Locking by Means of Momentary

Contact
5.2.1 Hydraulic Circuit:
In this experiment, the cylinder is to approach any intermediate position in the inching
mode, by inching mode we understand an impulse circuit without self locking. The
cylinder is to be locked hydraulically in an intermediate position. This can be achieved
by means of pilot operated check valve.

The following knowledge is imparted:

 How to set up a hydraulic and electrical circuit with mechanical locking of a
momentary contact switches.
 Mechanical locking

Fig.5.5 Hydraulic circuit

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5.2.2 Electrical Circuit:

Fig.5.6 Electric circuit

5.3 Experiment 4: Signal Storage by Means of Electrical Self-

Locking Resetting by Means of Proximity Switch
This experiment is to demonstrate the function of an inductive proximity switch in
practice. The cylinder is to extend upon the operation of the push button and
automatically returned with the help of a proximity sensor. In addition it should be
possible during the retraction movement to re-extend the cylinder at any position by
operating a push button.

With this experiment the following knowledge is imparted:

 Setup of an electrical and Hydraulic control in which electrical self locking is registered
by means of a proximity sensor.
 Function and types of proximity switches.

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5.3.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.7 Hydraulic circuit

5.4.2 Electrical Circuit:

Fig.5.8 Electric circuit

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5.4 Experiment 5: Rapid Advance Circuit

This experiment deals with Rapid advanced circuits. They are used to move a tool
quickly to the required position in order to save time. The subsequent machining
process takes place at a slow rate.

The cylinder must therefore extend at two different speeds; Rapid advance up to the
vicinity of the work piece, then feed speed until the stroke end is reached, then Rapid
returns. Changes in speed and direction are initiated by a proximity sensor.
5.4.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.9 Hydraulic circuit

5.4.2 Electrical Circuit:

Fig.5.10 Electric circuit

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5.5 Experiment 6: Hydraulic Motor

In the experiment order, the trainee is to get familiar with the operating features of a
hydraulic motor. Through this the following are understand:
 Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into torque and speed.
 The direction of rotation or the direction of flow of hydraulic motors can be
controlled by means of a directional valve.
 The speed of the hydraulic motors is determined by the flow provided and by the
swept volume of the hydraulic motors.
 The torque of hydraulic motors is determined by the differential pressure between the
inlet and the outlet and by the swept volume.

5.5.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.11 Hydraulic circuit

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5.5.2 Electrical Circuit:

Fig.5.12 Electric circuit

5.6 Experiment 7: Hydraulic Accumulator

In the experiment order the trainee is to understand the behavior of a hydraulic cylinder
in the event of a hydraulic pump failure and the withdrawal of energy from a
diaphragm-type accumulator in a practical experiment set-up on the training system.
Through this experiment task, the following knowledge is acquired:
 Due to the compressibility of the filled-in gas, a diaphragm-type accumulator can be
used for storing energy.
 The oil volume that can be stored in the hydraulic accumulator depends on the size of
the accumulator, the nitrogen pre-charge pressure and the system pressure.
 The amount of oil available for withdrawal depends on the accumulator size, the
nitrogen pre-charge pressure and the pressure difference between the minimum and
maximum working pressure.
 If the system pressure falls below the nitrogen pre-charge pressure, the hydraulic
accumulator is completely discharged.

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A cylinder is to be extended by the means of a push button impulse. When the push
button is released the cylinder is to continue to extend by the means of a single storage
until the end position is reached. The retraction of the cylinder may only be possible
when the signal storage is reset by the means of a second push button.
The following knowledge is imported:
 Setup of an electrical circuit with electrical signal storage.
 How to draw upper circuit diagram for signal storage.
 Supplementing and explaining a function chart.

Fig.5.13 Accumulator

5.6.1 Hydraulic Circuit:

Fig.5.14 Hydraulic circuit

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5.6.2 Electrical Circuit:

Fig.5.15 Electric circuit

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Chapter-6

INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS
6.0 Definition:
The English word pneumatic and its associate noun pneumatics are derived from the
Greek “pneuma” meaning breath or air. Originally coined to give a name to the
science of motions and properties of air. Compressed air is a vital utility- just like
water, gas and electricity used in countless ways to benefit everyday life. Pneumatics
is application of compressed air (pressurized air) to power machine or control or
regulate machines. Simply put, Pneumatics may be defined as branch of engineering
science which deals with the study of the behavior and application of compressed air.
Pneumatics can also be defined as the branch of fluid power technology that deals with
generation, transmission and control of power using pressurized air. Gas in a
pneumatic system behaves like a spring since it is compressible.
Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the most usual, for obvious
reasons. Exceptions are most likely to occur on aircraft and space vehicles where an
inert gas such as nitrogen is preferred or the gas is one which is generated on board.
Pure nitrogen may be used if there is a danger of combustion in a work environment.
In Pneumatic control, compressed air is used as the working medium, normally at a
pressure from 6 bar to 8 bar.

6.1 Advantages:
• Infinite availability of the source

Air is the most important thing in the pneumatic system, and as we all know, air is
available in the world around us in unlimited quantities at all times and places.

• Easy channeled

Air is a substance that is easily passed or move from one place to another through a
small pipe, the long and winding.

• Temperature is flexible

Air can be used flexibly at various temperatures are required, through equipment
designed for specific circumstances, even in quite extreme conditions; the air was still
able to work.

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• Safe

The air can be loaded more safely than it is not flammable and does not short circuit
occurs (consulting) or explode, so protection against both of these things pretty easily,
unlike the electrical system that could lead to fires consulting.

• Clean

The air around us are tend to clean without chemicals that are harmful, and also, it can
be minimized or cleaned with some processes, so it is safe to use pneumatic systems to
the pharmaceutical industry, food and beverages and textiles.

• The transfer of power and the speed is very easy to set up

Air could move at speeds that can be adjusted from low to high or vice versa. When
using a pneumatic cylinder actuator, the piston speed can reach 3 m / s. For pneumatic
motors can spins at 30,000 rpm, while the turbine engine systems can reach 450,000
rpm.

• Can be stored

The air can be stored through the seat tube fed excess air pressure. Moreover, it can be
installed so that the pressure boundary or the safety of the system to be safe.

• Easy utilized

Easy air either directly utilized to clean surfaces such as metal and machinery, or
indirectly, i.e., through pneumatic equipment to produce certain movements.

6.2 Disadvantages:
• Requires installation of air-producing equipment.

Compressed air should be well prepared to meet the requirements. Meet certain criteria,
such as dry, clean, and contain the necessary lubricant for pneumatic equipment.
Therefore require installation of pneumatic systems are relatively expensive equipment,
such as compressors, air filter, lube tube, dryer, regulators, etc.

• Easy to leak

One of the properties of pressurized air is like to always occupy the empty space and
the air pressure is maintained in hard work. Therefore we need a seal so that air does
not leak. Seal leakage can cause energy loss. Pneumatic equipment should be equipped
with airtight equipment that compressed air leaks in the system can be minimized.

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• Potential noise

Pneumatic using open system, meaning that the air that has been used will be thrown
out of the system, the air comes out pretty loud and noisy so will cause noise,
especially on the exhaust tract. The fix is to put a silencer on each dump line.

• Easy condenses

Pressurized air is easily condensed, so before entering the system must be processed
first in order to meet certain requirements, such as dry, have enough pressure, and
contains a small amount of lubricant to reduce friction in the valves and actuators.

6.3 Applications of Pneumatics

Pneumatic systems are used in many applications. New uses for pneumatics are
constantly being discovered. In construction, it is indispensible source of power for
such tools as air drills, hammers, wrenches, and even air cushion supported structures,
not to mention the many vehicles using air suspension braking and pneumatic tires. In
manufacturing, air is used to power high speed clamping, drilling, grinding and
assembly using pneumatic wrenches and riveting machines. Plant air is also used to
power hoists and cushion support to transport loads through the plant. Many recent
advances in air – cushion support are used in the military and commercial marine
transport industry.
Table 6.1 Application of pneumatics
Material Handling Manufacturing Other applications
Clamping Drilling Aircraft
Shifting Turning Cement plants
positioning Milling chemical plants
Orienting Sawing Coal mines
Feeding Finishing Cotton mills
Ejection Forming Dairies
Braking Quality Control Forge shops
Bonding Stamping Machine tools
Locking Embossing Door or chute
control
Packaging Filling Turning and
inverting
Feeding parts
Sorting
stacking

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Chapter-7

FUNDAMENTALS OF PNEUMATICS
The SI-system of units is based on numerous basic and derived units of measurement.
We do not cover that in detail. [International System of Units,
short SI (French): System international daunts]

7.0 Units of Measurement that are Relevant in Pneumatics:

 Meter – m (length / distance)
 Kilogram – kg (weight / mass)
 Second – s (time)
 Kelvin – K (temperature)
7.0.1 Derived Units that are used:
 Newton – N (force)
 Pascal – Pa (pressure)

7.1 Force
Force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In
other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity
(acceleration, change of shape). Force can also be described as a push or pull. It is a
vector quantity consisting of magnitude and direction.

 Symbol: F
 Unit: Newton
 Unit symbol: N
 In SI-based units: Kg.m/s2

7.2 Pressure
Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area
over which the force is distributed.

 Symbol: P
 Unit: Pascal
 Unit symbol: Pa
 In SI-based units: P=F/A

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7.2.1 For Measuring Pressure, The Following Multipliers Are Common:

1 kPa (Kilopascal) = 1,000 Pa

1 MPa (megapascal) = 1,000,000 Pa

7.2.2 In Pneumatics We Normally Use The Unit Bar.

1 bar = 100,000 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 0.1 N/mm2

1 mbar = 0.001 bar
1 nbar = 0.000000001 bar
In some countries such as the USA or Great Britain the unit psi (pounds per square
inch) is also still in use.

1 psi = 0.07 bar (rounded)

 Standard atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air on sea-level, which equals 1
atm (atmosphere).

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1013.25 mbar (Millibar) or hPa (Hektopascal)

 This unit is normally used in meteorology. Rounded and precise enough for most
applications:

1 atm = 1 bar

 Excess pressure or gauge pressure is the value of pressure above standard

atmospheric pressure. It is also called relative pressure.

In case absolute pressure is measured, standard atmospheric pressure is included. The

scale starts at 0 Pa = total vacuum.

Absolute pressure = standard atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (relative

pressure)

7.3 Examples:
 6 bar excess pressure = 6 bar(t)
 7 bar absolute pressure = 7 bar(a)
 0.7 bar absolute pressure = 0.7 bar(a) or -0.3 bar(t)
The expressions „excess pressure“ and „vacuum“ refer to a value larger or smaller
than standard atmospheric pressure.

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7.4 There are Different Levels of Vacuum:

= 1.01325 bar = 1
101325 Pa
bar

Low vacuum (rough vacuum) 100 kPa ... 3 kPa = 1 bar ... 0.03 bar

= 0.03 bar ... 0.001

Medium vacuum 3 kPa ... 100 mPa
mbar

High vacStandard atmospheric = 0.001 mbar ...

100 mPa ... 1 µPa
pressureuum 0.01 nbar

100 nPa ... 100

Ultra-high vacuum
pPa

Extremely high vacuum < 100 pPa

Outer space 100 µPa ... < 3 fPa

Perfect vacuum 0 Pa

In pneumatics we use the unit bar for vacuum as well as for excess pressure.

Unless there is any further indication, we normally work with excess pressure =
relative pressure.

7.4.1 In Practice:

We will calculate the force of a cylinder with a defined diameter at a specific pressure.

According to Pascal's law:

P=F/A

 p: Pressure [Pascal]

 F: Force [N]

 A: Surface [m2]

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Chapter-8

BASIC OF PNEUMATICS
8.0 Components of Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators and air motors provide the force and movement
for the most of pneumatic systems, for holding, moving, forming, and processing of
materials. To operate and control these actuators, other pneumatic components are
needed such as air service units for the preparation of the compressed air and valves
for the control of the pressure, flow and direction of movement of the actuators. A
basic pneumatic system consists of the following two main sections.

 Compressed air production, transportation, and distribution system

 Compressed air consuming system

The main components of the compressed air production, transportation, and

distribution system consist of air compressor, electric motor and motor control centre,
pressure switch, check valve, storage tank, pressure gauge, auto drain, air dryer,
filters, air lubricator, pipelines, and different types of valves. The main components
of air consuming system consist of intake filter, compressor, air take off valve, auto
drain, air service unit, directional valve, actuators, and speed controllers. Basic
components of the pneumatic system are shown in Fig.3.1.

Fig.8.1 Major components of pneumatic system

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Intake filter also known as air filter is used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
Air compressor converts the mechanical energy of an electric or combustion motor
into the potential energy of compressed air. There are several types of compressors
which are used in the compressed air systems. Compressors used for generation of
compressed air is selected on the basis of desired maximum delivery pressure and the
required flow rate of the air The types of compressors in the compressed air systems
are (i) piston or reciprocating compressors, (ii) rotary compressors, (iii) centrifugal
compressors, and (iv) axial flow compressors. Reciprocating compressors are (i)
single stage or double stage piston compressor, and (ii) diaphragm compressor.
Rotary compressors are (i) sliding vane compressor, and (ii) screw compressor.
Electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used to drive
the air compressor.

The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the air receiver.
The purpose of air receiver is to smooth the pulsating flow from the compressor. It
also helps the air to cool and condense the moisture present. The air receiver is to be
large enough to hold all the air delivered by the compressor. The pressure in the
receiver is held higher than the system operating pressure to compensate pressure loss
in the pipes. Also the large surface area of the receiver helps in dissipating the heat
from the compressed air. For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the
compressed air needs to be cleaned and dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with
dust, smoke and is humid. These particles can cause wear of the system components
and presence of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to
get rid of these impurities. Further during compression operation, air temperature
increases. Therefore cooler is used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
The water vapour or moisture in the air is separated from the air by using a separator
or air dryer.

The air treatment can be divided into three stages. In the first stage, the large
sized particles are prevented from entering the air compressor by an intake filter. The
air leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at high temperature. The
compressed air from the compressor is treated in the second stage. In this stage
temperature of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler and the air is dried using
a dryer. Air drying system can be adsorption type, absorption type, refrigeration type,
or the type that uses semi permeable membranes. Also an inline filter is provided to
remove any contaminant particles present.
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This treatment is called primary air treatment. In the third stage which is the
secondary air treatment process, further filtering is carried out. Lubrication of moving
parts of cylinder and valves is very essential in pneumatic system. For this purpose
compressed air lubricators are used ahead of pneumatic equipment. Lubricator
introduces a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This helps in lubrication of the
moving components of the system to which the compressed air is applied. Correct
grade of lubricating oil usually are with kinematic viscosity around 20- 50
centistokes. Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for control of
direction flow, pressure etc. The main function of the control valve is to maintain
constant downstream pressure in the air line, irrespective of variation of upstream
pressure. Due to the high velocity of the compressed air flow, there is flow-dependent
pressure drop between the receiver and load (application). Hence the pressure in the
receiver is always kept higher than the system pressure. At the application site, the
pressure is regulated to keep it constant. There are three ways to control the local
pressures which are given below.

 In the first method, load vents the air into atmosphere continuously. The pressure
regulator restricts the air flow to the load, thus controlling the air pressure. In this type
of pressure regulation, some minimum flow is required to operate the regulator. If the
load is a dead end type which draws no air, the pressure in the receiver rises to the
manifold pressure. These type of regulators are called as ‘non-relieving regulators’,
since the air must pass through the load.

 In the second type, load is a dead end load. However the regulator vents the air into
atmosphere to reduce the pressure. This type of regulator is called as ‘relieving
regulator’.

 The third type of regulator has a very large load. Hence its requirement of air volume
is very high and cannot be fulfilled by using a simple regulator. In such cases, a
control loop comprising of pressure transducer, controller and vent valve is used. Due
to large load the system pressure may rise above its critical value. It is detected by a
transducer. Then the signal is processed by the controller which directs the valve to be
opened to vent out the air. This technique is also used when it is difficult to mount the
pressure regulating valve close to the point where pressure regulation is needed.

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Air cylinders and motors are the actuators which are used to obtain the
required movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system. Actuators are
output devices which convert energy from compressed air into the required type of
action or motion. In general, pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or moving
operations in various industries. These operations are carried out by using actuators.
Actuators can be classified into three types which are (i) linear actuators which
convert pneumatic energy into linear motion, (ii) rotary actuators which convert
pneumatic energy into rotary motion, and (iii) actuators to operate flow control
valves- these are used to control the flow and pressure of fluids such as gases, steam
or liquids. The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar.
However they differ at their operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic
cylinders is about 100 kg/sq mm and that of pneumatic cylinders is around 10 kg/sq
mm.

8.1 Distribution of Compressed Air

Proper distribution of compressed air is very important for achieving good
performance. Some important requirements which are to be ensured are as follows.

 Piping lay out (open or closed loop) with suitable number of drain valves at
diagonally opposite corners

 Piping design has important parameters like diameter of pipe for given flow, pressure
drop, number and type of fitting and absolute pressure

 Slope of the main horizontal header from compressor which is normally 1:20

 Take off branches from the top of horizontal headers are with U or at 45 deg

 Provision of accumulator with drain cock at the bottom of all vertical headers

 Air service unit connected at right angles to vertical headers

All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols.

Each symbol shows only the function of the component it represents, but not its
structure. Pneumatic symbols can be combined to form pneumatic diagrams. A
pneumatic diagram describes the relations between each pneumatic component, that
is, the design of the system. A typical diagram of a pneumatic system is shown in
Fig3.2.

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Fig.8.2 Typical diagram of a pneumatic system

When analyzing or designing a pneumatic circuit, the following four important

considerations must be taken into account

 Safety of operation

 Performance of desired functions

 Efficiency of operation

 Costs

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Chapter-9

EXPERIMENTS ON PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS

9.0 Experiment 1: Direct Control of A Single-Acting Cylinder,
Extending
This experiment provides basic know-how and skills on the set-up and operation of
pneumatic controls using the control of a single-acting cylinder as an example.

9.0.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.1 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.1 Experiment 2: Direct Control of a Single-Acting Cylinder,

Retracting
This experiment demonstrates the use of a 3/2 directional control valve with flow in
both directions functioning as an open neutral position valve of a single acting cylinder
extended in neutral position.

9.1.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.2 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.2 Experiment 3: Indirect control of a single-acting cylinder

This experiments conveys know-how on the indirect control of cylinders, using a
single-acting cylinder and a pneumatically operated 3/2 directional control valve as an
example.

9.2.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.3 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.3 Experiment 4: Slow-speed extension, rapid retraction of a

single-acting cylinder
In addition to throttling the cylinder speed, this experiment shows how to achieve the
highest possible speed when retracting the piston rod by using a quick-exhaust valve.

9.3.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.4 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.4 Experiment 5: Controlling a Double-Acting Cylinder, Impulse

Valve, 2 Push-Buttons
In this experiment we examine how a pneumatically operated impulse valve functions
when controlling a double acting cylinder.

9.4.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.5 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.5 Experiment 6: Displacement-Dependent Control of A Double Acting

Cylinder, Impulse Valve

The displacement-dependent control of a double-acting cylinder by using limit switches

is demonstrated in this experiment.

9.5.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.6 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.6 Experiment 7: Sequential Control of 2 Double-Acting

Cylinders without Overlapping Signals
This experiment helps to understand sequential controls and provides practical
knowledge of setting up and commissioning a control system with two pneumatic
drives. Practice in developing sequential diagram and pneumatic circuit diagram is
experimented.

9.6.1 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.9.7 Pneumatic Circuit

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9.7 Experiment 8: Command-Variable Control of a Double-

Acting Cylinder with Spring Return Valve
4.7.1 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.8 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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9.8 Experiment 9: Holding-Element Control of a Double-Acting

Cylinder with Impulse Valve, Relay
This experiment conveys knowledge on the application of relays in electro pneumatic
controls. The valve solenoids are controlled through relay contacts and not directly
through the signaling elements.

9.8.1 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.9 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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9.9 Experiment 10: Displacement-Dependent Control of a Double-

Acting Cylinder, Impulse Valve, Cylinder Switch
Cylinder switches and an electrically controlled 5/2 directional control impulse valve
are used in this displacement- dependent control of a double acting cylinder.

9.9.1 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.10 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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9.10 Experiment 11: Time-Dependent Control of a Double-Acting

Cylinder with Switch-On Delay
This experiment demonstrates the application of an electric, switch-on delay timing
element in a sequential control.

9.10.1Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.11 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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9.11 Experiment 12: Two-Hand Safety Control

This experiment illustrates how a two hand safety control is used to press and punch.
This control meets the safety requirements according to EN 574 and has been adapted
to relay technology.

9.10.1Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.12 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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9.12 Experiment 13: Sequential Control of 2 Double-Acting

Cylinders with Impulse Valves and Signal Overlapping
9.10.1Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

Fig.9.13 Electro-Pneumatic Circuit

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Chapter-10
PROJECT: Automatic Door Movement & Metal Feeding
Mechanism for Furnace
10.0 Components Used:
Table 10.1 Components used in project

10.1 Circuits:
10.1.1 Hydraulic circuit:

Fig.10.1 Hydraulic circuit

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10.1.2 Eclectic circuit:

Fig.10.2 Electric circuit

10.1.3 Pneumatic Circuit:

Fig.10.7 Pneumatic Circuit

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10.2 Advantages:
 It is sequentially controlled
 Safe to operate
 Compact in design
 No skilled operator required

10.3 Applications:
 Furnace Industries
 Food and Packaging Industries
 Material storing in industries
 Robotic movement in industries

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Chapter-11

CONCLUSION
During the course of our Internship at Dayanda Sagar Unversity, we came to know about
hydraulics and pneumatics. Got an idea about how hydraulic circuit and pneumatic circuit
works and also different types of valves, actuators, pump and accumulators. As final phase in
internship the report on hydraulics and pneumatics is made.

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